Workplace Stress and Absenteeism, Turnover, and Employee Performance in the Ship-Repair

Industry: A Case Study

Dissertation

Submitted to Northcentral University

School of Business

in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

by

DOUGLAS SCOTT SMITH

San Diego, California

April 2018




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 Approval Page

Workplace Stress and Absenteeism, Turnover , and Employee Performance in the Ship-Repair
Industry: A Case Study

By

Douglas Scott Smith

Approved by:

Chair: Gergana Velkova , Ph.D. Date

Certified by:

5/2/2018

Dean of School: Kelley Walters, Ph.D. Date

11
 Abstract
Occupational stress has become one of the most pressing challenges for organizational managers

today. Because it has a significantly negative influence on job satisfaction and employee

performance, this phenomenon calls for the design and implementation of special techniques to

minimize risks and mitigate consequences. In most cases, heavy workloads, hazardous working

environments, and strenuous workplace atmospheres lead to work-related stress. Although the

risks of occupational stress are similar across different sectors of the economy, they are

significantly higher in the ship-repair industry owing to a lack of knowledge regarding work-

related stress and its effects. It is imperative to fill this existing knowledge gap by investigating

the maritime industry with a special focus on factors contributing to occupational stress and

techniques used to reduce it. This study attempted to determine some effective techniques for

overcoming the challenge of work-related stress in the ship-repair industry, bearing in mind the

peculiarities of this sector of the economy. This research was a qualitative exploratory case

study. Conclusions were drawn based on the in-depth understanding of professional stress

obtained by analyzing the sensations, beliefs, reflections, and personal experiences of people

employed by a company operating in the ship-repair industry. To fully address the research

question and pay specific attention to each respondent, the sample was small, consisting of 8

project and production managers working with a ship-repair company located in New Jersey.

Participants were interviewed using open-ended questions with an emphasis on their lived

experiences and their opinions on occupational stress and ways to address this challenge. An

employee’s number of years worked and position within the company were the major criteria for

selecting participants because of the assumption that only those who had a long history of

cooperation with an organization are competent and experienced enough to share adequate and

accurate facts required to draw comprehensive conclusions and generalizations for the company.

iii
Several themes were derived from the observations of the participants including (a) employee

stress, performance, and productivity, (b) employee stress and absenteeism, (c) communication,

(d) role clarity, and (e) incentives. From the findings, 10 recommendations are made to improve

practice in the field while three recommendations are made to further research into the effects of

stress and the creation of strategies to mitigate it in the workplace. Managers need to be aware

of their industries and work environments and tailor those environments to minimize stress on

their workers. Managers need to take into consideration the needs of their employees in devising

strategies to minimize stress. Finally, managers need to consider implementing the

recommendations for practice proposed in this dissertation in the efforts to maximize worker

efficiency and performance while mitigating the effects of stress on those workers.

iv
 Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................................1

Statement of the Problem ...........................................................................................................5
Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................................................6
Theoretical Framework ..............................................................................................................7
Nature of the Study ....................................................................................................................9
Research Questions ..................................................................................................................12
Significance of the Study .........................................................................................................12
Definitions of Key Terms ........................................................................................................13
Summary ..................................................................................................................................13

Chapter 2: Literature Review .........................................................................................................15

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework.........................................................................................17
Occupational Stress ..................................................................................................................20
Employee Productivity in a Stressful Environment .................................................................34
Organizational Occupational Stress Effects.............................................................................40
Workplace Stress in the Ship Repair Industry .........................................................................59
Strategies for Minimizing Occupational Stress .......................................................................61
Summary ..................................................................................................................................74

Chapter 3: Research Method ..........................................................................................................77

Research Method and Design ..................................................................................................78
Population/Sample ...................................................................................................................80
Materials/Instrumentation ........................................................................................................82
Data Collection and Analysis...................................................................................................83
Assumptions.............................................................................................................................87
Limitations ...............................................................................................................................88
Delimitations ............................................................................................................................89
Ethical Assurances ...................................................................................................................89
Summary ..................................................................................................................................91

Chapter 4: Findings ........................................................................................................................93

Trustworthiness of Data ...........................................................................................................94
Results ......................................................................................................................................97
Evaluation of Findings ...........................................................................................................120
Summary ................................................................................................................................126

