UNIT V

Modern Surveying
DR. JIJO JAMES
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
SSN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 Distance Measurement

 There are three methods of distance measurement

 Direct distance measurement
 Ex. Chaining or Taping
 Optical distance measurement
 Ex. Tacheometry, Subtense method
 Electronic distance measurement
 Ex. Geodimeter, Distomat, Total Station
 Electronic Distance Measurement

 Electronic distance measurement is a general term embracing the

measurement of distance using electromagnetic method which
rely upon the propagation, reflection and subsequent reception of
either radio, visible light or infrared waves (electromagnetic waves)
 Total Station

 A total Station is a combination of an electronic theodolite, an

autolevel and an EDM
 This combination makes it possible to determine the coordinates of
a reflector by aligning the instrument cross hairs on the reflector
and simultaneously measure the vertical and horizontal angles and
slope distances
 An onboard microprocessor takes care of recording the data
points and doing the necessary calculations
Parts of a Total Station
 Accessories
Total station and
Tripod
Accessories
Reflector
 Accessories
Electronic Notebook
 Fundamental Measurements

 A total station fundamentally measure three parameters

 The rotation of the instrument’s optical axis from the instrument north
on a horizontal plane i.e. the horizontal angle
 The inclination of the optical axis from the local vertical i.e. the vertical
angle
 The distance between the instrument and the target i.e. the slope
distance
 Continued…

 The horizontal angle is measured from the zero direction on the

horizontal scale which is chosen by the user when the instrument is
set (called the instrument north)
 The user may choose to set the instrument north along the long axis
of the map area, true, or magnetic north
 The instrument north should be set such that it should be
recoverable when set at same location later which is done by
making an observation to a benchmark
 Continued…

 The vertical angle is measure relative to the local vertical or plumb

direction
 The vertical angle usually measured is the zenith angle i.e. 0o is
vertically up, 90o is horizontal and 180o is vertically down
 The instrument needs to be properly levelled for measuring vertical
angles and is provided with a vertical compensator which can
detect small deviations from plumb and adjust vertical and
horizontal angles accordingly
 Continued…

 The slope distance measured by the electronic distance meter in

the instrument
 The instrument emits an infrared light beam, modulated to two or
more frequencies
 It is reflected by the reflector, received and amplified by the total
station, which is then compared to a reference signal generated
by the instrument and phase shift is determined
 This phase shift is a measure of the travel time and hence, distance
 Working Principle

 The general principle involves sending a modulated Electro-

magnetic (EM) beam from one transmitter at the master station to
a reflector at the remote station and receiving it back at the
master station
 The instrument measures slope distance between transmitter and
receiver by modulating the continuous carrier wave at different
frequencies, and then measuring the phase difference at the
master station between the outgoing and the incoming signals
 Continued…

 This establishes the following relationship for a double distance (2D)

 Where m is unknown integer number of complete wavelengths

contained within double distance, Φ; is the measured phase
difference and λ is modulation wavelength, and k is constant.
Multiple modulation frequencies are used to evaluate m,
the ambiguity
 Continued…

 Various EDM instruments are based on two methods

 Timed pulse signals
 Measurement of Phase difference
 Continued…

EDMI Based on Pulse Signals

 Continued…
In phase difference
method used by
majority of EDMI, the
instrument measures
the amount δλ by
which the reflected
signal is out of phase
with the emitted
signal
 Accuracy of Total Station

 Accuracy of TS varies with model, cost and no. of prisms

 Improved accuracy can be achieved by
 Careful Centering
 Accurate bisection of target
 Multiple reiterations of readings
 Better optical lens
 Strong Tripod
 Verticality of prism pole
 Angular accuracy – 2” to 5”
 Linear Accuracy – 2mm to 10mm per km
 Field Operations with Total Station

 The various field operations that can be performed using a total

station are
 Point location
 Slope reduction
 Missing line measurement (MLM)
 Resection
 Azimuth calculation
 Continued…

 Remote distance and elevation measurement

 Offset measurements
 Layout or setting out operation
 Area computation
 Tracking
 Stakeout
Onboard Calculations
 Continued…

 Horizontal Distance
HD = SD Cos (90o – ZA)
= SD Sin ZA (1)
 Vertical Distance
VD = SD Sin (90o – ZA)
= SD Cos ZA (2)
dZ = VD + IH – RH where dZ is the R.L. difference between points
 Continued…

