Expt.No.

Date:

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

AIM

To determine the amplitude and frequency of a sine wave.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

CRO, Function generator , etc.

THEORY

CRO is an instrument to study electronic waveforms visually. A CRO consists of a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
and associated control system and input circuitry.

Block Diagram : Figure shows the block diagram of a CRO. Essential components in a CRO are

I )Cathode ray tube

ii) Deflection voltage amplifiers

iii) Timebase circuit

iv) Power supplies

The waveform to be displayed is fed to the Y-input of the CRO. The horizontal section provides the
voltage for moving the beam horizontally. It has a time base generator which provides a saw tooth wave
fom for horizontal deflection of the electron beam. The purpose of the synchronization circuit is to start
the horizontal sweep at a specific instant with respect to the waveform under observation.

In addition to the internal sweep, there is a provision for external input(X-input) . One may either select

the internal sweep voltage or can trigger externally. The operation of vertical section and horizontal
section are independent of each other. Constructional aspects and working of CRT are given.

Cathode ray tube (CRT)

The basic constructional details of a cathode ray tube along with power supply details are shown in the
figure.CRT consists of electron gun, deflection system and fluorescent screen.

Electron gun : Electron gun consists of

 • Cathode for emission of electrons

• a control grid for varying electron current density

• An accelerating electrode and

• a focusing arrangement

Electrons are emitted from the cathode after it is indirectly heated by a heating filament. The
grid being kept at negative potential, helps to control the number of electrons directed to
the screen. Since accelerating electrode A1is highly positive with respect to cathode,
electrons get accelerated through holes in the grid and accelerating electrode to the
focusing section. The convergent beam from the accelerating electrode has a tendency to
spread because of the mutual repulsion between the electrons. Hence some focusing
device is required to bring the beamto a sharp focus on the screen. Focussing can be
electrostatic or magnetostatic. The electrostatic focusing attained by the electrodes A2 and
A3, which serve as an electron lens system .

Defletion system: The deflection system permits the beam to deflect either horizontally or vertically and
can be achieved using electrostatic or magnetostatic deflection system. In the diagram shown in the

figure, electrostatic deflection system is used. Here one pair of plates are kept vertical while other pair

of plates horizontal. Depending on the polarity of voltage on one plate with respect to the other, the
beam deflects accordingly. Electrons in the beam are attracted towards the positive plate and repelled
from the negative plate.

Fluorescent Screen: The screen is coated with fluorescent materials such as ZnS, CdS, ZnO etc. When the
electron beam strikes the fluorescent screen, light output is obtained. The secondary emission as a result
of striking by the beam may cause accumulation of electrons. he secondary electrons are collected by a
graphite coating termed aquadag on the neck of the tube, which prevents accumulation of electrons.

Waveform display on a CRO

To display any waveform on a CRO, it should be applied to the vertical deflecting plates. If no signal is
applied on the horizontal plates, then we see only a spot on the screen, which is moving up and down
according to the type of the signal applied on the vertical deflecting plates. To display the waveform as
such, it is required to apply a sawtooth waveform on the horizontal plates.The principle of waveform
display is illustrated in the figure. Assume that the deflection sensitivity is 1cm/volt. Any waveform
applied to the vertical plates of the CRO is displayed on its screen, provided, a sawtooth input is applied
at horizontal plates.

5
CRO is used for variety of applications. The main uses include study of waveforms,measurement of
voltage , measurement of frequency,measurement of phas angle etc.

KNOBS ON THE FRONT PANEL AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

ON/OFF : Turns the channel on or off.

INTENTS : Controls intensity of the beam.

X-POSITION : Controls the horizontal shifting of the trace.

LEVEL : Helps the signal to remain still.

MAGNxn : Allows the magnification of the horizontal deflection by factor of n.

TIME/DIV: Enlarges the signal in X direction. In combination with s/ms selects the time scale.

Vertical Deflection : Y-position controls the vertical shifting of the trace.

AMP/DIV : Enlarges the signal in vertical direction. Knob can be set in ranges usually from 1mV/div to 10
V/div.