Chapter 5: Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusions ...................................................127

Implications............................................................................................................................132
Recommendations for Practice ..............................................................................................147
Recommendations for Future Research .................................................................................151
Conclusions ............................................................................................................................153

References ....................................................................................................................................156

v
Appendices ...................................................................................................................................170

Appendix A: Invitation to Participate Email ...............................................................................171

Appendix B: The Informed Consent Form ..................................................................................172

Appendix C: University IRB Approval .......................................................................................175

Appendix D: Interview Guide ......................................................................................................176

Appendix E: CITI Human Subjects Research Certificate............................................................177

vi
 List of Tables

Table 1 Participant Demographics .................................................................................................98

Table 2 Subtheme Frequency.......................................................................................................119

vii
 List of Figures

Figure 1. Relationship between work environment, absenteeism, performance and

productivity, customer relations management and stress. ...........................................................107

Figure 2. Employee turnover rates (2012-2016) ..........................................................................115

Figure 3. Absenteeism rates in the company (2012-2016) ..........................................................117

viii
 1

Chapter 1: Introduction

Occupational stress is inseparable from work and interactions within a work environment

(Griffiths, Baxter, & Townley-Jones, 2013; Trivellas, Reklitis, & Platis, 2013). Work-related

stress is the result of several different factors such as excessive competition, a strenuous and

conflict-filled team atmosphere, and ineffective communication practices (Griffiths et al., 2013).

Dense working conditions, pressure from senior management, and failure on the part of

employees themselves to balance work and personal issues properly are other factors that

commonly lead to occupational stress (Trivellas et al., 2013). Authors of recent studies on work-

related stress stated that professional distress has negative consequences that affect both the

physical and psychological well-being of those who experience it (American Psychological

Association, 2015; Hiriyappa, 2013; O’Keefe, Brown, & Christian, 2014; Patel, 2013).

According to Leon and Halbesleben (2013), occupational stress affects employee productivity;

often entailing a higher risk of emotional burnout, lower performance, and depression.

Employees who become dissatisfied with their work environment often seek opportunities to

switch jobs, thus leading to increased rates of turnover (Campbell, 2015; European Agency for

Safety and Health at Work, 2014; Hakanen & Schaufeli, 2012). Higher turnover rates and

mental health concerns are not the only undesirable consequences of work-related stress;

occupational stress also causes absenteeism and excess expenditures related to either changing

the work environment to meet employees’ expectations and reduce strain or training new

employees to fill vacancies caused by the high turnover rates (O’Keefe et al., 2014; Prater &

Smith, 2011; White, 2015).

Aftab and Javeed (2012) stated that occupational stress is particularly significant in the

ship-repair industry on account of its higher risks and greater intensity compared to other sectors
 2

of the economy. This challenge is aggravated by the industry’s low levels of managerial

effectiveness; indeed, managers often lack the knowledge required to reduce occupational stress

caused by long working hours and frequent accidents and to overcome stress-related

organizational difficulties (Al-Raqadi, Abdul Rahim, Masrom, & Al-Riyami, 2015; Cardoso,

Padovani, & Tucci, 2014; Cezar-Vaz et al., 2014). These specificities of the ship-repair industry

underpin the significance of designing and conducting an in-depth study of the industry with a

focus on managing and reducing occupational stress. Therefore, the purpose of this research was

to discover what techniques production managers and project managers of a ship-repair company

in the maritime industry used to minimize occupational stress, absenteeism, turnover rates, and

poor employee performance in a company located in New Jersey.

Occupational stress is one of the key issues that managers struggle to handle efficiently

(Griffiths et al., 2013). At its core, work-related stress is associated with workload intensity,

workplace environment, co-worker relations, and communication strategies (Trivellas et al.,

2013). Still, failure on the part of management to organize employee workflow and a lack of

knowledge regarding how to minimize the risks and consequences of work-related stress are the

most common causes of the problem (Griffiths et al., 2013).