 If instrument is at known elevation IZ, then R.L. of reflector RZ is given

by
RZ = IZ + VD + IH – RH (3)
 Coordinate Calculations
 Along with the Z coordinate (based on vertical angle and slope
distance), the X (East) and Y (North) coordinates need to be
calculated for locating the point on a three dimensional space model
Continued…
 Continued…

dE = HD Sin HAR (4)

dN = HD Cos HAR (5)
Substituting Equation (1) in (4) and (5)
dE = SD Sin ZA Sin HAR
dN = SD Sin ZA Cos HAR
 Coordinates of Reflector (RE, RN, RZ)
RE = IE + dE where RE and IE are easting of reflector & Inst.
RN = IN + dN where RN and IN are northing of reflector & Inst.
RZ = IZ + VD + IH – RH
 Advantages of Total Station

 Relatively quick collection of information

 Multiple surveys can be performed at one set-up location
 Easy to perform distance and horizontal measurements with
simultaneous calculation of project coordinates
 Layout of construction site quickly and efficiently
 Digital design data from CAD programs can be uploaded to data
collector
 Continued…

 Daily survey information can also be quickly downloaded into CAD

which eliminates data manipulation time required using
conventional survey techniques
 Disadvantages of Total Station

 It is a sensitive and expensive instrument that requires proper care

 Vertical elevation accuracy not as accurate as using conventional
survey level and rod technique
 Horizontal coordinates are calculated on a rectangular grid
system. However, the real world should be based on a spheroid
and rectangular coordinates must be transformed to geographic
coordinates if projects are large scale
 Calibration and battery maintenance needs to be done
periodically
 Errors in Total Station Surveying

 Horizontal collimation error

 Horizontal collimation or line of sight
error is when the line of sight is not
perpendicular to the tilting axis of the
instrument
 Continued…

 Tilting axis error

 Tilting axis or tilt error is the error
when the axis of the total station is
not perpendicular to the vertical
axis or plumb line
 Continued…

 Vertical collimation error

 If the horizontal base line of
angle from 0° to 180° in the
vertical circle does not
coincide with the vertical
axis of instrument
 Continued…

 Compensator index error

 This error is caused by not
levelling the total station
correctly and carefully
 If the instrument is fitted with
a compensator it will
measure residual tilts of the
instrument and will apply
corrections to the horizontal
and vertical angles for these
 Continued…

 Eccentricity error  Circle graduation error

 Error due to centre of the  Non uniform graduations
graduated circle not around the circumference
coinciding with the axis of of the circle (horizontal
rotation and/or vertical)
 Continued…

 Other Sources of Error

 Errors due to inaccurate bisection
 Uneven expansion of instrument parts
 Errors due to vibration
 Errors due to change in atmospheric conditions
 Prism pole error
 Optical plummet errors
 Calibration errors
Good Practices in Total Station Surveying

 Use a prism tripod for high precision work instead of relying on prism
holder to avoid human error
 Prism should be rested on a hard and firm surface instead of soft
soil
 Focussing shall be exactly to the centre of the prism with the help
of cross hairs and prism plate
 Instrument height and prism height should be measured correctly
 Location and coordinates of station point and benchmark needs
to be noted for cross verification later on.
 Continued…

 Obtain a soft copy of field work raw data from the survey agency
so that the results can be checked at any time
 Obtain sufficient number of data points for average results
 Never focus the sun directly in case of azimuth surveying, but use a
filter instead
 Make sure not to short the battery terminals or expose the battery
to moisture
 Never try to repair the instrument but call the authorized dealer for
service
 GPS

 Global Positioning System or GPS is a satellite-based navigation

system that consists of 24 orbiting satellites, each of which makes
two circuits around the earth every 24 hours
 These satellites transmit three pieces of information – the satellite's
number, its position in space, and the time the information is sent
 These signals are picked up by the GPS receiver, which uses this
information to calculate the distance between it and the GPS
satellites
 Continued…

 Provides specially coded satellite signals that can be processed in

a GPS receiver, enabling the receiver to compute position, velocity
and time
 Navigation in three dimensions is the primary function of GPS
 Good GPS receivers have an accuracy of within 100m and
updates position more than once every second
 The accuracy, however, depends on terrain and atmospheric
conditions
 Brief History of GPS

 The GPS, originally called Navstar (Navigation system with timing

and ranging) GPS was a project launched by the U.S. Department
of Defence in 1973 for the U.S. military
 It was allowed for civilian use in 1989 and became fully operational
in the year 1995 but under the complete control of the U.S.
government, which under a program called ‘Selective Ability’ had
the control over access of GPS
 As a result, other nations started to develop their own versions of
GPS for navigation and positioning
 Continued…

