processes
Article
Understanding the Evolution and Applications of Intelligent
Systems via a Tri-X Intelligence (TI) Model
Min Zhao 1 , Zhenbo Ning 1 , Baicun Wang 2, * , Chen Peng 2 , Xingyu Li 3 and Sihan Huang 4






Citation: Zhao, M.; Ning, Z.; Wang,
B.; Peng, C.; Li, X.; Huang, S.
Understanding the Evolution and
Applications of Intelligent Systems
via a Tri-X Intelligence (TI) Model.
Processes 2021, 9, 1080. https://
doi.org/10.3390/pr9061080
Academic Editors: Luis Puigjaner,
Antonio Espuña Camarasa,
Edrisi Muñoz Mata and
Elisabet Capón García
Received: 2 May 2021
Accepted: 18 June 2021
Published: 21 June 2021
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This article is an open access article
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Processes 2021, 9, 1080. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9061080
1 Towards-Intelligence Research Institute, Beijing 100085, China; mike_zhaomin@139.com (M.Z.);
ningzhenbo@163.com (Z.N.)
2 State Key Lab of Fluid Power & Mechatronic Systems, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China;
pcme@zju.edu.cn
3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48105, USA;
lixingyu@umich.edu
4 School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China;
huangsihan@bit.edu.cn
* Correspondence: baicunw@zju.edu.cn
Abstract: The evolution and application of intelligence have been discussed from perspectives of life,
control theory and artificial intelligence. However, there has been no consensus on understanding
the evolution of intelligence. In this study, we propose a Tri-X Intelligence (TI) model, aimed at
providing a comprehensive perspective to understand complex intelligence and the implementation
of intelligent systems. In this work, the essence and evolution of intelligent systems (or system
intelligentization) are analyzed and discussed from multiple perspectives and at different stages
(Type I, Type II and Type III), based on a Tri-X Intelligence model. Elemental intelligence based
on scientific effects (e.g., conscious humans, cyber entities and physical objects) is at the primitive
level of intelligence (Type I). Integrated intelligence formed by two-element integration (e.g., human-
cyber systems and cyber-physical systems) is at the normal level of intelligence (Type II). Complex
intelligence formed by ternary-interaction (e.g., a human-cyber-physical system) is at the dynamic
level of intelligence (Type III). Representative cases are analyzed to deepen the understanding of
intelligent systems and their future implementation, such as in intelligent manufacturing. This work
provides a systematic scheme, and technical supports, to understand and develop intelligent systems.
Keywords: Tri-X Intelligence; cyber-physical systems; human-cyber systems; intelligent systems;
intelligent manufacturing
1. Introduction
In recent decades, intelligence has been a hot topic in various areas including human
science, biology, computer and information science and social science [1]. Intelligence is
well defined for its capabilities of perception and cognition, as well as its wide application
of all living systems to natural laws [2–4]. This broad definition maximizes coverage of a
variety of intelligent phenomena. The common definition of intelligence is to realize and
maximize the value of the function of artificial systems according to human desires by
natural laws, to be activated upon a human’s request. Intelligence represents the system’s
responsiveness to environmental changes through an autonomous decision-making process,
which enables the system to react using proper actions at the proper time in the proper way
to achieve the objectives. Norbert Wiener published his book “Cybernetics: control and
communication in the animal and the machine” in 1948 [5]. Wiener tried to analyze the
difference between humans and machines. He stated that the special abilities of humans
are in recognizing and adapting to the environment changes. In his opinion, artificial
systems and living systems share a similar logic, in which the human is a control and
communication system as is a machine. In his book, “cybernetics” is a concept with special
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/processes
Processes 2021, 9, 1080 2 of 11

artificial systems and living systems share a similar logic, in which the human is a control
Processes 2021, 9, 1080 and communication system as is a machine. In his book, “cybernetics” is a concept 2with of 11
special meaning, including control, feedback, communication and interaction. It is a pro-
cess followed by a series of procedures, including constant acquisition of condition
changes,
meaning,reaction,
including andcontrol,
continuous optimization.
feedback, It is an autonomous
communication and interaction.process It that
is a an intel-
process
ligent entity adapts to by control algorithms, unifying recognition,
followed by a series of procedures, including constant acquisition of condition changes, decision, and feedback
to handleand
reaction, environmental uncertainties.ItThe
continuous optimization. word
is an “cyber” is
autonomous closelythat
process related to cybernetics;
an intelligent entity
automatic control systems in both machines and living
adapts to by control algorithms, unifying recognition, decision, and feedback things. Compared to human intel-
to handle
ligence, the characteristics
environmental uncertainties. of The
machine
word intelligence can berelated
“cyber” is closely interpreted as data circulation
to cybernetics; automatic
rather
controlthan human
systems in movement,
both machines machine computing
and living things. rather than human
Compared brainpower,
to human auto-
intelligence,
mated machining rather
the characteristics than manual
of machine operation.
intelligence can beDriven by complex
interpreted as databusiness
circulation processes,
rather
limited
than humantime windows
movement, and surge labor
machine costs, the
computing value
rather of the
than humanabove three characteristics
brainpower, automated is
increased by an order of magnitude [6]. For example, the concept
machining rather than manual operation. Driven by complex business processes, limited of intelligent manufac-
turing was proposed
time windows and surge to liberate
labor costs,humans fromoftasks
the value that can
the above be characteristics
three done by machines. Much
is increased
evidence
by an order indicates that machines
of magnitude [6]. Forcan perform
example, thebetter
concept in certain tasks compared
of intelligent manufacturingto humanswas
proposed to liberate humans from tasks that can be done by machines. Much evidence
[4,7].
indicates that machines
The level of systemcan perform better
intelligence in certain
is measured by tasks compared
the ability to humans [4,7]. For
for decision-making.
The level
example, of system
a higher intelligence
level indicates moreis measured
situationsby thea ability
that systemfor decision-making.
can handle. Five basic Forfea-
ex-
ample, a higher level indicates more situations that a system can
tures, including state recognition, real-time analysis, autonomous decision-making, accu- handle. Five basic features,
including
rate state and
execution recognition,
promotion real-time
through analysis,
learning,autonomous
indicate the decision-making,
level of systemaccurate exe-
intelligence
cution
[8]. andextension
As an promotion through learning,
of Wiener’s indicate the
idea, we designed fivelevel of system
features intelligence
to measure [8]. As an
the intelligence
extension
of a physical of Wiener’s
entity, a idea, we designed
consciousness five features
of humans, and to measure
a cyber the for
entity intelligence
determining of a phys-
their
ical entity, a levels.
intelligence consciousness
According of humans,
to the five and a cyberHu
features, entity
et.alfor
[8]determining
classified the their intelligence
intelligent sys-
levels. According to the five features, Hu et.al [8] classified the
tems into three levels including primitive level (Type I), normal level (Type II), and dy- intelligent systems into
three levels
namic level including
(Type III),primitive
as shownlevel (Type1.I),Anormal
in Figure systemlevel with(Type
state II), and dynamic
recognition, level
real-time
analysis, and accurate execution is classified as a primitive-intelligent system. An and
(Type III), as shown in Figure 1. A system with state recognition, real-time analysis, ad-
accurateintelligent
vanced execution system
is classified as a primitive-intelligent
has additional features regarding system. An advanced
autonomous intelligent
decision-mak-
system
ing. has additional
A system with all features regarding
five features autonomous decision-making.
is an open-intelligent system, also known A system as awith
systemall
five features is an open-intelligent
with a complete level of intelligence. system, also known as a system with a complete level
of intelligence.