AC/DC : In AC position DC component of the signal is blocked. In DC position, signal is directly coupled.

PROCEDURE

Measurement of Amplitude (peak voltage)

• Power on the CRO and obtain a sharply defined trace of a horizontal line on the screen by
adjusting INTENTS and FOCUS knobs.

• Adjust the Y-position knob to make the trace coincides with the horizontal line on the screen by
keeping the AC/DC switch in GND position.

• Connect the function generator with the CRO using a probe and switch on function generator.

• Count the number of divisions occupied by the signal from peak to peak. Half of this gives the
maximum voltage or amplitude.

• Repeat the above steps for various settings of AMP/DIV knob.

The peak to peak amplitude = number of divisions occupied by the signal from peak to peak x
volt/division.

Measurement of frequency of a signal

• Obtain a sharply defined trace of horizontal line on the screen. Apply the signal whose
frequency is to be measured to the channel.

• Adjust the TIME/DIV knob to see two or three cycles of the waveform. Count the number of
divisions in one cycle of the waveform. Multiply this by the time per division selected. This is the
time period (T) of the signal.

• Reciprocal of the time period will give the frequency of the signal.

• Repeat the above steps of various settings of TIME/DIV knob.

RESULT

• The amplitude of the given signals are measured.

• The period and frequency of the signals are measured.

Measurement of Voltage

Sl. No. Volt/div No. of Peak to Max. Voltage RMS

divisions(PP) Peak (V) Voltage
Voltage(V) V(rms)=Vm
ax/
1

2
 Measurement of FrequencY

Sl. No. Time /div No. of Time Frequency

divisions(1 period(T) (F)Hz=1/T
cycle) Sec
1

Expt.No. Date:
I-V CHARACTERISTICS OF A SOLAR CELL
AIM
To determine current –voltage characteristics of a solar cell and also determine the fill factor.

APPARATUS

Solar panel, voltmeter, milliammeter, resistance box, 100 watts lamp etc

THEORY

The solar cell is a semiconductor device which convert the solar energy into electrical energy, it is also
called photovoltaic cell. When a solar cell is illuminate, the photons incident on the cell generate
electron-hole pairs. By diffusion in the material these electron and holes reach the junction. Under the
influence of an electric field, electrons from p-region are swept into n-region and holes from n-region to
p-region which leads to increase in number of holes on p-side and electrons on n-side of the junction.
The accumulation of charge on the two sides of the junction produces an emf known as photo emf or
open circuit voltage. When an external circuit is connected across the solar cell terminals, the minority
carriers return to their original sides through the external circuit. To increase the output power, solar
cells are arranged in series or parallel which is known as solar panel.

A graph showing the variation of voltage and current of a solar cell is called as current-voltage
characteristics. In an open circuit a solar cell has an output voltage (maximum) V oc and zero current
while in a short circuit the current value becomes maximum I sc and output voltage becomes zero.

Ideal power = V oc x I sc , Maximum usefull power= Vm xIm

The ratio of the maximum usefull power to ideal power is called fill factor.

Fill Factor =

PROCEDURE

• At first adjust the lamp intensity to minimum.

• Measure the voltage in open circuit with zero load resistance.

• Now introduce RΩ load resistance, measure current and voltage values.

• Vary the load resistance and measure current and voltage values in each case.

• The above procedure is repeated for different intensity.

• Now plot a graph connecting voltage and current.

• This I-V curve is called as output characteristic curve.

• Calculate Fill factor using the graph

RESULT

Current-Voltage characteristic curve of solar cell is plotted.