According to Leon and Halbesleben (2013) and O’Keefe et al. (2014), numerous issues

transpire as a consequence of occupational stress. The nature of occupational stress is broadly

contingent on the particular occupation and working conditions (Trivellas et al., 2013). These

complications include both physical and mental issues (Daniel, 2015; Prater & Smith, 2011). In

many cases, occupational stress causes a variety of cardiovascular diseases and may adversely

affect the nervous system (Martin, Neighbors, & Griffith, 2013). From this perspective, even if

an employee still comes to work while dealing with certain symptoms, his or her performance
 3

will be adversely affected by his or her reaction to the physiological impulse (Prater & Smith,

2011). On a larger scale, occupational stresses may provoke issues in families and harm

workers’ relationships with relatives or friends (Leon & Halbesleben, 2013). As a result,

employees are ultimately forced to cope with both stress and anxiety (Dwamena, 2012).

Numerous researchers have pointed to a strong correlation between occupational stress

and job satisfaction (Aftab & Javeed, 2012; Cevenini, Fratini, & Gambassi, 2012; Chen et al.,

2014). When employees face workplace conflicts and must cope with heavy workloads, low

wages, and excessive overtime hours, these factors may trigger exhaustion and dissatisfaction

(Chen et al., 2014). This situation encourages workers to switch jobs, which results in higher

employee turnover rates and greater costs related to hiring and training new employees

(Mosadeghrad, 2014). As a result, occupational stress becomes a fundamental cause of many

organizational and business issues, including employee turnover, low sales, and long-term

trouble (Kula & Sahin, 2015; Obiora & Iwuoha, 2013).

Researchers pointed to employee absenteeism as one of the crucial variables in the

equation of occupational stress (Martin et al., 2013). According to Prater and Smith (2011),

employee absenteeism refers to an individual’s choice to procrastinate or overlook his or her job

duties. In most cases, the main cause of employee absenteeism is a feeling of weakness and

fatigue, which lowers an employee’s desire to keep working in a certain setting or atmosphere

and contributes to a loss of enthusiasm and an inability to psychologically handle the required

job duties (Hakanen & Schaufeli, 2012). According to Martin et al. (2013), today, more than

30% of U.S. employees suffer from depression and absenteeism. In reality, employers are

spending a significant part of the company budget to overcome these challenges (Prater & Smith,

2011). As an organization, the employer’s main objective is to guarantee the safety and well-
 4

being of its employees while keeping a high level of organizational performance (European

Agency for Safety and Health at Work, 2014). In combination with physical anxiety,

absenteeism is the main problem that organizations need to address to minimize monetary

expenditures and maximize employee performance levels (Daniel, 2015; Roelofsen, 2012).

Occupational stress negatively influences employee productivity (Campbell, 2015).

There is a direct functional dependence between employee output and occupational stress; a

higher level of occupational stress certainly elicits lower productivity and poorer value from an

employee, who may not even be able to meet job demands (Daniel, 2015; Roelofsen, 2012).

Managers should develop techniques that would be beneficial in terms of mitigating the risks of

occupational stress. The first category of techniques should focus on the complexities related to

workplace atmosphere and occupational performance, while the second category should

concentrate on helping employees cope with the emotional characteristics of work, such as

tensions in the working environment and interpersonal conflicts (Meško et al., 2013).

Occupational stress causes not only lower efficiency and performance but also a deficiency of

employee attentiveness to job duties (Al-Raqadi et al., 2015; Cardoso et al., 2014).

Extensive evidence has shown that there is a need to build more effective techniques to

reduce the adverse effects of occupational stress (Aftab & Javeed, 2012). According to Meško et

al. (2013), there are two main groups of preventative techniques for occupational stress:

emotion-focused strategies and problem-focused strategies. The first method, the emotion-

focused strategy, centers on addressing employees’ emotional needs in the workplace. It entails

dealing with negative emotions and focusing on improving the emotional well-being of

employees (Meško et al., 2013). The second type of strategy, the problem-focused one, refers to

handling any problems that occur in the working environment deriving from either work
 5

conditions or interactions between team members (Meško et al., 2013). Managers operating

within different industries should adapt these two types of strategies to satisfy the needs of their

staff best and comply with all of the requirements and specificities of their unique workplaces

(Meško et al., 2013).

Statement of the Problem

Enhancing the emotional well-being of employees is the key to preventing occupational

stress and minimizing its negative effects (Vainio, 2015). Although Britt and Jex (2013) claimed

that work-related stress boosts employee performance, it is conversely the primary cause of

serious health concerns, high turnover rates, and employee absenteeism (American Psychological

Association, 2015; O’Keefe et al., 2014). Additionally, occupational stress causes decreased

productivity levels in 20% of employees, dissatisfaction with the work environment, a desire to

quit in 65% of employees, and absenteeism in 9% of employees (O’Keefe et al., 2014).