Figure 1. Three
Three levels of intelligence in intelligent systems.

Intelligence has been discussed from from the perspectives

perspectives of of life,
life, control
control theory,
theory, artificial
intelligence and industrial applications [1,5,9–11]. In dynamic systems, humans may not
intelligence
perform as well as robots in repeated tasks, but they are able to adapt to change, and can
However, there is no consensus on the evolution of
often invent out-of-the-box solutions. However,
intelligence with
intelligence with the
the incorporation
incorporation of human intelligence
of human intelligence and
and its importance. Even
its importance. Even though
though
the human’s role and full integration in these systems is often overlooked,
the human’s role and full integration in these systems is often overlooked, the human is the human
is an
an indispensable
indispensable component
component in the
in the intelligent
intelligent systems,
systems, especially
especially for for supervising
supervising andand
en-
enforcing the intelligence of machines. To address this research gap, the Tri-X
forcing the intelligence of machines. To address this research gap, the Tri-X Intelligence Intelligence
(TI) model
(TI) model isis proposed
proposed toto systematically
systematically analyze
analyze the
the intelligence
intelligence of of humans,
humans, thethe physical
physical
world, the
world, thecyber
cyberworld
worldandand their
their interactions.
interactions. TheThe proposed
proposed model model consists
consists of intel-
of three three
intelligent elements: conscious humans, physical objects and cyber entities
ligent elements: conscious humans, physical objects and cyber entities (Figure 2). In Figure (Figure 2). In
Figure 2, physical objects include natural substances and artificial systems based on physical
materials. Conscious humans can be defined as biological systems with brainpower and
awareness. A Cyber system is an advanced digital logic system in a computer with network
facilities to drive the software and hardware.
 Processes 2021, 9, 1080 3 of 11

2, physical objects include natural substances and artificial systems based on physical ma-
terials. Conscious
2, physical objects humans can be substances
include natural defined asand
biological
artificialsystems
systemswith brainpower
based on physicaland
ma-
Processes 2021, 9, 1080
awareness. A Cyber system is an advanced digital logic system in a computer
terials. Conscious humans can be defined as biological systems with brainpower with3 net-
ofand
11
work facilities
awareness. A to drivesystem
Cyber the software and hardware.
is an advanced digital logic system in a computer with net-
work facilities to drive the software and hardware.

Figure 2. The Tri-X Intelligence (TI) model.

Figure2.2.The
Figure TheTri-X
Tri-XIntelligence
Intelligence(TI)
(TI)model.
model.
The goal and application area of this work focus on the industrial field including
intelligent
Thegoal
The manufacturing,
goal andapplication
and intelligent
application areaofenergy
area ofthis and
workintelligent
thiswork focuson
focus transportation.
onthe
theindustrial The including
industrialfield
field rest of the
including
paper is organized
intelligent
intelligent as follows.
manufacturing,
manufacturing, In Sections
intelligent energy
energy 2–4,
andelemental
and intelligence,
intelligent
intelligent transportation. integrated
transportation. TheThe intelli-
rest
restof of
the
gence
paper
the and
paper iscomplex
is organized
organized intelligence
as follows.
as follows. are
In discussed
Sections
In 2–4,based
Sections on the
elemental hierarchy
intelligence,
2–4, elemental provided
integrated
intelligence, by an
intelli-
integrated
HCPS
gence(human–cyber–physical
and and
intelligence complex
complex intelligence systems)
intelligence areare model. In
discussed
discussed Section
based
based on 5,the
onthe representative
hierarchy examples
provided
hierarchy provided byan
by of
an
HCPS are presented
HCPS(human–cyber–physical in detail.
(human–cyber–physicalsystems) In Section 6,
systems)model. we conclude
model.In this
InSection work and
Section5,5,representative summarize
representativeexamples future
examplesofof
research
HCPS
HCPSare aredirections.
presented
presentedinindetail.
detail.In InSection
Section6,6,we weconclude
concludethisthiswork
workand andsummarize
summarizefuturefuture
research
researchdirections.
directions.
2. Elemental Intelligence Based on Scientific Effects
2.2.Elemental
2.1. Elemental Intelligence
IntelligenceBased
Physical Object Basedon onScientific
ScientificEffects
Effects
2.1. Physical Object
2.1. A
Physical
physical Object
object is one of the original intelligent systems or the zero-generation of
A physical
intelligent systems.object is one
Taking theofofthe original
natural intelligent
ecosystem systemsa or
as examples, thetree,
zero-generation of
A physical object is one the original intelligent systemsrock, or the mountain, wa-
zero-generation of
intelligent
ter, and systems.
even the Taking
planet, the
can natural
recognize ecosystem
outside as examples,
information, a rock,
exchange tree, mountain, water,
materials/energy,
intelligent systems. Taking the natural ecosystem as examples, a rock, tree, mountain, wa-
and even
and theaccording
planet, cantorecognize outside information, exchange materials/energy, and
ter, operate
and even the planet, natural
can recognizelaws through
outside scientific phenomenon
information, or effect. Intelli-
exchange materials/energy,
operate
gence according
of a physical to natural
objecttocan laws through
be shown scientific phenomenon or effect. Intelligence of
and operate according natural lawsinthrough
a scientific manner
scientific through geometry,
phenomenon physics,
or effect. Intelli-
a physical
chemistry object can be shown in a scientific manner through geometry, physics, chemistry
gence of aor biology.
physical The can
object interaction
be shown results from different
in a scientific mannermaterials following natural
through geometry, physics,
or biology. The interaction results from different materials following natural laws. The
laws. The intelligence
chemistry or biology. of Thea interaction
physical object resultsis consistent
from differentwithmaterials
primitivefollowing
intelligence, as
natural
intelligence of a physical object is consistent with primitive intelligence, as shown in
shown in Figure 3. An old example of physical intelligence is the
laws. The intelligence of a physical object is consistent with primitive intelligence, as steam engine invented
Figure 3. An old example of physical intelligence is the steam engine invented in the first
inshown
the first industrial
inrevolution
Figure 3. An revolution
old example[12]. of physical intelligence is the steam engine invented
industrial [12].
in the first industrial revolution [12].

