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Unit- IV Digital Voltmeter: Introduction, RAMP Techniques &Digital Multimeters
Oscilloscope: Introduction, Basic Principle, CRT , Block Diagram of Oscilloscope, Simple CRO,
Measurement of voltage , current phase and frequency using CRO

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope(CRO)

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope is probably the most versatile tool for development of electronic circuits and systems.
CRO allows the amplitude of electrical signals, whether they are voltage, current or power to be displayed
as a function of time. CRO depends on the movement of an electron beam, which is bombarded on the screen,
coated with a fluorescent material, to produce a visible spot. If the electron beam is deflected on both the
conventional axis. I.e. X-axis & Y-axis, atwo dimensional display is produced.
“The oscilloscope is a kind of voltmeter which uses beam instead of a pointer and a kind of recorder which uses an
electron beam.”
The heart of CRO is cathode ray tube (CRT) which makes the applied signal visible by the deflection
of a thin beam of electrons.

Fig: Cathode Ray Tube

Constructional features of CRT

1- Glass Envelope- It is conical highly evacuated glass covering & maintains vacuum inside & support the
various electrodes. The inner walls of CRT between neck & screen are coated with conducting materials
called aquadag. This coating is electrically connected to the accelerating anode so that electrons which
accidentally strikes.
2- Electron Gun Assembly- Electron gun in CRT is combined name for indirectly heated cathode, a control grid,
a focusing anode& an accelerating anode. The control grid is held at negative potential w.r.t. cathode
whereas the two anodes are maintained at high positive potential w.r.t. cathode.
3- Control Grid- Control grid in the CRT is cylindrical with a small aperture in line with the cathode. The
electrons emitted from the cathode emerge from this. The negative bias voltage applied to the grid, controls
the beam current. The intensity (or brightness) of spot depends on the beam current.
There are two anodes Focusing Anode (Focuses the beam) and Accelerating Anode (accelerates/increses
the speed of beam)
4- Focusing Anode- The beam of electron is converged and focused on the screen by two anodes, which form an
electronic lens. The first anode (focusing anode) is kept highly position with respect to the cathode, wider
cylinder following the first. Both the cylinders have narrow apertures in lines with the electron beam.
5- Accelerating Anode-The second anode is still operated at higher positive potential (about 10,000V) and does
most of the acceleration of the beam, and increases in velocity.
6- Deflection Plate Assembly- Electrostatic deflection of an electron beam is used in a general purpose
oscilloscope. The deflecting system consists of a pair of horizontal (H1& H2) and vertical deflecting plates (V1
& V2).
When the plates are at zero voltage, the beam is midway between them and the spot is in the
centre of the screen.
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When H1 is made positive with respect to cathode and

all other plates are at zero voltage. It attracts he beam
and the spot moves horizontally to the right.
Similarly when V1 is made positive, the spot moves
vertically and where V2 is made positive. It moves
vertically downwards.

7- Screen-screen is coated with fluorescent material such as Zinc Orthosilicate, Zinc Oxide etc. The bombarding
electrons striking the screen, release secondary emission electrons. These electrons are collected or trapped
by an aqueous solution of graphite called “Aquadag” which is connected to the second anode.Collection of
the secondary electrons is necessary to keep the screen in a state of electrical equilibrium.
Block Diagram Of CRO

The CRO consists of the following component:

(i) CRT (ii) Vertical amplifier (iii) Delay line (iv) Horizontal amplifier (v) Time-base generator
(vi)Triggering circuit (vii) Power supply
(i) CRT- This is a cathode ray tube which emits electrons that strikes the phosphor screen internally to
provide a visible display of signals.
(ii) Vertical Amplifier-Vertical amplifier determines the sensitivity and bandwidth of an oscilloscope.
Sensitivity, which is expressed in terms of V/cm of vertical deflection at the mid-band frequency.
(iii) Delay Line-It is used to delay the signal for some time in the vertical sections till the time horizontal
amplifier also receives signal.
(iv) Time-Base Generators-The CRO is used to display a waveform that varies as a function of time. If the
wave form is to be accurately reproduced, the beam should have a constant horizontal velocity. It is used
to generate the saw tooth voltage required to deflect the beam in the horizontal section.
(v) Horizontal Amplifier- This is used to amplify the saw tooth voltage before it is applied to horizontal
deflection plates.
(vi) Trigger Circuit-This is used to convert the incoming signal into trigger pulses so that the input signal and
the sweep frequency can be synchronized.
(vii) Power Supply-There are two power supplies, a –Ve high voltage (HV) supply and a +ve low voltage (LV)
supply. The –Ve supply is from -1000V to -1500V. This voltage is passed through a bleeder resistor at a
few mA. The intermediate voltages are obtained from the bleeder resistor for intensity, focus and
positioning controls resistor for intensity.

