Pan Lab for Jesus

Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,

Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Chapter 16
Population Ecology

BIOLOGY: Today and Tomorrow, 4e

5e
starr evers starr
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

16.1 A Honkin’ Mess

▪ Population 族群
▪ A group of organisms of the
same species that live in a
specific location and tend to Non-migratory Canada Geese
mate with one another

▪ Example: Canada geese

▪ Wildlife managers are
seeking ways to reduce
populations of non-migratory
Canada geese without
harming protected migratory
populations
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Ecology
▪ Biologists need to know about the traits that characterize
different goose populations, as well as how these populations
interact with one another, with other species, and with their
physical environment

▪ Ecology is the study of interactions among organisms, and

between organisms and their environment
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

16.2 Characteristics of Populations

▪ Ecologists collect information about a population’s genes,
reproductive traits, behavior of individuals, and demographics
(人口統計學)

▪ Demographics
▪ Statistics that describe a population, such as its size,
density, and distribution
▪ May change over time due to environmental conditions
and species interactions
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Overview of Demographics
▪ Population size ▪ Population distribution
▪ Number of individuals in a ▪ The way in which
population members of a population
are spread out in their
environment
▪ Population density ▪ May be clumped, nearly
▪ Number of organisms of a uniform, or random
population in a given area

▪ Most populations have a

▪ Age structure
clumped distribution
▪ Distribution of individuals among
▪ Limited dispersal
various age categories
▪ Need for resources that
▪ Affects population’s capacity for
are clumped
future growth
▪ Benefits of living in a
social group
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Clumped Distribution Near-uniform Distribution Random Distribution

A) Clumped distribution B) Near-uniform distribution C) Random distribution

of chimpanzees. of nesting seabirds of dandelions
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Collecting Demographic Data

▪ Scientists sample a population and use that data to estimate
the characteristics of the population as a whole

▪ Plot sampling 繪區取樣 estimates the total number of individuals

in an area on the basis of direct counts in a fraction of the
area

▪ Mark–recapture sampling 標記再捕獲取樣is used to study mobile

animals – the proportion of marked animals in the second
sample represents the proportion marked in the whole
population
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Mark–recapture studies

A) Florida Key deer, a member of an

endangered species, marked with a
neck ring for a population study.
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

16.3 Population Growth

▪ A population grows when birth rate exceeds death rate

▪ Ecologists measure births and deaths per capita

▪ Per capita growth rate

▪ For some interval, the final number of individuals divided
by the initial population size
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Exponential Growth

▪ Exponential model of population growth describes how a

population’s size changes over time if per capita growth rate
is constant and resources are unlimited

G (population growth per unit time) =

r (per capita growth rate) x N (number of individuals)

▪ Plotting population against time produces a J-shaped curve

 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Exponential Growth in Mice

 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Biotic Potential
▪ Biotic potential 生物潛能
▪ Maximum possible population growth rate under optimal
conditions (unlimited resources, no predators or
pathogens)
▪ Varies among species

▪ Populations seldom reach their biotic potential because of

limiting factors

High Biotic Potential (bacteria)

 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Limiting Factors
▪ No population can grow exponentially forever

▪ Any essential resource that is in short supply becomes a

limiting factor for population growth

▪ Limiting factor
▪ A necessary resource, the depletion of which halts
population growth
▪ Examples: food, mineral ions, safe nesting sites
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Logistic Growth 邏輯型成長; S型曲線生長

▪ When resources are limited, a population shows logistic

growth

▪ Logistic model of population growth

▪ A low-density population grows slowly, then increases
rapidly until it reaches carrying capacity, then levels off
once carrying capacity for that species is reached

▪ Plotting population against time produces S-shaped curve

 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Logistic Growth in Deer

1
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Density-Dependent Factors
▪ The logistic growth model describes how population growth is
affected by density-dependent factors, such as disease or
competition for resources

▪ Density-dependent factor
▪ Factor that limits population growth and has a greater
effect in dense populations than in less dense ones
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Carrying Capacity
▪ The quantity of resources in an environment affects how large
a population it can sustain

▪ Carrying capacity 負荷力、承載能力

▪ Maximum number of individuals that can be sustained
indefinitely by the resources available

▪ Carrying capacity of an environment can change over time

 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Density-Independent Factors

▪ Population size can also be reduced as a result of density-

independent factors such as adverse weather; these factors
can affect any population regardless of its size

▪ Density-independent factor
▪ Factor that limits population growth and arises regardless
of population density
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Limiting Factors and Carrying Capacity