Figure 3. Physical object intelligence (Type I).

Figure 3. Physical object intelligence (Type I).
In recent years, the advancement of physical object intelligence in the form of intelli-
gent/smart materials has drawn increasing attention. For example, intelligent fibers can
recognize changes in the outside environment and inner states and respond to them in a
certain manner [13]. Intelligent skin is made of super-thin (nanometer) film polyimide and
monocrystalline silicon, which is equipped with tactile sensors to detect changes in temper-
 In recent years, the advancement of physical object intelligence in the form of intelli-
gent/smart materials has drawn increasing attention. For example, intelligent fibers can
recognize changes in the outside environment and inner states and respond to them in a
certain manner [13]. Intelligent skin is made of super-thin (nanometer) film polyimide and
Processes 2021, 9, 1080 4 of 11
monocrystalline silicon, which is equipped with tactile sensors to detect changes in tem-
perature, humidity, pressure and transformation [14]. These intelligent materials are pro-
duced following interdisciplinary physical laws. Interactions among physical entities are
very common
ature, humidity,inpressure
the industry. A variety of physical
and transformation objects
[14]. These constitute
intelligent manyare
materials manufactur-
produced
ing facilities
following and products, which
interdisciplinary realize
physical laws.their functionsamong
Interactions via physical object
physical intelligence.
entities are very
The intelligence
common of physical
in the industry. A objects
varietyisofoften constant
physical overconstitute
objects time and many
relies on other intelli-
manufacturing
facilities
gence forand products,
continuous which realizeand
improvement their functions
dynamic via physical object intelligence. The
innovation.
intelligence of physical objects is often constant over time and relies on other intelligence
2.2.continuous
for Conscious Humans
improvement and dynamic innovation.
The living intelligence of human is attained from the continuous recognition of na-
2.2. Conscious Humans
ture. It is a type of inherent intelligence developed during evolution. Conscious humans
The living
recognize intelligence
outside of human
information usingis attained from the
sense organs andcontinuous
react to recognition of nature.
outside stimulation
It is a type of inherent intelligence developed during evolution. Conscious
through subconscious actions, unconscious actions, or conscious actions that are recog- humans rec-
ognize outside information using sense organs and react to outside stimulation
nized and controlled by the brain, as shown in Figure 4. For example, humans react im- through
subconscious
mediately when actions, unconscious
touching extra-hot,actions,
frozen,ororconscious actions
sharp objects. thatimportantly,
More are recognized and
humans
controlled
learn how to bymake
the brain, as shown
decisions basedinonFigure 4. For example,
past experiences humans react
[15]. Interactions immediately
among humans
when touching extra-hot, frozen, or sharp objects. More importantly, humans
are common in society and determine the basic contents of human lives. Interactions learn howandto
make decisions based on past experiences [15]. Interactions among humans are common
cooperation among humans create groups, domains and relationships. More importantly,
in society and determine the basic contents of human lives. Interactions and cooperation
emotional intelligence, also known as emotional quotient (EQ), is the ability of humans to
among humans create groups, domains and relationships. More importantly, emotional
recognize their own emotions and those of others, to discern between different feelings.
intelligence, also known as emotional quotient (EQ), is the ability of humans to recognize
and to label them appropriately. Emotional information helps to guide thinking and be-
their own emotions and those of others, to discern between different feelings. and to label
havior and to manage emotions in order to adapt to various environments or achieve goals
them appropriately. Emotional information helps to guide thinking and behavior and to
[16]. However, there are many known and well-documented human cognitive biases that
manage emotions in order to adapt to various environments or achieve goals [16]. However,
plague human intelligence and the ability to reason consistently, to make decisions based
there are many known and well-documented human cognitive biases that plague human
on evidence, and to make accurate predictions of the future [16]. Other disadvantages of
intelligence and the ability to reason consistently, to make decisions based on evidence,
human labor include behavioral differences, forgetting information, mistakes and errors
and to make accurate predictions of the future [16]. Other disadvantages of human labor
[17].
include behavioral differences, forgetting information, mistakes and errors [17].

Figure 4. Human intelligence (Type

(Type I).
I).