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Working of CRO: The electron beam generated from an electron gun will be accelerated toward a phosphorous
screen by a potential difference between the electron gun and the screen. As the beam emerges from the gun, it
passes through a set of parallel plates (the vertical deflection plates) oriented horizontally. The voltage to be
displayed is amplified by a vertical amplifier, and applied across these plates producing an electric field which
deflects the path of the electron vertically. The polarity of the signal determines whether the deflections will be up or
down and the magnitude of the signal determines the amount of vertical displacement of the electrons. After the
beam has passed through the vertical deflection Plates, it passed through a second set of similar plates that are
oriented horizontally. A potential difference applied to these plates produce an electric field which deflects left or
right. Under normal configuration, these horizontal deflection plates are connected to a time-base circuitry. This
circuit can control how fast the electron beam sweeps from the left to right (use Sweep Knob). Adjusting the sweep
speed, the resulting trace on the screen can be spread out or compressed.

Types of CRO
1- Dual Beam CRO 2- Dual Trace CRO

Application of CRO
(a) Examination of waveforms. (b) Voltage measurement. (c) Current measurement.
(e) Frequency measurement. (f) Phase measurement.

Measurement of voltage and current

Voltage Measurement-For measurement of direct voltage, firstly the spot on the screen without applying any voltage
signal in the deflection plates. Then direct voltage to be measures is applied between a pair of deflection plates and
deflection of the spot is observed on the screen. The magnitude of the deflection multiplied by the deflection factor
gives the values of direct voltage applied.
Current Measurement- For measurement of current, the current under measurement is passed through a known
non-conductive resistance and the voltage drop across it is measured by CRO. The current can be determined simply
by dividing the voltage drop measured by the value of non-inductive resistance.
Measurement of frequency-The pattern obtained on CRO screen is called Lissajous Pattern. They are stationary on
the screen of CRO. They are used to know unknown frequency of a signal.
The unknown frequency can be accurately determined with the help of a CRO.
Steps-
1. A known frequency is applied to horizontal input and unknown frequency to the vertical input.
2. The various controls are adjusted.
3. A pattern with loops is obtained.
4. The number of loops cut by the horizontal line gives the frequency on the vertical plates(fV) and the number
of loops cut by the vertical lines gives the frequency on the horizontal plates(fH).

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Measurement of Phase Difference- The two sinusoidal voltage signals of equal frequency having some phase
difference are applied to the deflection plates of a CRO, a straight line or eclipse appears on the screen.
Let there is two sinusoidal voltage signals given by expressions
ѵh= Vh sin ωt & ѵv = Vv sint (ωt+φ) where φ is the phase difference.
Since deflection is directly propotional to amplitude of voltage.
dh= Dh sin ωt& dv= Dv sin(ωt+φ)
at t=0, values of dh and dv are
dho = 0 & Where dvo=Vertical deflection, at t = 0
Sin φ=
dvo= Dv sin φ  Dv=Maximum vertical deflection.

(a) First Signal (b) Phase shifted (c) CRO display

Second signal (on screen)

Digital Voltmeter
Digital voltmeter(DVM) is an indicating device. it measures the voltage passing between any two points. DVM is often
used in data processing system. An ideal voltmeter has an infinitely high input resistance so that it does not draw any
current from the circuit.
RAMP TECHNIQUE-The block diagram of a ramp type digital voltmeter has three stages.
Signal propagation- It modifies the signal amplitude according to the requirement and it also protects from
loading. Hence, resistive attenuator is used to decrease the large incoming signal and amplifier is used to
amplify the small incoming signal to the measurable range.
Analog to digital conversion- it converts analog information to digital or in discrete form.
Display Unit- It displays the measured value of voltage via display devices.

Fig: Simplified or basic building blocks of digital voltmeter

Signal Propagation: Digital voltmeter employs operational amplifier Op-Amp is
multistage integrated circuit is used in input circuit in DVM.