Moreover, occupational stress costs around $150 billion in healthcare expenses annually-

representing 5% to 8% of all health-related costs in the United States (White, 2015). The central

problem related to occupational stress is the effects of stress vary from emotional and

physiological conditions including such health concerns as depression, cardiovascular diseases,

and emotional disorders, to serious organizational issues such as lower job performance,

conflicts with team members, and injuries in the workplace related to mental disturbances and

lack of concentration (Halbesleben, 2013; Leon & O’Keefe et al., 2014; Patel, 2013).

The ship-repair industry is known as one of the career fields where employees work in a

highly demanding environment where the issues of high turnover rates, absenteeism, and poor

performance are caused by work-related stress (Cardoso et al., 2014; O’Keefe et al., 2014).

Some of the other factors that contribute to occupational stress in the ship-repair industry is
 6

working 7 days a week, absenteeism, and turnover rates; in addition, the problems concerning an

insufficient work–life balance constitute another type of root cause of occupational stress for

ship-repair employees (Cardoso et al., 2014). The overall level of work-related pressure that

ship-repair industry workers face while fulfilling their professional duties is rather high (Al-

Raqadi et al., 2015). This pressure is present because of the industry itself, as well as the jobs it

involves, which are linked to the multiple responsibilities and complex tasks that in many

instances have the employees’ safety at stake (Cardoso et al., 2014). As a consequence of

absenteeism, turnover rates, and poor employee performance, the level of occupational stress

among the employees of the ship-repair industry remains elevated (O’Keefe et al., 2014).

In the ship-repair industry, one matter related to managing and reducing occupational

stress is an existing knowledge gap and effective techniques to reduce work-related stress. This

gap not only results in a failure to recognize the importance of preventative measures but also

because of the ineffectiveness of used techniques (Sherridan & Ashcroft, 2015). To understand

what techniques are necessary to successfully reduce work-related stress, absenteeism, turnover

rates, and poor employee performance, I conducted a study at a ship-repair company to gain an

in-depth understanding of the techniques these production managers and project managers used

to address the aforementioned issues.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this qualitative exploratory case study was to discover what techniques

production managers and project managers of a ship-repair company in the maritime industry

used to minimize occupational stress, absenteeism, turnover rates, and poor employee

performance. I obtained the necessary information by conducting interviews, collecting

company policy and attendance records of one ship-repair service company located in New
 7

Jersey. For this study, I interviewed Eight project and production managers who successfully

used techniques to minimize occupational stress. Interviews entailed open-ended questions

designed to gather rich and thick data that might enable me to gain an in-depth understanding of

the peculiarities of work-related stress in the ship-repair industry, and its effect on employee

turnover, performance, and absenteeism. The questions were used to elicit the interviewee's

perceptions of occupational stress. The company policy, additional company documents, a

reflective diary used during the interviews of the eight project and production managers were

helpful to address a range of societal and organizational issues related to professional stress and

to improve techniques used to reduce stress in the work environment.

Theoretical Framework

The foundation of this study is the job demands-resources model (JD-R model), which is

a common tool for forecasting the potential influence of increased job demands on the level of

occupational stress among employees (Schaufeli & Taris, 2014). According to the job demands-

resources model, the work engagement and emotional burnout are the two factors with the most

significant effect on employee well-being and are thus the primary causes of work-related stress

(Schaufeli & Taris, 2014). Moreover, these two factors are closely related to job demands,

which are, in turn, directly connected to occupational stress and employee performance

(Schaufeli & Taris, 2014). This model is a suitable theoretical basis for the research at hand

because it is helpful for understanding the factors that lead to work-related stress as well as the

aspects of employee personality that are affected by such stress, including physical and

emotional well-being and personal and workplace behaviors (Schaufeli & Taris, 2014).

The issue of high job demands is inseparable from two aspects of the working

environment: employee aspirations and levels of dedication (Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Demerouti,

 8

& Schaufeli, 2007). On the one hand, employees’ personal aspirations, such as their dedication

and desire to do a good job, form the foundation of positive employee performance and high

productivity. However, these same aspirations can also lead to burnout. Indeed, dedication to

work inevitably leads to higher demands and more pressure from senior management, thus,

increasing the risks of occupational stress and creating a more strained team atmosphere-which,

in turn, may result in various health concerns and an increasingly negative perception of the

workplace and of the employee’s own position in the company (Xanthopoulou et al., 2007).