2.3.
2.3. Cyber
Cyber Entity
Entity
A cyber entity consists
A cyber entity consistsofofsoftware,
software,hardware
hardwareand anda network
a network that
that enables
enables digital
digital in-
intelligence or computation intelligence on machines, as shown in Figure
telligence or computation intelligence on machines, as shown in Figure 5. For example, 5. For example,
computers
computers take
take inputs
inputs through
through thethe keyboard,
keyboard, mouse
mouse and
and camera.
camera. Autonomous
Autonomous decisions
decisions
are
are enabled by the processor unit which is designed to analyze the signal, voice
enabled by the processor unit which is designed to analyze the signal, voice and
and image
image
in real-time. Computers
in real-time. Computerscan can execute
execute commands
commands following
following exact
exact rules,
rules, including
including data data
stor-
storage,
age, imageimage capture
capture and and camera
camera angleangle adaption.
adaption. Initially,
Initially, the computer
the computer was was
usedused for
for sim-
simple calculation and data storage. In the intelligent age, computers have become smarter
ple calculation and data storage. In the intelligent age, computers have become smarter
with the capacity for communication, self-learning and super-computing. Moreover, knowl-
with the capacity for communication, self-learning and super-computing. Moreover,
edge systems can be obtained from collaborative learning from interactions among cyber
entities [18–20]. However, cyber-entity intelligence (or called machine intelligence) has no
setting for creativity, playfulness, fun or curiosity, which are the source of many inventions
and breakthroughs [15].
Processes 2021, 9, 1080 5 of 11
knowledge systems can be obtained from collaborative learning from interactions among
cyber entities [18–20]. However, cyber-entity intelligence (or called machine intelligence)
has no setting
knowledge for creativity,
systems playfulness,
can be obtained fun or curiosity,
from collaborative which
learning are interactions
from the source ofamong
many
Processes 2021, 9, 1080
inventions and breakthroughs [15].
cyber entities [18–20]. However, cyber-entity intelligence (or called machine intelligence)
5 of 11
has no setting for creativity, playfulness, fun or curiosity, which are the source of many
inventions and breakthroughs [15].

Figure 5. Cyber entity intelligence (Type I).

FigureToday, physical
5. Cyber
Cyber entity object intelligence
entity intelligence (Type I). commonly exists in areas including new materi-
als, super materials and intelligent materials. Cyber entity intelligence benefits from the
development
Today, of algorithms
Today, physical
physical object and computation
objectintelligence
intelligence commonly
commonlycapacity.
exists Artificial
exists ininareas
areasintelligence
including
including with
newnew learning
materials,
materi-
ability
super is growing
materials and rapidly and
intelligent is becoming
materials. comparable
Cyber entity to human
intelligence
als, super materials and intelligent materials. Cyber entity intelligence benefits from intelligence
benefits from [21–26].
the devel-In
the
summary,
opment of due
algorithmsto their
and own advantages
computation and
capacity. shortcomings,
Artificial physical
intelligence
development of algorithms and computation capacity. Artificial intelligence with learning entity
with intelligence,
learning ability
conscious
is growing
ability human intelligence
rapidly rapidly
is growing and and
and is becoming cyber
comparable
is becoming entity intelligence
to
comparable shouldintelligence
humantointelligence
human be[21–26].
integrated and syn-
In[21–26].
summary, In
due to their
ergetic
summary, dueown
in high-levelto advantages
intelligent
their and
own advantages shortcomings,
systems. We
andseek physical
to confirmentity
shortcomings, that intelligence,
machine
physical entity conscious
intelligence
intelligence, can
human
interactintelligence
conscious and fuse with
human and cyber
other
intelligence entity
types
and of intelligence
intelligence,
cyber shouldto
leading
entity intelligence beshould
aintegrated
more be advancedand synergetic
integrated andandcomplex in
syn-
high-level
intelligence. intelligent systems. We seek to confirm that machine
ergetic in high-level intelligent systems. We seek to confirm that machine intelligence can intelligence can interact and
fuse with
interact other
and fusetypes
withof intelligence,
other leading to a leading
types of intelligence, more advanced
to a more and complexand
advanced intelligence.
complex
3. Integrated
intelligence. Intelligence Formed by Two-Elements Integration
3. Integrated Intelligence Formed by Two-Elements Integration
3.1. Human-Physical System (HPS) Intelligence
3.1.
3. Human-Physical
Integrated System (HPS) Intelligence
HumansIntelligence
can not onlyFormed by Two-Elements
design physical objects through Integration
physical and mental work but
Humans can not only design physical objects through physical and mental work but
3.1.
canHuman-Physical
also generate knowledge System (HPS) Intelligence
in this process. Meanwhile, humans can use the acquired
can also generate knowledge in this process. Meanwhile, humans can use the acquired
knowledge
Humans tocan
createnotnew onlyphysical products.objects
design physical In other words,physical
through development and mental history workis a pro-
but
knowledge to create new physical products. In other words, development history is a
cessalso
can of recognizing,
generate exploitinginand
knowledge this changing
process. physical objects,
Meanwhile, humans as shown
can usein the
Figure 6. For
acquired
process of recognizing, exploiting and changing physical objects, as shown in Figure 6.
example, colored
knowledge createpottery
to colored new encompasses
physical products. knowledge
In other words, from development
hundreds of years ago. The
For example, pottery encompasses knowledge from hundreds ofhistory years ago. is a pro-
The
knowledge
cess in
of recognizing, the brain and
exploiting the product is implicit, which is different from explicit
knowledge in the brain and the and changing
product physical
is implicit, which objects, as shown
is different frominexplicit
Figureknowl-6. For
knowledge,
example, such
colored as
potteryan image
encompassesor text. Benefiting
knowledge from
from
edge, such as an image or text. Benefiting from the development of explicit knowledge, the
hundredsdevelopment
of years ofago.explicit
The
knowledge,
knowledge the
in thephysical
brain machine
and the has become
product is increasingly
implicit,
the physical machine has become increasingly advanced to replace parts aspects of humanwhich advanced
is to
different replace
from parts as-
explicit
pects of
knowledge, human such labor.
as However,
an image the
or development
text. Benefiting of implicit
from
labor. However, the development of implicit and explicit knowledge HPS is limited due to theand explicit
development knowledge
of HPS
explicit
is limited
knowledge,
the due
restriction tophysical
theof the restriction
knowledge machine of has
carriers. knowledge
become
The carriers.
increasingly
interaction The advanced
mode interaction
with HPS to ismode
replace
the with
typicalpartsHPS
modeas-is
the
pects typical
of “humanof human mode
in the of
labor.
loop”. “human
However, in
Human and the loop”.
the development Human
physical machines and physical
of implicit
are the andmain machines
explicit
system are
knowledge the
elementsHPS main
that
system
is
keeplimited elements
due to HPS
improving thatrestriction
the keep improving
during HPS during
of knowledge
evolution. evolution.
carriers. The interaction mode with HPS is
the typical mode of “human in the loop”. Human and physical machines are the main
system elements that keep improving HPS during evolution.