 Other GPS similar systems include

 Global navigation satellite system (GLONASS) of Russia
 Galileo positioning system of EU
 Beidou navigation satellite system of China
 Quasi-zenith satellite system of Japan
 Indian regional navigation satellite system (IRNSS) of India, also called
Navic (Navigation with Indian Constellation)
Continued…
 Three Stages of GPS Operation

 Stage 1 – Satellite Reference System

 The nominal GPS operational satellite constellation consists of 24
satellites in 6 orbital planes, equally spaced 60o apart in each plane,
at a tilt of 55o to the equatorial plane to ensure polar coverage, at a
height of 20,200 km, orbiting in 12 hours time
 The satellites powered by solar cells, with four atomic clocks each,
ensure coverage such that 5 to 8 are accessible from any point
 The master control station calculates and uploads orbital data and
clock corrections to each satellite, subsets of which is sent to GPS
receivers over radio signals, which forms the basis for all GPS
calculations
 Continued…

 Stage 2 – Computation of distance

 The satellite signals received by the GPS receivers has embedded
information used for computing locations of the satellites, adjusting
locations and time of broadcast based on atomic clock timing
 The receiver computes the distance to the satellite based on the time
difference between the time of broadcast and time of reception at
the receiver after accounting for adjustments in propagation delays
due to atmospheric effects
 The final distance is arrived at by product of time taken with speed of
light which is a fundamental principle of GPS
 Continued…

 Stage 3 – Computation of Position

 After the data from satellites is received at the receiver, the distances
to different satellites are accurately known which is used to compute
an exact location
 Three satellite data is required to calculate latitude and longitude
while a fourth satellite data is required for altitude calculation
 Thus, the receiver computes latitude, longitude, altitude and time from
four satellites
Continued…
 Continued…
Satellite 1 – Somewhere on a
sphere +
Satellite 2 – Somewhere on
the intersection circle of two
sphere +
Satellite 3 – Either one of the
two points on the circle +
Satellite 4 – Exact location
based on time
 Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
 GPS satellite based navigation system
is an important tool for military, civil
and commercial users
 Vehicle tracking systems GPS-based
navigation systems can provide us
with turn by turn directions
 Quick and fast positioning and
coordinates of points
Disadvantages
 GPS satellite signals are too weak
when compared to phone signals, so
it doesn’t work as well indoors,
underwater or under trees
 The highest accuracy requires line-of-
sight from the receiver to the satellite,
this is why GPS doesn’t work very well
in an urban environment
 Segments of GPS

 The three segments of GPS are

 Space segment
 GPS Constellation of 30 satellites including back ups
 Satellites
equipped with solar panels, antennae, radio transmitters and
atomic clocks
 Control Segment
 Global network of ground stations for monitoring and control of GPS
satellites
 Operational control segment includes one master control & one alternate
master control stations, 11 command and control antennae and 16
monitoring sites
 Continued..

 User Segment
 Consists of the GPS receiver which receives the satellite signals
 User applications include
 military applications like positioning of military vehicles, missile guidance
system
 Civilian applications like navigation of air, marine and road transport,
surveying
 Satellite Configuration

 The GPS consists of a constellation of satellites which in

coordination with ground control are synchronized into a
configuration such that their coverage overlap enables access to
enough number of satellites from any point on the ground for
trilateration of its exact position
 The nominal GPS satellite configuration consists of 24 satellites
distributed in 6 orbital planes, 4 satellites to an orbit with a fifth slot
as back up
Continued…
 Continued…

 The satellites orbit with a period of 12 hours at a height of 20,200

kms above the earth inclined at 55o to the equatorial plane called
the medium earth orbit
 The current configuration can enable a constellation to have a
maximum of 30 satellites, enabling visibility to atleast four at any
given position with an elevation masking angle of 15o
 GPS Signal Structure

 Satellite signal basically consists of three components

 Two microwave L-band waves (Carrier waves)
 L1 carrier: 1575.42 MHz
 L2 carrier: 1227.60 MHz
 Ranging codes on modulated carrier waves
 C/A code: Clear/Access code modulated at 1.023 MHz degraded code
for civilian users only on L1
 P(Y)
code: Private protected or precise code modulated at 10.23 MHz on
L1 and L2 for authorized military users
 Continued…

 Navigation message
 Contains satellite positions and constants modulated on both L1 and L2
 Selective Availability

 Selective availability (SA) was the intentional error introduced by

DoD to make sure that no hostile forces used the accuracy of GPS
against the US or its allies
 The U.S. government had the control over GPS to selective deny
access to the system or degrade the quality of the signal
 India was at the receiving end of this U.S. government program of
selective availability during the Kargil War of 1999 when she was
denied access to GPS to identify points of strategic importance in
the area
 GPS spoofing and Anti-spoofing