High job demands and resources are two aspects of the JD-R model (Schaufeli & Taris,

2014; Xanthopoulou et al., 2007). As discussed above, the first aspect is practically synonymous

with the cause of professional stress; resources, on the other hand, refer to the totality of steps

and measures taken to reduce occupational stress and improve employee well-being

(Xanthopoulou et al., 2007). The JD-R model centers on several different features of a work

environment, including organizational, social, and physical characteristics as well as their links

to employees’ physical and emotional dedication to job functions (Schaufeli & Taris, 2014). Job

resources (i.e., measures focusing on promoting health and well-being) have a positive influence

on both employees and employers because they increase levels of employee dedication, foster

personal growth and a desire for self-development, reduce the negative effect of increased job

demands (i.e., the costs associated with addressing occupational stress), and increase workplace

enthusiasm (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007; Xanthopoulou et al., 2007). However, to guarantee a

positive correlation between job demands, resources, and employee performance, it is imperative

for companies to find the right balance between available resources and employee satisfaction.

If this balance is not achieved, the results of applying the JD-R model and changing the work

environment may differ from theory and may even be negative (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007).
 9

The JD-R model was an appropriate choice for the theoretical framework of this research

because it estimates the influence of an unhealthy work environment and subsequent health

concerns on the overall levels of occupational stress that employees face (Bakker & Demerouti,

2007; Xanthopoulou et al., 2007). In fact, this model’s significance for achieving the purposes

of this study cannot be underestimated, because it was used to ascertain whether higher job

demands were indeed the source of work-related stress among employees in the ship-repair

industry and to gain a better understanding of the root causes of occupational stress, an

invaluable piece of information for any organizational manager.

Nature of the Study

This research was a qualitative exploratory case study. Qualitative research is an

especially efficient tool regarding evaluating individual experiences and societal background as

well as obtaining an in-depth understanding of the issue under investigation (O’Sullivan, Rassel,

& Berner, 2008). According to Frels and Onwuegbuzie (2013) and Dworkin (2012), qualitative

research is among those research methods most useful for drawing accurate conclusions based on

small sample sizes. Unlike quantitative research, a qualitative study does not require the

identification of reason-and-consequence relationships or the presence of a large sample; neither

does it call for the incorporation of quantitative aspects into qualitative studies, as in the case of

mixed research designs (Caruth, 2013; Lund, 2012). From this perspective, I believe that a

qualitative research design was a promising choice, especially because the focus of the research

was about managers’ personal perceptions of occupational stress and related past experiences.

The elaboration of this study’s research question was to focus on the perceived knowledge,

individual experiences, and insights of the interviewee, a qualitative design was used for

answering the question and reaching the stated objectives (Agee, 2009). Quantitative methods
 10

focus on data analysis from a large number of cases from randomly selected respondents (Lund,

2012). A quantification or generalization of findings across a large population is not the goal of

the present study; therefore, contraindicating a quantitative or mixed method study.

I designed the research as a case study. Case studies naturally complement qualitative

research because they provide a thorough understanding of the issue at hand and are most

effectual when exterior factors, not the researcher, trigger the actions and responses of research

participants (Yin, 2013). In other words, a case study is a natural choice when the focus of the

research is on investigating current subjects that are affected by transformations in their

environments (Yin, 2013). I chose this research design because of the study’s focus on managers

and employees working in one environment and the desire to investigate how this environment

influences them.

I conducted this qualitative exploratory case study based on several hypotheses referred

to as constructs. Roller and Lavrakas (2015) stated that constructs are key topics relevant

throughout interviews because of their importance and involvement in the process of finding

accurate answers to the research question. For this particular research, I concentrated on

expressive and logical constructs, in addition to those connected to knowledge. According to

Roller and Lavrakas, expressive constructs refer to the emotions and experiences of a

respondent, while logical constructs and those connected to knowledge are associated with the

respondent’s ability to assess his or her current environment in an unbiased manner.