Figure 6.
Figure 6. HPS
HPS intelligence
intelligence (Type
(TypeII).
II).

3.2. Human-Cyber System (HCS) Intelligence

Figure 6. HPS intelligence (Type II).
One goal of developing intelligent systems is to increase the interaction of efficiency
between humans and cyber systems (e.g., computers) in the form of human-cyber systems
(HCS). There are various interaction methods in HCS, such as programmable software [27],
brain-computer interfaces [28], and inserted chips [29] between human and cyber systems.
Software is a method to transform human intelligence into machine intelligence. Explicit
 3.2. Human-Cyber System (HCS) Intelligence
One goal of developing intelligent systems is to increase the interaction of efficiency
between humans and cyber systems (e.g., computers) in the form of human-cyber systems
Processes 2021, 9, 1080 (HCS). There are various interaction methods in HCS, such as programmable software 6 of 11
[27], brain-computer interfaces [28], and inserted chips [29] between human and cyber
systems. Software is a method to transform human intelligence into machine intelligence.
Explicit knowledge is the main source of machine intelligence. The software intermediary
knowledge
interprets theis the main source
humans’ implicitof knowledge
machine intelligence. Theknowledge
into explicit software intermediary
to equip theinterprets
cyber en-
the humans’ implicit knowledge into explicit knowledge
tity with reasoning ability. The brain-computer interface is a method to equip thethat
cyber entity brain
extracts with
reasoning ability. The brain-computer interface is a method that extracts
awareness to control the physical entity via a cyber system. Related technologies have brain awareness to
control the physical entity via a cyber system. Related technologies have been investigated
been investigated including communications from brain to machine, from machine to
including communications from brain to machine, from machine to brain, and from brain
brain, and from brain to brain. An inserted chip is an intrusive connection method. In the
to brain. An inserted chip is an intrusive connection method. In the future, with the
future, with the development of super chips, it is possible to realize an interbrain network
development of super chips, it is possible to realize an interbrain network through inserted
through inserted super chips. Action recognition is an indirect method to obtain human
super chips. Action recognition is an indirect method to obtain human awareness through
awareness through various sensors. The language, facial expression, gestures and other
various sensors. The language, facial expression, gestures and other information of human
information of human awareness can be converted into digital information in cyber entity
awareness can be converted into digital information in cyber entity systems [30]. Taking
systems [30]. Taking WeChat as an example [31], recognition and software intermediary
WeChat as an example [31], recognition and software intermediary tools have been de-
tools have been designed to convert screen touch actions into texts to be sent to people via
signed to convert screen touch actions into texts to be sent to people via cyber technologies.
cyber technologies. Interactions between humans and cyber entities to realize HCS intel-
Interactions between humans and cyber entities to realize HCS intelligence are shown in
ligence are shown in Figure 7. Although many scientists have focused on brain science,
Figure 7. Although many scientists have focused on brain science, the thinking mechanism
thethe
of thinking
mind ismechanism
still unclearof theInteractions
[32]. mind is still unclearhuman
between [32]. Interactions
awareness and between human
cyber entities
awareness and cyber entities still involve interpreting implicit knowledge
still involve interpreting implicit knowledge to explicit knowledge in order to strengthen to explicit
knowledge
digital in orderThis
intelligence. to strengthen
is a processdigital intelligence.
to convert This is a process
human intelligence to convert
to machine human
intelligence
intelligence to machine intelligence
for more powerful knowledge-based tools. for more powerful knowledge-based tools.

Processes 2021, 9, 1080 7 of 11

Figure 7.
Figure 7. HCS
HCS intelligence (Type II).
intelligence (Type II).

3.3. Cyber-Physical System

3.3. Cyber-Physical System (CPS)
(CPS) Intelligence
Intelligence
to a physical object to constitute a CPS. Software is the crucial carrier of a cyber system,
Interactions
Interactions between physical objects and
and cyber entities result
resultofin aa cyber-physical
which defines newbetween
rules and physical objects
stores knowledge cyberthe
within entities
restriction inhardware.
cyber-physical
Human
system
system (CPS),
(CPS), which is
which is aa milestone
milestone to
to promote
promote the
the development
development of
of intelligent
intelligent systems.
systems.
intelligence and artificial intelligence define the majority of reasoning and judging rules
CPS
CPS was
was proposed
proposed by
by Helen
Helen Gill
Gill [33,34]
[33,34] and
and was
was introduced
introduced into
into industry
industry by
by Germany
Germany to
to
in software. The information of physical entities flows into the digital space to create the
support
support Industry
Industry 4.0
4.0 initiatives
initiatives [35].
[35]. CPS
CPS models
models not
not only
only the
the interaction
interaction between
between physical
physical
cyber system. In turn, the cyber system participates in the activities of physical objects
objects
objects and cyber
cyber entities but also
also aathe
scheme that converts human intelligence to machine
throughand software,
intelligence in
entities
which
artificial
butcalled
is
systems.
scheme
However,digitalthat
the twinconverts
[38,39].
influence of
human
In the intelligence
human future, moretowill
intelligence
machine
and more
never
intelligence
physical in
objectsartificial
will systems.
fuse with However,
digital the
entities, influence
and more of
andhuman
more intelligence
digital will
entities never
will be
disappear
disappear and
and keeps
keeps influencing
influencing the
theartificial systems
artificial systemsvia via
software and and
software knowledge engines,
knowledge en-
adopted
as shown to test and
in Figure control
8. physical objects.
gines, as shown in Figure 8.
For instance, CPS is the core technology of smart manufacturing (or intelligent man-
ufacturing) [36]. The reference framework (RAMI 4.0) of CPS proposed by Germany In-
dustry 4.0 consists of a physical layer, integration layer, communication layer, information
layer and a function layer, in which the core is the digital technology and network tech-
nology [37]. RAMI 4.0 elaborates the concept of an administration shell that is an interme-
diate software platform including a communication layer, information layer and a func-
tion layer. The administration shell is a cyber system to support CPS, which can be applied