Gain of Op-Amp A= -

Fig: Input circuit of DVM

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Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)- in ADC unit, the analog input signal is typically converted into digital signals in the
form of binary or BCD data and displayed in the display unit.

Fig Block Diagram of Analog to Digital converter

V input is positive voltage but ‘Vc’ comes out to be negative ramp. Vc= - T

The output from the integrator is compared with zero volt reference in the comparator.
The output from the comparator will be positive voltage.
The AND gate is opened & during this period T, the pulses from the crystal clock oscillator is counted in the
counter.
At the end of known time period T, the counters are reset by the control circuit and it activates the reflection
switch so that the negative known reference voltage VR is applied to the input of the integrator.
In this case, the output from the integrator will be a positive going ramp.
With values-
Vc= xt
At the end of this time period t, Vc is equal to zero volts.
At this time, this counter is counter is counting and hence t, can be known

T =  Vin = t
t
The unknown voltage Vin could be known from it.

-Vc

Fixed Time Fixed Slope

Vc= - T Vc= xt

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Digital Multimeter
Multimeter is used to measure voltage, current at resistance. It has high input resistance, greater accuracy, better
resolution and easy readability.
Block Diagram

Fig: Block Diagram of Multimeter

Measurement of voltage- this multimeter is used to measure unknown input voltage as same as digital voltmeter.
Measurement of Current-Sensing resistance or a series of current sensing resistors are used to measure either a.c.
or d.c. current. The current is to be measured is passed through one of the sensing resistor and DMM digitizes the
voltages developed across the resistors.
Applying KVL, Vs= -Is Rf
Where, Rf= feedback resistance (Known values)
Vs= It is output voltage proportional to unknown source current Is.
Is= displayed on the display unit

Measurement of resistance- DMM measures the resistance by applying a known current from an internal current
source to the unknown resistance and then digitizing the voltage developed in the resistance.

Vo= - Vi

Vi, Ri are known parameters.

The output voltage which is proportional to the unknown

resistance Rf is applied to DVM section of DMM and the
value of unknown resistance Rf is displayed.

Multimeter is also used to test whether the diode, transmitter or SCR is good or faulty and to check the
continuity.
Display unit used in voltmeter or multimeter can be either liquid crystal display(LCD), Light Emitting
Diode(LED) or Seven segment display.

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Deflection Sensitivity of CRT- The shift of spot of light on the screen per unit change in voltage across the deflection
plates is known as deflection sensitivity of CRT.
The deflection sensitivity depends not only on the design of the tube but also on the voltage applied
to the accelerating anode. The deflection sensitivity is low at high accelerating voltages and vica-versa.

Example-1:The deflection sensitivity of a CRT is 0.01 mm/V . Find the shift produced in the spot when 400 Vis applied
to the plate (vertical).
Solution: voltage is applied to vertical plates so spot moves vertically.
Spot Shift = deflection sensitivity x Applied Voltage
Spot shift= 0.01 x 400 = 4 mm
Example-2: The deflection sensitivity of a CRT is 0.03 mm/V. If an unknown voltage is applied to horizontal plates.
The spot shifts 3 mm horizontally. Find the values of unknown voltage.
Solution: Sensitivity=

 Applied voltage = =100 V

Example-3: The vertical gain control of a CRO is set at a deflection sensitivity of 5V/cm. the unknown a.c. voltage is
supplied to Y- input. A 10cm long straight line trace is observed. Find a.c. voltage.
Solution: Unknown voltage = sensitivity x length of trace = 5 x 10 = 50 V.
This 50V is peak to peak voltage value so, for only one direction either positive or negative is
Vpeak= = = 25 V

RMS value of 25V = = = 17.667 V

Example-4: Find the unknown frequency for the following pattern. When fh = 100Hz.

=4
So , fv(Unknown frequency) = 4 x fh =4 x 100 =400 Hz

Theory Questions
 Explain working of Ramp type DVM.
 Explain briefly the working principle of a DMM with block diagram.
 Explain the working of CRO with help of a block diagram.
 Sketch a cathode ray tube used in a CRO.
 State the main application of a CRO. Briefly explain each of them. Explain how you will quickly measure the
frequency of waveform displayed on the CRO.
 How you measure current, voltage, frequency and phase from CRO?
 Explain Lisaajous Pattern.

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