For this study, I obtained necessary data from interviews, reflective diary, company

policy, and company documents. According to King and Horrocks (2010), interviews and

company documents are an effective data collection tools for scrutinizing the diversity of

perceptions of the subject under investigation and for gaining detailed insight into the research
 11

topic. The interviews consisted of open-ended questions. As compared to close-ended

questions, open-ended questions are more useful for collecting facts and perceptions connected

to the interviewees’ personal experiences (Seidman, 2013). Open-ended questions motivated the

interviewees to share their personal feelings and experiences related to occupational stress, and

particular answers gave the researcher an in-depth understanding of the subject (Grbich, 2013).

I used interviews, company policy, and attendance documentation for this particular

study because different perspectives have a close connection to both qualitative research and the

lived experiences of interviewees (Carter, Bryant-Lukosius, DiCenso, Blythe, & Neville, 2014;

Ericson & Melin, 2010). According to Seidman (2013), open-ended questions and interviews are

the best options for gathering the data and evidence necessary to understand the worldviews of

participants. By incorporating a coding process for analyzing all the data and grouping the codes

into categories (Theron, 2015), I expected to find the unbiased results to this study and obtain a

better understanding of interviewees’ perceptions of occupational stress.

According to Miles, Huberman, and Saldaña (2014), a proper population is necessary

from which to select the sample to accomplish research objectives. Research participants should

be selected based on experience, knowledge, and skills (Palinkas et al., 2015). Dworkin (2012)

identified that qualitative research designs generally have a small sample. Thus, the present

study comprised a small sample selected from a proper population. Small samples allow the

researcher to obtain a thorough understanding of the research topic (Miles et al., 2014). To keep

the sample size small and the participants relevant, I only interviewed people who were at that

time employed by a single corporation in the ship-repair industry. Eight production and project

managers employed at a ship-repair corporation located in New Jersey comprised the sample for

this research.
 12

Research Questions

To achieve the research objectives, gain a comprehensive understanding of the research

problem, and fill the existing knowledge gap regarding occupational stress in the ship-repair

industry, it was imperative to focus on the following research question:

RQ1. What techniques do production managers and project managers at a ship-repair

company use to reduce work-related stress?

Significance of the Study

Occupational stress is among the primary causes of job dissatisfaction, high turnover

rates, employee absenteeism, and low workplace performance (Aftab & Javeed, 2012; American

Psychological Association, 2015; O’Keefe et al., 2014). For this reason, managers employ a

variety of techniques to diminish the risks of work-related stress and eliminate its negative

influences, with emotion-focused and problem-focused strategies as the two central types of

tools for addressing the issue (Meško et al., 2013). In the maritime industry, demanding working

conditions and a lack of managerial knowledge necessary to reduce stress aggravates the

challenge of professional stress. In fact, some managers ignore the importance of preventative

measures for diminishing the risks related to occupational stress and its consequences (Aftab &

Javeed, 2012; Sherridan & Ashcroft, 2015).

Occupational stress in America affects nearly half of all workers (Smith, 2012). While

there are many studies regarding occupational stress, there is a lack of research on the topic in

the ship-repair industry. Thus, the present study served as the first step toward filling the

existing gap in knowledge of some effective techniques for reducing occupational stress in the

ship-repair industry. Moreover, the study findings may contribute to a better understanding of

the effectiveness of various stress-reducing techniques used by managers to minimize

 13

occupational stress, absenteeism, turnover rates, and poor employee performance. Even though

the sample size was small, the research may provide a launching point for further investigation of

related issues and contribute significantly to the improvement of numerous organizational

methods of minimizing the risks of professional stress and mitigating its negative consequences

on the physical and psychological well-being of employees, as well as on the outcomes for the

company and industry as a whole.

Definitions of Key Terms

Job performance. Job performance refers to the different behaviors in which employees

are engaged while carrying out their job duties and fulfilling their job functions (Gupta, Kumar,

& Singh, 2014).

Job satisfaction. Job satisfaction refers to an individual’s positive emotional perception

of his or her work and contentment with the work environment and conditions connected to the

job experience (Gupta et al., 2014).

Motivation. Motivation refers to the inner force that drives individuals to accomplish

job tasks and achieve any predetermined goal, either personal or organizational (Naqvi, Khan,

Kant, & Khan, 2013).