 A GPS spoofing attack attempts to “deceive” a GPS receiver by

broadcasting counterfeit GPS signals, structured to resemble a set of
normal GPS signals, or by rebroadcasting genuine signals captured
elsewhere or at a different time
 These spoofed signals may be modified in such a way as to cause the
receiver to estimate its position to be somewhere other than where it
actually is, or to be located where it is but at a different time, as
determined by the attacker
 Spoofing can be detected only by the use of Selective ability anti-
spoofing modules (SAASM) that can track the P(Y) code and decrypt
them using a valid decryption key which cannot be cracked and
spoofed by attackers
 Civilian users can protect themselves against spoofing by using multi-
constellation receivers that tracks GPS, GLONASS, Beidou simultaneously
 Tasks of Control Segment

 The main tasks of control segment are

 Monitoring and control of satellite orbital parameters
 Monitoring health and status of the satellite subsystems (solar arrays,
battery power and the level of propellant used for maneuvers)
 Activation of spare satellites
 Update of parameters in the navigation message (ephemeris,
almanac and clock corrections)
 Resolving satellite anomalies
 Controlling Selective Availability (SA) and Anti-Spoofing (A/S)
 Passive tracking of the satellites
Orbit Determination and Representation

 Orbit determination refers to the process of determination of the

orbital parameters and satellite clock biases
 It is the process to estimate the position and velocity of a satellite at
a specific epoch based on models of forces acting on the
satellite, integration of satellite orbital motion equations and
measurements to satellites
 The orbit determination is a key technology for accurate
positioning using GPS
 Continued…

 Divided into two categories

 Preliminary estimation
 Precise estimation
 Preliminary method is a geometric method to estimate orbit
elements from a minimal set of observations before the orbit is
known from other sources
 Laplacian type methods
 Gaussian type methods
 Continued…

 Precise orbit determination is a dynamic or combined dynamic

and geometric method, consisting of two procedures: orbit
integration and orbit improvement
 Orbit integration yields a nominal orbit trajectory while orbit
improvement estimates the epoch state with all the measurements
collected over the data arc
 In simplified terms, it determines the satellite orbit that best fits the
tracking data over comparatively long data arcs
 Continued…

 There are also several software packages available for orbit

determination
 ARC
 STREE
 MERGEDB
 REFPRN
 EDITDB
 BDATA
 PAGES
 GPSCOM
 Continued…

 Orbit representation is a means of representing a satellite orbit as a

continuous trajectory with discrete observation data at the time of
interest
 The simplest method for orbit representation is the oscillating
Keplerian elements method, which describes the orbit of an ellipse
 Classification of Receivers

 Based on data types

 Based on technical realization of channels
 Based on user community/application
 Civilian, military, navigation, timing, geodetic/surveying, handheld
receivers
 Geodetic Receivers

 It is a high tech equipment designed for conformity with the

requirements of modern satellite equipment user
 Allows the user to carry out operations in complex environments
 These receiver are essentially used for geodetic/surveying
applications with the following characteristics
 carrier phase data as observables
 availability of both frequencies
 access to the P code, at least for larger distances, and in
geographical region with strong ionospheric disturbances
Continued…
 Handheld Receivers

 It is a small combined radio transmitter and receiver, usually

operating on shortwave, that can be carried around by one
person
 They are used for absolute positioning or relative positioning using
differential GPS services
Continued…
 Data Processing

 The GPS data processing is done with the help of software

provided with the instrument
 One of the GPS data processing software developed by University
of Berne is called as BERNESE
 For GPS data processing, we need the Rinex data of minimum of
one IGS site
 The most important input for the GPS data processing is the orbits
of GPS satellites
 Continued…

 Rinex stands for Receiver independent exchange

 Different receivers have different binary formats and consequently the
data of a particular receiver cannot be easily processed in another
software
 To solve this, a uniform data format has been defined that can be used
as a data interface between all receiver types and processing software
called as Rinex
 It has three file components: Observation data, Navigation and
Meteorological files
 Continued…

 Observation data : Header information, phase and range data

 Navigation : Ephemeris data
 Meteorological : Meteorological data
 GPS Surveying

 GPS Based Surveying

 GPS traversing
 GPS triangulation
 Errors in GPS

 Satellite position and orbit errors

 Multipath error
 Atmospheric effects
 Receiver error
 Geometric/position dilution of precision
Thank You