Figure 8. CPS intelligence (Type

(Type II).
II).

4. Complex Intelligence Formed by Ternary-Interaction

Interactions within physical objects, conscious humans and cyber entities cocreate
complex intelligent systems, called the intelligence of system-of-systems (SoS). The differ-
ent focuses of the components create different applications, as shown in Figure 9. Most of
 to a physical object to constitute a CPS. Software is the crucial carrier of a cyber system,
which defines new rules and stores knowledge within the restriction of hardware. Human
intelligence and artificial intelligence define the majority of reasoning and judging rules
in software. The information of physical entities flows into the digital space to create the
Processes 2021, 9, 1080 7 of 11
cyber system. In turn, the cyber system participates in the activities of physical objects
through software, which is called the digital twin [38,39]. In the future, more and more
physical objects will fuse with digital entities, and more and more digital entities will be
For instance,
adopted to test and CPS is thephysical
control core technology
objects. of smart manufacturing (or intelligent man-
ufacturing) [36]. The reference framework (RAMI 4.0) of CPS proposed by Germany
Industry 4.0 consists of a physical layer, integration layer, communication layer, informa-
tion layer and a function layer, in which the core is the digital technology and network
technology [37]. RAMI 4.0 elaborates the concept of an administration shell that is an
intermediate software platform including a communication layer, information layer and a
function layer. The administration shell is a cyber system to support CPS, which can be
applied to a physical object to constitute a CPS. Software is the crucial carrier of a cyber
system, which defines new rules and stores knowledge within the restriction of hardware.
Human intelligence and artificial intelligence define the majority of reasoning and judging
rules in software. The information of physical entities flows into the digital space to create
the cyber system. In turn, the cyber system participates in the activities of physical objects
through software, which is called the digital twin [38,39]. In the future, more and more
physical objects
Figure 8. CPS will fuse
intelligence withII).
(Type digital entities, and more and more digital entities will be
adopted to test and control physical objects.
4. Complex Intelligence Formed by Ternary-Interaction
4. Complex Intelligence Formed by Ternary-Interaction
Interactions within physical objects, conscious humans and cyber entities cocreate
Interactions within physical objects, conscious humans and cyber entities cocreate
complex intelligent systems, called the intelligence of system-of-systems (SoS). The differ-
complex intelligent systems, called the intelligence of system-of-systems (SoS). The different
ent focuses of the components create different applications, as shown in Figure 9. Most of
focuses of the components create different applications, as shown in Figure 9. Most of
the scenarios in Industry 3.0 and 4.0 have resulted from the fusion of physical objects,
the scenarios in Industry 3.0 and 4.0 have resulted from the fusion of physical objects,
conscious humans
conscious humans and
and cyber
cyber entities,
entities, in
in design,
design, production
production and
and service
service [40].
[40].

Figure 9. HCPS intelligence (Type

(Type III).
III).