Productivity. Productivity refers to the ratio of output to input and the real output per

unit of labor (Naqvi et al., 2013).

Stress. Stress refers to the interdependence between an individual and demands from

managers or job duties within an environment (Naqvi et al., 2013).

Summary

Occupational stress has become one of the acutest organizational issues, and attention

from project managers and production managers is necessary to mitigate its many negative
 14

consequences, which include higher turnover rates, lower employee productivity, emotional

burnout, depression, and growing dissatisfaction with work (Adriaenssens, De Gucht, & Maes,

2015; Campbell, 2015; Leon & Halbesleben, 2013; Meško et al., 2013; Prater & Smith, 2011).

Based on the findings of past research, heavy workloads, overtime shifts, a high likelihood of

work-related accidents and subsequent health concerns, and strenuous working conditions are the

major determinants of workplace stress in the ship-repair industry (Bakotić & Babić, 2013;

Cardoso et al., 2014; Cezar-Vaz et al., 2014). Furthermore, managerial problems, including a

lack of expertise in addressing stress and a lack of concern regarding the significance of

preventative measures aggravate the challenge of work-related stress in this industry (Aftab &

Javeed, 2012; Sherridan & Ashcroft, 2015). For this reason, it is necessary to investigate the

peculiarities of the ship-repair industry and explore how they influence the effectiveness of

managerial knowledge in effective techniques aimed at reducing occupational stress. Ultimately,

the purpose of this qualitative exploratory case study was to explore the techniques that

production managers and project managers at a ship-repair company used to reduce workplace

stress in the maritime industry and mitigate the negative consequences of work-related stress.

For this study, I interviewed Eight project and production managers, focusing on their personal

experiences with and perceptions of occupational stress. Recommendations to fill the existing

knowledge gap, pointing to some effective techniques for decreasing stress in the ship-repair

workplace, were the desired outcome of the study.

 15

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Occupational stress is one of the most serious challenges for leaders and managers (Aftab

& Javeed, 2014). Because working environments have grown highly competitive and

increasingly intense, employees find themselves caught in taxing atmospheres and experiencing

constant mood swings because of harsh working conditions and the necessity to foster personal

development to remain employed (Dwamena, 2012). Exposure to stress at work has an effect

beyond professional life and extends to personal affairs, because most employees find it nearly

impossible to reach a balance between work and life; as a result, they feel the negative influence

of work-related stress on family relationships, physical and mental health, communication with

colleagues, personal development, and job performance (The European Agency for Safety and

Health at Work, 2014). Apart from the effect that occupational stress has on employees, it also

affects organizations by harming brand image, fostering negative changes in the workplace

atmosphere, and wasting valuable human resources as employees switch jobs in the hopes for a

more comfortable place to work and higher chances for career development (Petarli, Zandonade,

Salaroli, & Bissoli, 2015). Reviewed in this chapter are many different manifestations of

occupational stress; beginning with coverage of a model of occupational stress and its effects, an

overview of what occupational stress entails, the effects of occupational stress on employees

with an emphasis on employee productivity in stressful environments, the effects of occupational

stress on organizations with an emphasis on how workplace stress affects the ship repair

industry, different strategies that may be employed to minimize and mitigate occupational stress,

followed by a summary of the highlights discussed.

Conducting a thorough online search of the existing literature was the foundation for

writing this chapter. Google’s search engine and the Google Scholar database were used for
 16

selecting articles accessed from the library. For the purposes of this research, there were no

limitations in place regarding the country of origin or database to guarantee the inclusion of all

relevant literature and to avoid the possibility of missing some valuable information. A variety

of keywords were targeted in the searches, including workplace stress, occupational stress,

causes of work stress, workplace stress outcomes, job dissatisfaction causes, turnover causes,

depression, and stress coping mechanisms. Still, there were some criteria in place for choosing

the source of information. First of all, inclusion depended on the nature of the source; only

scholarly articles published in peer-reviewed journals were included in the literature review to

ensure the credibility of the research. Moreover, even though preference was given to papers

published within the last three years (2014-2017), some older sources were also included to

estimate the dynamism of changes in the perceptions of occupational stress and primary stressors

in the workplace. Primary emphasis was placed on the causes of occupational stress in the ship

repair industry. However, sources were not limited to those specifically covering the maritime

industry because, in most cases, the causes of workplace stress and turnover intentions are

similar across different career fields and industries. The literature review includes several

subsections that provide further detail on topics related to occupational stress, identifying the

nature of the concept in the first place and then investigating job satisfaction, employee

absenteeism, employee productivity, and strategies used to minimize the risks of occupational

stress in the ship repair industry. The motivation behind the division is a desire to provide

insight on matters related to professional stress and clearly point to the existence of the

knowledge gap in the existing literature, underpinning the significance of the present study.
 17

