Introduction

Background history
In an internal combustion engine, the cylinder head (often abbreviated to simply "head") sits
above the cylinders and forms the roof of the combustion chamber. In sidevalve engines, the
head is a simple sheet of metal; whereas in more modern overhead valve and overhead camshaft
engines, the cylinder head is a more complicated block often containing inlet and exhaust
passages, coolant passages, valves, camshafts, spark plugs and fuel injectors. Most straight
engines have a single cylinder head shared by all of the cylinders and most V engines have two
cylinder heads (one per bank of cylinders).

Function of Cylinder Head

The cylinder head plays an important role in a motor vehicle. The structure of the cylinder head
is complex and consists of many ports. One of these ports is designed to work, and their common
roles explain the value of this engine part.

It provides the mounting for various components such as inlet and outlet exhaust valves and
ducts, spark plugs, fuel injectors, and camshafts. In addition, it gives way to coolant, oil, and
combustion gases.

The cylinder block absorbs the heat produced by the engine and, therefore, generates cooling to
prevent engine failure. It seals the combustion chamber and serves as the engine’s mechanical
control powerhouse. It also takes away the compression resulting from the combustion pressure.

Types of Cylinder Head

Following are the types of cylinder head:

1. Flat head cylinder head

2. Overhead valve cylinder head
3. Overhead camshaft cylinder head

Number of cylinder heads in an engine

Most modern engines with a "straight" (inline) layout today use a single cylinder head that serves
all the cylinders. Engines with a "V" layout or "flat" layout typically use two cylinder heads (one
for each cylinder bank), however a small number of 'narrow-angle' V engines (such as the
Volkswagen VR5 and VR6 engines use a single cylinder head spanning the two banks. Most
radial engines have one head for each cylinder, although this is usually of the monoblock form
wherein the head is made as an integral part of the cylinder. This is also common for
motorcycles, and such head/cylinder components are referred to as barrels.

Some engines, particularly medium- and large-capacity diesel engines built for industrial,
marine, power generation, and heavy traction purposes (large trucks, locomotives, heavy
equipment, etc.) have individual cylinder heads for each cylinder. This reduces repair costs as a
single failed head on a single cylinder can be changed instead of a larger, much more expensive
unit fitting all the cylinders. Such a design also allows engine manufacturers to easily produce a
'family' of engines of different layouts and/or cylinder numbers without requiring new cylinder
head designs.

The performance of the cylinder head basically involve the following areas:

 Combustion Chamber Design (how quickly and completely the air fuel mixture is
burned).
 Valve/Port Flow Capability (how free flowing the ports and valves are)
 Mixture Motion (which involves both the chamber and intake port design)
 Material (which involves the heat transfer rate)

Material selection
For the design of the ICE 4a fe engine cylinder wall we used aluminum alloy. The use of
aluminum alloys has historically been driven by weight reduction, and it has been most often
seen in high-performance engines. More recently the combination of weight and cost reduction
has resulted in its use in many more automobile engines. While the raw-material cost of
aluminum is higher than that of grey iron, this is more than offset by reduced processing costs.
The lower casting temperature reduces the energy required to melt the material and makes
permanent mold and die casting processes possible, further reducing the cost of high-volume
parts. Finally, the machining costs are reduced as tool life is increased relative to that for grey
iron. The primary disadvantages of aluminum include its lack of stiffness and poor wear
characteristics relative to iron. Special design considerations must take these challenges into
account.

The interior of a cylinder head is a complex network of oil galleries and coolant passages, even
more complex than the engine block. To form these interior cavities, heads are often cast using
the lost-foam casting technique.

The material used for our design of cylinder head is aluminum alloy because of the following
advantages:-

 Weight reduction
 Better heat dissipation
 Easy machinability
Forces acting on cylinder head
The forces acting on a cylinder head depend on the type of engine and its design. Generally,
there are four major forces acting on a cylinder head: combustion or expansion pressure, gas load
pressure, inertia force, and thermal stress.