An advanced
advanced casecaseof ofternary-fusion
ternary-fusionHCPSHCPSintelligence
intelligenceis is
thethe self-driving
self-driving automo-
automobile
bile [41]. In practice, there are many self-driving automobiles that can
[41]. In practice, there are many self-driving automobiles that can handle most of the handle most of the
sit-
situations
uations under under supervision.
supervision. Moreover,
Moreover, the 100%
the 100% self-driving
self-driving automobile
automobile has already
has already been
been developed
developed at the at
labthe lab Here,
level. level. AI
Here,
takesAIover
takes
theover the driving
driving positionposition of theoperator
of the human human
operator and operates
and operates the self-driving
the self-driving system
system based onbased on data analytics
data analytics of the environment
of the environment and hu-
and
manhuman
behavior.behavior.
This typeThisoftype of intelligent
intelligent systemsystem
can not can notpractice
only only practice the intelligent
the intelligent circle
circle including recognition, analysis, decision, execution, but is
including recognition, analysis, decision, execution, but is also equipped with also equipped with learn-
learning
ing ability.
ability. Human-machine
Human-machine hybrid
hybrid intelligence
intelligence is anis advanced
an advanced form form of human-machine
of human-machine in-
intelligence. A typical case is Alpha AI software developed
telligence. A typical case is Alpha AI software developed by Psibernetix, whichby Psibernetix, which can
can beat
beat American
American pilotspilots in simulation
in simulation environments
environments [42]. The[42]. The chance
chance of makingof making
mistakes mistakes
will in-
will increase when a pilot is in control of a supersonic aircraft at 12,000
crease when a pilot is in control of a supersonic aircraft at 12,000 m and a speed of over m and a speed of
over 1200 km per hour. However, Alpha AI can increase error tolerance
1200 km per hour. However, Alpha AI can increase error tolerance through tactical plan through tactical
plan optimization in a dynamic environment. The responsiveness of Alpha AI is 250 times
faster than that of a pilot. Alpha AI can be controlled by language commands. The most
significant aspect of Alpha AI is that it can learn from other Alpha AI data installed in
different places and in different versions to enhance its own performance. Another ex-
ample is human-robot collaboration [43]. Human-robot collaboration can release human
workers from heavy tasks if effective communication channels between humans and robots
are established [44]. With the help of sensor technologies, gesture identification, gesture
 optimization in a dynamic environment. The responsiveness of Alpha AI is 250 times
faster than that of a pilot. Alpha AI can be controlled by language commands. The most
significant aspect of Alpha AI is that it can learn from other Alpha AI data installed in
different places and in different versions to enhance its own performance. Another exam-
ple is human-robot collaboration [43]. Human-robot collaboration can release human
Processes 2021, 9, 1080 8 of 11
workers from heavy tasks if effective communication channels between humans and ro-
bots are established [44]. With the help of sensor technologies, gesture identification, ges-
ture tracking and gesture classification, human-robot collaboration allows human work-
tracking and gesture
ers and robots to work classification,
together in human-robot collaboration
a shared manufacturing allows human workers and
environment.
robotsIntosummary,
work together in a shared
the single entitymanufacturing
(conscious human, environment.
physical object or cyber entity)
shows In primitive
summary,intelligence
the single(TypeentityI)(conscious human,
at the unit level. physical object
A two-entity or cyber
integrated system entity)
may
shows primitive intelligence (Type I) at the unit level. A two-entity
create normal-level intelligence (Type II) at a system level. Three-entity fusion can gener- integrated system
may create normal-level
ate dynamic-level intelligence
intelligence (Type III) (Type II) SoS
at the at a level.
system level. Three-entity
Therefore, fusion can
when considering de-
generate
velopment dynamic-level
from primitive intelligence (Typeintelligentization
intelligence, III) at the SoS level.
hasTherefore,
evolved overwhen moreconsidering
than 200
development from primitive
years. The development intelligence,
of intelligence willintelligentization
be accelerated in the hasfuture
evolved over more
resulting than
in hybrid
200 years. The
intelligence anddevelopment of intelligence will be accelerated in the future resulting in
swarm intelligence.
hybrid intelligence and swarm intelligence.
5. Implementation and Applications of Intelligent Systems
5. Implementation and Applications of Intelligent Systems
Physical systems with primitive intelligence are the oldest intelligent systems; how-
Physical systems with primitive intelligence are the oldest intelligent systems; how-
ever, their control is limited [6] and the corresponding technologies are easy to e general-
ever, their control is limited [6] and the corresponding technologies are easy to e generalize.
ize. In the Wiener era [5], electricity was adopted for sensing information and driving
In the Wiener era [5], electricity was adopted for sensing information and driving motors
motors and machinery, which broke through the obstacle between information and the
and machinery, which broke through the obstacle between information and the physical
physical entity to increase technology commonality. Due to technology limitations, only
entity to increase technology commonality. Due to technology limitations, only simple
simple objects described by differential equations could be controlled in that era. With the
objects described by differential equations could be controlled in that era. With the develop-
development of computational technologies, digital/cyber intelligence has been applied
ment of computational technologies, digital/cyber intelligence has been applied to control
to control more complex objects. In the following section, the implementation and appli-
more complex objects. In the following section, the implementation and applications of
cations of intelligent artificial systems are analyzed based on the evolution and develop-
intelligent artificial systems are analyzed based on the evolution and development of
ment of system elements.
system elements.
An artificial system is a set of elements with interaction and interconnection to realize
An artificial system is a set of elements with interaction and interconnection to realize
specific functions in
specific functions in the
the forms
forms of of machine,
machine, product,
product, workpiece
workpieceand and plants.
plants. Its
Its components
components
can be described as four basic subsystems, as shown in Figure
can be described as four basic subsystems, as shown in Figure 10: power unit, 10: power unit, control unit,
control
unit, transmission unit and actuator unit. The executive device (actuator unit) is usedexe-
transmission unit and actuator unit. The executive device (actuator unit) is used for for
cuting actions,
executing actions, thethe
power
power device
device forforproducing
producingand andconverting
convertingenergy,
energy, the transmission
the transmission
devicefor
device fortransmitting
transmittingenergy energyand andthe the control
control device
device forfor adjusting
adjusting the the operating
operating param-
parameters
eters of subsystems to allow executive devices to react accurately.
of subsystems to allow executive devices to react accurately. In the past decades, industrialIn the past decades,
industrial occurred
evolution evolutionwith occurred with technological
technological developments developments in artificial
in artificial systems. The systems.
emergence The
emergence of new machines, new tools and facilities created
of new machines, new tools and facilities created continuously improving productivity. continuously improving
productivity.
The four basic The four basic
components arecomponents
also evolving are also evolving
constantly. constantly.
For example, the For example,
executive the
device
executive
is updateddevice is updatednew
by introducing by introducing
structures and newnew structures and(e.g.,
materials new intelligent
materials (e.g.,
fiberintel-
and
ligent materials).
super fiber and super materials).

Figure 10.
Figure 10. Four
Four basic
basic subsystems
subsystems of
of artificial
artificial systems.
systems.

recent decades,
In recent decades, the
the control
control unit
unit in
in artificial
artificial systems
systems has
has evolved
evolved fastest
fastest compared
compared
to other
to other components
componentsininartificial
artificialsystems.
systems.TheThelatest
latest advance
advance in in control
control devices
devices is related
is related to
cyber systems. The core technology of control devices has evolved through a mechanical
→ electromechanical → digital → software → cloud route. The continuous introduction
of new technologies into control systems finally achieves CPS, as shown in Figure 11.
The evolution of the control device is consistent with the fusion and integration of the
administration shell and the physical facility in RAMI 4.0, which is how CPS is constructed.
There are many scenarios driving the development of intelligent systems (e.g., intel-
ligent manufacturing) [45]. Nowadays, intelligent manufacturing is evolving into a new
state based on next-generation artificial intelligence. This can be termed new-generation
intelligent manufacturing (NGIM) [4]. Traditionally, artificial intelligence has been defined
Processes 2021, 9, 1080 9 of 11