Fill factor =

Intensity(1) Intensity(2)
Sl.No. RL(Ω) Voltage Current Voltage current
Expt.No. Date:
NEWTON’S RINGS
Aim
To determine the wave length of sodium light using the reflected sysem of Newton’s
Apparatus
A double convex (plano convex) lens of large focal length,glass plates, travelling
microscope ,sodium vapour lamp etc.
Theory
The radius rn of the nth ring of the Newton’s rings is given by, rn 2 =nRλ,where R is the radius
of curvature of the convex surface in contact with the glass plate and λ is the wavelength of
monochromatic light.
If Dn and Dn+10 are the diameters of the nth and n +10 th rings,
 λ= D2n+10 –D2n /4x10xR
Procedure
The convexlens L of large focal length is placed on a plane glass plate P. Monochromatic light
from sodium vapour lamp is made to fall normally on the lens L. For this light from the sodium
vapour lamp S is directed horizontally as a parallel beam on to a glass plate G, which is kept
inclined at 45˚ to the horizontal, by means of a short focussed convex lens L1. The rays after
passing through the convex lens get reflected from the lower surface of the lens and also from
the upper surface of the glass plate P. Interference takes place between these reflected rays
forming ulternate dark and bright rings. This interference pattern is called Newton’s rings. At the
point of contact between L and P, a dark spot is seen.
A microscope is kept vertically and focussed on the Newton’s rings. Starting from
the central dark spot as zero, the microscope is moved to one side(say left side) by working its
tangential screw, so that of its cross wire is tangential to the 20th dark ring. The reading of the
microscope on its horizontal scale is taken by working the tangential screw the microscope is
moved carefully to the right. The cross wire is adjusted to be tangential to the 18th ,16th , ……….
and the readings are taken to the 2nd ,4th , ……….20th dark rings as before. Difference between
the readings on left and right of any ring gives the diameter of that ring. The diameters of
2nd ,4th …….20th are thus calculated. From these D2 n+10-D2n and their mean value is
determined.
By substituting the known value of the radiua of curvature of the lens ,the wavelength of the
monochromatic source is calculated using the formula,
λ= D2n+10 –D2n /4x10xR
RESULT
Wavelength of sodium light =
To find D2n+10-D2n

Least count of the vernier of the microscope = cm

Order Microscope Diameter D2n+ Order Microscope Diameter D2n D2n+10-

of the reading Dn+10 10 of Reading Dn (cm2 D2n
ring Left Right (cm) (cm2) the Left Right (cm) (cm)2
(n+10) (cm) (cm) ring (cm) (cm)
N
Expt.No. Date:
OPTICAL FIBRE
AIM
To measure the numerical aperture and acceptance angle of optical fibre.
APPARATUS
Diode laser,microscope objective(10X),fibre for which numerical aperture is to be
measured,fibre optic chucks,screen,graph paper,measuring tape.
Numerical aperture (NA) is basic characteristic of optic fibre. It is a measure of light gathering
capacity of an optical fibre. It is defined as sine of maximum value of acceptance angle.
Mathematically,numerical aperture is defined as the sine of the half angle of acceptance
cone(sinθ)
NA = sinθ=(n12-n22)1/2, where n1 –refractive index of core and n2-refractive index of cladding.
Acceptance angle θa= Sin-1(NA)
In a short length optic fibre ideally a ray enteringat angle θi comes out at the same angle θi
from the output end.
Therefore the emerging rays from the end of the fibre will also appear as a cone of semiangle
θi .If theemerging rays from the output end of the optical fibre make a spot of diameter d on a
screen kept at a distance from the output end of the fibre then as it is obvious from figure .
Sinθa = d/(d2 + 4L2 )1/2
PROCEDURE
i) Arrange the laser source ,microscope objective, the input and output end of the optical fibre
at the same horizontal level with the help of stands.
ii) Switch on the laser and make the light passing through the objective and optical fibre fall on
screen.
iii) Place the screen of some distance from the output end of the fibre.
iv) Measure the distance L between the output end of the optical fibre and screen and measure
diameter d of the spot.
v) Repeat above procedure for different values of L and measure corresponding diameter of the
spot formed.
vi) Calculate numerical aperture for each value of L and take the mean.
RESULT
Numerical aperture of given optical fibre =
Acceptance angle =

Distance L(cm) Diameter d(cm) NA=d/(d2+4L2)1/2

Sl.No.