 Gas pressure
 Stress and temperature due to combustion
 Combustion or expansion pressure
 Inertial force

Gas pressure
Gas pressure is the name given to the force exerted by gas particles colliding with the wall of
their container. Pressure is force exerted over an area. Gas pressure is the force exerted by a gas
on a specific area. Peak cylinder pressures near TDC (where spark occurs) will be in the range of
300 psi for engines at light loads, to 1000 psi for production engines at full power to 1500 psi or
greater for race engines. This is where the engine's power comes from, as it forces the piston
down. As the piston goes down, the cylinder volume increases which reduces the cylinder
pressure. When the piston gets to the bottom on the cylinder (BDC) there may only be 100 to
500 psi in the cylinder. So, cylinder pressure is the constantly changing pressure inside the
cylinder for all 4 strokes. There are certain characteristics of this pressure which people may
want identified, like peak (maximum) cylinder pressure near TDC, or peak cranking compression
pressure (pressure at TDC without combustion), or average cylinder pressure (IMEP, indicated
mean effective pressure). They are all just measures of cylinder pressure at certain times (or
averaged over certain times) in the 4 strokes.

Temperature stress due to combustion

Temperature stress due to combustion on a cylinder head can be severe and long lasting,
especially in high-performance engines. The extreme heat of combustion can cause serious
warping and distortion of the cylinder head, leading to reduced compression and inefficient
performance. If not properly maintained and cooled, this internal stress can lead to premature
failure of the head. The best way to reduce such temperature-induced stress is by improving
cooling methods, such as increasing flow rate and efficiency of cooling passages or using more
efficient water jackets and fins on the outside of the engine.

Expansion pressure is generated by the combustion process within the cylinder and determines
the ‘sealing’ quality of the cylinder head gasket Inertia force comes from piston movement and
acceleration as it moves up and down in the cylinder opening during engine operation.
Structure of cylinder head
The cylinder head of an engine is the upper portion of a combustion chamber that houses the
valves and spark plug. It contains intake and exhaust passages, valve seats, cooling jackets, fuel
injector bores, and other features needed for operation. The top surface of the head is flat to seal
against the cylinder block and cylinders to form a combustion chamber. Inside the head there are
various structures which include intake ports for bringing in air or fuel/air mixture, exhaust ports
for venting exhaust gases from the combustion chamber, valve guides or sleeves that keep the
valves aligned and steady while they open and close, valve springs that provide sufficient
pressure to keep the valves in their closed position when not being operated, intake manifolds
which distribute incoming fluids equally among the cylinders, exhaust manifolds which collect
exhaust gases from each cylinder and direct them all out of a single pipe leading to a muffler or
catalytic converter.

Figure 1: cylinder head

Parts of Cylinder Head

Following are the parts of the cylinder head:

1. Head gasket
2. Intake and exhaust ports
3. Head valves
4. Head combustion chamber
5. Spark plugs
6. Fuel injectors
7. Head camshaft
8. Additional cylinder head parts
Construction of Cylinder Head
It is cast separated from the cylinder block to eliminate it for cleaning carbon and grinding valve.
To maintain compression within the cylinder, a flat piece of gasket is arranged between the
cylinder head and the cylinder block.

Depending on the valve layout, the cylinder head may have camshafts, rockers, and valves.
Waterways are provided to accommodate valve and plug seating. From the mechanical point of
view, the design details of a detachable cylinder head are perhaps the most difficult.

The following points should be kept in mind while making detachable heads:

1. The bore of the cylinder or linear should not be distorted by the pull of the holding down
studs.
2. The circulation of coolant in the cylinder head should be taken as far as possible to the
top end.
3. To ensure a sound gas tight joint, the holding own studs must be distributed as uniformly
as possible around the circumference of each cylinder.

Methodology
These are some of the methods used for the design of cylinder head

1. choosin a specifice engine to design the cylinder head. For this specific design we have
choosen the ICE 4a fe engine from the car manufaturing company, TOYOTA.
2. Collect accurate data and measurmenrt of the engine such as bore, stroke, and port sizes.