 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

16.4 Life History Patterns 生命史類型

▪ Species vary in sets of heritable traits that may change at
different stages in a life cycle

▪ Life history
▪ A set of traits related to growth, survival, and reproduction
▪ Life span, age-specific mortality, age at first reproduction,
and number of breeding events
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Survivorship
▪ Each species has a characteristic
life span and pattern in which
death is more likely at some ages
than others

▪ Studies of age-specific risk of

death focus on a cohort (隊列)– a
group of individuals born in the
same time interval and tracked
until the last one dies

▪ Mortality data from a cohort study

世代研究 is summarized in a life table
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Survivorship Patterns

▪ A survivorship curve plots how many members of a cohort

remain alive over time

▪ Three types of survivorship curves:

▪ Type 1: high death rate late in life
▪ Type II: constant death rate at all ages
▪ Type III: high death rate early in life
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Type I Survivorship Curve Type II Survivorship Curve Type III Survivorship Curve

A) Type I curve. Mortality is B) Type II curve. Mortality C) Type III curve. Mortality
highest very late in does not vary with is highest early in life.
life. Data is for Dall sheep age. Data is for a Data is for a desert
(Ovis dalli). small lizard (Eumeces shrub (Cleome
fasciatus). droserifolia).
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Evolution of Life Histories

▪ Two general life history strategies
maximize the number of offspring
that will be produced and survive to
adulthood

▪ Opportunistic life history

▪ Favored in unpredictable environments
▪ Individuals reproduce while young and
invest little in each of many offspring

▪ Equilibrial life history

▪ Favored in stable environments
▪ Individuals grow large, then invest a lot
in few offspring
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Evidence of Life History Evolution

▪ Populations that live in different environments evolve different
life history traits

▪ Example: Predation can alter life history patterns when

predators (including humans) act as selective
agents on prey populations
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Experiment: Effects of Predation

on Guppies in Trinidad

▪ Pike cichlids (棘鰭類熱帶淡水魚) eat large, mature guppies (古比魚-產於西印度群島

的一種熱帶魚), but ignore small ones

▪ Selects for guppies that breed quickly, have many

offspring, and have small body size at maturity

▪ Killifishes (花鏘) prey on small, immature guppies but ignore

large adults
▪ Moving guppies to an area with this new predator changed
life history traits

(續圖)
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Guppy Environment in Trinidad (續圖)

Guppy Predators in Trinidad

B) Killifish, preys on small guppies.

A) Biologist David Reznick at the study site, a freshwater

stream in Trinidad. The inset photo shows a guppy, the
C) Pike cichlid, preys on large guppies.
fish Reznick was studying.
(續表)
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Life History Traits and Predation in Guppies (續表)

D) Results of an experiment in which some guppies from a pool with pike cichlids were moved to
a pool with killifish, but no other guppies. Other guppies were left in their original pool as a
control. After 11 years, the life history traits of both groups were compared.
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Effects of Fishing on North Atlantic Cod (鱈魚)

▪ Fishing pressure on
large cod favored fish
that matured younger
and at a smaller size
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

16.5 Human Populations

▪ Until about 10,000 years ago, the human population grew
very slowly
▪ Expansion into new habitats and agriculture allowed early increases
▪ Later, medical and technological innovations raised the carrying
capacity and removed many limiting factors

▪ The population is now about 7 billion and is expected to reach

9 billion by 2050
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Fertility Rates and Future Growth

▪ Total fertility rate 總出生率
▪ Average number of children born to women in a particular
population during their reproductive years

▪ Age structure diagram

▪ The broader the base, the greater proportion of young
people, and the greater expected growth

▪ The pre-reproductive base of the world population is so large

that population size will continue to increase for many years
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

A Demographic Transition (人口變遷) Preindustrial and

Postindustrial
▪ Demographic transition model Economies
▪ Predicts how human population
growth rates will change as a
region becomes industrialized
▪ Four stages:
Preindustrial,
Transitional,
Industrial, and
Postindustrial

▪ Generally, highly developed

countries have the lowest fertility
rate, lowest infant mortality, and
highest life expectancy
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Demographic Transition Model

 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Resource Consumption
▪ Resource consumption rises with economic and industrial
development

▪ Resource uses are compared using an ecological footprint –

the amount of Earth’s surface required to support a particular
level of development and consumption in a sustainable fashion

▪ For everyone now alive to have an average American lifestyle

would require the resources of four Earths
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Ecological Footprints
 Pan Lab for Jesus
Laboratory of Transporter Biology, Department of Life Science,
Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, National Tsing Hua University

Q & A

Thank you very much for your attention.