Mean NA=

Expt.No.8 Date:
STRAIN GAUGE
AIM
Measurement of strain using strain gauge and wheastone’s bridge.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Power supply,cantilever beam,stand with a strain gauge connected in wheastone bridge,plotted
weights10x100gm ,digital strain indicator.
THE ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM.
The complete electronic instrumentation system usually contains six elements.
1) The transducer
It is a device that convert a change in mechanical or thermal quantity being measured into
change of an electrical quantity Eg. Strain gauge bound into specimen gives out electrical output
by changing itsresistance when material is strained.
2) Power supply
Provide energy to the transducer.
3)Signal conditioner
An electronic circuit that converts or manipulate the output form into a more usable electronic
quantity.
4)Amplifiers
Required in the system when the voltage output from the transducer signal condition
combination is small. Amplifiers with gains of10 to 1000 are equal.
5) Recorders
These are voltage measuring device that are used to display measurements in a form that can
be real and interrupted digital/analog voltmeter are used often.
6) Data processor
These are used to convert output signals from the instrument system into data that can be
easily interrupted. Data processors are usually employed where large amount of data are being
collected and manual ,reduction of these data would be time confirming.
Data strain measuring setup comprises of strain indicator and cantilever beam setup.
Strain gauge due to load appliedon the cantilver beam. The strain gauge are bended on the
cantilever beam. The strain and apparatus are connected in the form of wheatstone’s bridge. A
pan weights upto 1 kg is provided to load the cantilever beam. The strain indicator is provided
with zero balancing facility through adjustable potentiometer.
THEORY
When a material is subjected to any external load there will be a small change in the
mechanical properties of the materials. The mechanical property may be change the thickness
of the material or change inlength depending on the nature of the load applied to this
material.This change in mechanical property will remains till the load is released .This change in
property is called strain of material. This strainis defined as the change in dimension to the
original dimension.
Let l be the length of the beam subjected to a tensile load of m kg so that it gets elongated by a
length at ∆l,
Then strain S=∆l/l
Since the change in length of the material is small. It always read in terms of strain.As the
material gets strained due to to load applied the resistance of the strain gauge changes
proportional to load appied.
This change in resistance is used to convert mechanical property in to electrical signal
which can be easily measured and stored for analysis. This change in the resistance of the strain
gauge depends on the sensitivity of the strain gauge.
ꝭg =∆R/R
∆R of a strain gauge is converted into voltage signal R with a wheatstone’s bridge. If a signal
gauge is used in one arm of the wheatstone’s bridge and equal but fixed resisters are used in
the other arm. The output voltage is
E o= Ei /4(∆R/R)
Where Ei is the input voltage controlled by the gauge size,the power it can dissipate and the
initial input resistance of the gauge.The strain can be determined by using the formula
S = 6mL/BT2E,
Where , L –effective length of the beam in cms
m- Load applied in Kg
B – width of the beam
T – Thickness of the beam
E – Young’s modulus.
PROCEDURE
Connections are made and switch on the instrument. Adjust the zero potentiometer on the
panel till it display 377 microstrain. Remove the weights so that the display should come to
zero. Now the instrument is calibrated to head microstrain. Apply load on the sensor using the
loading arrangements provided in steps of 100 gms upto 1kg. The instrument display exact
microstrains strained by the cantilever and note down the reading for each load. Calculate
percentage error in the reading by comparing with theoretical value.
% Error = (Actual reading – Indicator reading)x100/Maximum weight in gms
RESULT
Strain is measured for different loads.
Percentage error is calculated.
Graphs of actual reading V/S indicator reading and load V/S strain are plotted.

Observations

Weight Indicator Actual % Error

Sl.No. (gm) reading reading
(microstrain) (microstrain)

Beam length L =22 cm

Beam width B = 2.8 cm

Beam thickness T = 0.25 cm

Young’s modulus Y =2x106 dynes/cm2

Actual reading, Strain = 6ML/BT2 Y

% Error = Actual reading- Indicator reading/maximum weight in gms.