Table 1 Engine specifications

Manufacturer Toyota
Production 1982–2002
Layout
Configuration Inline-4
Displacement 1,587 cc (1.6 L)
Cylinder bore 81 mm (3.19 in)
Piston stroke 77 mm (3.03 in)
Block material Cast iron
Head material Aluminum
Valve train SOHC 2 valves x cyl.
DOHC 4 & 5 valves x cyl.
Timing drive system Timing belt
 3. Determine all the variables needed to design the cylinder head like brake power,
indicated power, cross-sectional area of the cylinder, mean effective pressure and
maximum pressure.
4. Calculate the thickness of the cylinder head
5. Determine the number of studs required
6. Determine the diameters of the studs

Software
For the design model of the cylinder head we used solidworks as a modeling software.
SolidWorks is a great design tool for creating the components of a cylinder head. It contains
multiple features to create this type of part, including: 3D solid primitives, Auto Trace for
creating accurate sketches and dimensions, Rendering tools for creating attractive visual models,
Sheet Metal and Assembly Tools for putting all the pieces together.

Mathematical analysis
In most of the IC engines, a separate cylinder head or cylinder cover is provided. The cylinder
cover accommodates the following parts:

 Inlet and exhaust valves

 Air and gas ports
 Spark plug in case of petrol engine and atomizer in case of diesel engine

The shape of the cylinder head becomes complicated due to accommodation of the above units.
In general, a box type section with considerable thickness is used for the cylinder head.
Calculating the various dimensions of the actual cylinder head is a difficult exercise. However, in
the preliminary stages of design, the cylinder head is assumed as a flat circular plate.

The ultimate tensile strength of aluminum is 355 N/mm 2, the ultimate tensile strength of the stud
material (steel) is 250 N/mm2. Factor of safety used for the design is 5. Efficiency is 80%.

Thickness of cylinder head

t h=D
√ C pm
δc
ax

 Where: C is a constant = 0.162

o D is the bore diameter
o Pmax is maximum gas pressure inside the cylinder
o δ is the permissible circumferential stress for the cylinder head material
o th is thickness of the cylinder head
a) Determine brake power and indicated power

2 πNT
Bp=
60

Where:
 Bp is brake power
 N is speed of the engine in rpm
 T is torque

2 π 2400 rpm∗136 NM
Bp=
60

BP = 34,180 watt

BP
Ip=
η
 IP is indicated power
 Bp is brake power
 η is efficiency

34180
Ip=
0.8

Ip = 42725 watt

b) 2. Determine the mean effective pressure

IP∗60
pm=
lAn

 Where: pm is mean effect pressure

o L is length of stroke
o A is cross-sectional area of cylinder (mm2 )
o n is number of working stroke

c) Cross-sectional area of the cylinder

π D2
A=
4
 2
π 81
A=
4

A = 5153 mm2

42725∗60
pm =
77∗5153∗2

Pm = 3.2 Mpa

d) Determining maximum gas pressure

Pmax =10∗P m

Pmax = 32 Mpa

e) Permissible tensile strength

δut
δc=
fs

355
δc=
5
2
δc=71 N /mm

Thickness of cylinder head

t h=81 mm
√ 0.162∗32
71

t h=21 mm

Therefore Thickness of the cylinder head is determined to be 21mm.

Number of studs (z)
Determine the number of studs holding down the cylinder head

Minimum number of studs = 0.01 D + 4 = 4.81

Maximum number of studs = 0.02 D + 4 = 5.82

Number of studs (z) = 5

Nominal diameter of the studs

Permissible tensile strength of the stud material

250 N /mm 2
δc =
5

δc=50 N /mm2

π 2
Force acting on the cylinder head F= D Pmax
4

π 2
F= 81 ∗35
4

F=164,895.91 N

Resisting force offered by all the studs