Processes 2021, 9, 1080 9 of 11

as a branch of computer science to simulate the thinking processes and intelligent actions
of humans. However, new-generation artificial intelligence extends traditional digital intel-
ligence to big-data intelligence, crowd intelligence and human-machine hybrid intelligence.
to cyber
These systems. The core
new-generation technology ofhave
AI technologies control devices
greater has evolved
content and canthrough a mechani-
be applied in more
cal → electromechanical → digital → software → cloud route. The continuous
domains. For example, big-data intelligence originated from the operation information introduc-of
tion of new technologies into control systems finally achieves CPS, as shown
cyber systems under the close collaboration among three entities, which cannot be pro- in Figure 11.
The evolution
cessed of the
by humans, controlthe
to reveal device
modeisand
consistent with
inner laws theCrowd
[46]. fusionintelligence
and integration of the
is generated
administration shell and the physical facility in RAMI 4.0, which is how CPS
among different entities, and it is hard to determine which one is the controller, and which is con-
structed.
one is controlled [9].

Figure11.
Figure 11. The
The evolution
evolution of
of control
control system
system to
to CPS.
CPS.

6. Conclusions
There are many scenarios driving the development of intelligent systems (e.g., intel-
ligent
Asmanufacturing)
a demarcation of [45].
theNowadays,
past, present intelligent
and future manufacturing
of intelligentissystems,
evolving into aIntelli-
a Tri-X new
state based
gence on next-generation
(TI) model is proposed in artificial
this paperintelligence.
to state the This can be termed
mechanism, factors new-generation
and connotation
intelligent
of three main manufacturing
entities (conscious(NGIM) [4]. Traditionally,
humans, artificial
physical objects, andintelligence
cyber entities) has including
been de-
fined asintelligence,
single-X a branch of two-X computer scienceintelligence
integrated to simulateand the three-X
thinkingcomplex
processes and intelligent
intelligence. Every
actions of humans. However, new-generation artificial intelligence
single entity shows primitive intelligence. Two-entity integration creates integrated intelli- extends traditional
digitalThree-entity
gence. intelligence fusion
to big-data intelligence,
generates advanced crowd intelligence
intelligence. Theand human-machine
intelligentization hy-
mecha-
brid intelligence. These new-generation AI technologies have
nism of artificial systems continuously converts human intelligence to machine intelligencegreater content and can be
applied in more domains. For example, big-data intelligence
via different channels and interfaces. With the increasing use of machine intelligence, originated from the opera-
tion information
humans will graduallyof cyber
playsystems under the
a less significant close
role collaboration
in intelligent among
systems. three entities,
However, human
which cannot
intelligence willbekeep
processed by humans,
influencing artificialtosystems
reveal the mode
in the formandofinner laws [46]. Crowd
software/algorithms to
intelligence
drive is generated
intelligent systems.amongTherefore, different entities,
we cannot andhumans
take it is hard outto of
determine
the systems which onethe
given is
the controller,
accelerating and which one
development is controlledThe
of technology. [9]. key to success is to adapt humans to new
work environments, i.e., not to replace but to enhance. According to the Tri-X Intelligence
6. Conclusions
(TI) model, humans need to think more about how to collaborate with cyber systems rather
than training operators of
As a demarcation to the
workpast, likepresent
computers.
and future of intelligent systems, a Tri-X Intel-
The(TI)
ligence proposed
model Tri-X model (e.g.,
is proposed in thisHCPS)
paperwill integrate
to state the intelligence
the mechanism, factorsin and
a theconnota-
complex
system with amain
tion of three combination of human-cyber-physical
entities (conscious humans, physicaland machine
objects, subsystems.
and cyber entities)Ininclud-
future
research,
ing single-Xmodeling intelligence
intelligence, two-Xinintegrated
experiments or simulations
intelligence is critical.
and three-X Different
complex cognitive
intelligence.
architectures,
Every single entitysuch as LIDAprimitive
shows of Stan Franklin, ACT-R
intelligence. of CMU,integration
Two-entity SOAR from the University
creates integratedof
Michigan,
intelligence. Subsumption
Three-entity Architecture
fusion generates of the MIT AI lab,intelligence.
advanced or BDI (belief, Thedesire and intention)
intelligentization
provide
mechanism structure to create
of artificial intelligent
systems actions. Different
continuously convertsmethodologies
human intelligence like neural networks,
to machine in-
genetic
telligencealgorithms,
via different simulated
channels annealing, the Monte
and interfaces. WithCarlo method and
the increasing useswarm intelligence
of machine intel-
are approaches
ligence, humansto create
will actions
gradually playthat could
a less result inrole
significant intelligent behavior.
in intelligent systems. The ultimate
However,
goal
humanof HCPS, or Tri-X
intelligence modelling
will and implementation,
keep influencing artificial systems is to in
achieve
the formeffective and efficient
of software/algo-
symbioses
rithms to driveamong humans,systems.
intelligent cyber systems and we
Therefore, physical
cannotsystems.
take humans out of the systems
given the accelerating development of technology. The key to success is to adapt humans
Author
to newContributions:
work environments, Conceptualization, M.Z. andbut
i.e., not to replace B.W.; methodology,
to enhance. Z.N.; investigation,
According to the Tri-XB.W.;
In-
resources, Z.N.; writing—original draft preparation, C.P., and
telligence (TI) model, humans need to think more about how to collaborate with S.H.; writing—review and editing,
cyber
B.W. and X.L.;
systems rathersupervision,
than trainingB.W. and M.Z.; project
operators to workadministration,
like computers. Z.N.; funding acquisition, B.W. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
The proposed Tri-X model (e.g., HCPS) will integrate the intelligence in a the com-
plex system with a combination of human-cyber-physical and machine subsystems. In
future research, modeling intelligence in experiments or simulations is critical. Different
Processes 2021, 9, 1080 10 of 11

Funding: This research was funded by Zhejiang University Hundreds of Talents Program, grant
number 0020886.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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