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework

The theoretical framework here presented is focused on employee engagement theory

with influence from transformational leadership theory resulting in the study’s testability being

afforded by the job demand-resources (JD-R) model. Employee engagement theory has its basis

on the necessity of balance, as provided by the organization and management, of practices that

help mitigate and minimize stress without completely eliminating challenges and the motivation

necessary for workers to do a good job. The transformational leadership theory focuses on the

need for managers to want to ensure that the workplace environment is as free of debilitating and

unnecessary stress as possible while promoting worker exceptionalism. Taken together, the

employee engagement theory and the transformational leadership theory enable the use of the

JD-R model, which managers can utilize to ascertain the demands placed on workers to achieve

while also noting the resources put in place for those workers to be able to achieve their goals.

These theories and their relationship to the present study are detailed further below.

Employee engagement is known to be in a tight connection with occupational stress as

well as with the psychological well-being of employees (Robertson & Cooper, 2009; Simon &

Amarakoon, 2015). In particular, the workers’ well-being in relation to their levels of

occupational stress is viewed as expressed in these people’s engagement in their professional

task and duties (Robertson & Cooper, 2009). Differently put, the employees affected by the

negative outcomes of occupational stress such as emotional burnout, depersonalization,

exhaustion, low job satisfaction, and absenteeism are likely to be disengaged from their

professional duties. At the same time, Simon and Amarakoon (2015) argued that a completely

stress-free workplace environment could result in the workers’ disengagement as well; and in

that way, according to this theory, employee engagement is based on a balance of anti-stress
 18

strategies put into practice by the workplace leaders and managers and a set of motivational tasks

that would create a healthy level of workplace intensity making the working process active,

involving, and stimulating to achieve a desired level of performance.

The theory that served as the theoretical foundation of this study was transformational

leadership theory, according to which, an organization’s leaders are seen as able to impact the

employees’ well-being by means of fostering the positive organizational change and developing

trusting relations with workers (Liu, Siu, & Shi, 2010; Lyons & Schneider, 2009). Since the

causes and outcomes of occupational stress are believed to lie in a variety of aspects comprising

the organization of work-related duties, the overall job demands, and the resources engaged in

the minimization of work-related stress; one may conclude that the role of leaders is very

important in relation to the establishment of favorable working conditions (or their disruption),

as well as the maintenance of the work environment (Lyons & Schneider, 2009). In addition to

the causes and consequences of occupational stress, the focus of this chapter is also on the

strategies that employers and organizations can take for the purpose of minimizing the levels of

occupational stress of the workers; as a result, this theory can be of use as a part of the theoretical

framework for this study.

The purpose of the JD-R model is to predict the potential impact of increased job

demands on employees and their level of occupational stress in particular (Schaufeli & Taris,

2014). The two factors considered in the model and the main determiners of occupational stress

are the work engagement and emotional burnout; also, as specified by Schaufeli and Taris

(2014), these factors are in direct connection with employee performance. Moreover, while

high job demands are linked tightly to occupational stress, resources (the second determinant of

the level of occupational stress) are represented by the set of measures taken by the employers
 19

for the purpose of reducing work-related stress of their employees and ensuring that the

workplace has a healthy and balanced atmosphere (Xanthopoulou et al., 2007). In that way, it is

useful that the JD-R model involves a series of diverse characteristics of a work environment-in

particular, it covers the physical, social, and organizational features and their impact on

employees, as well as their emotional and physical well-being (Schaufeli & Taris, 2014).

Moreover, job resources may present the costs the employers would have to pay to achieve

favorable working conditions and maintain a high level of performance in the employees.

Organizing the job resources and demands in a stable and sustainable system allowing the

employers to assess the workplace environment, as well as to deliver the steps needed for the

improvement of the existing conditions is a complicated process, but its accomplishment will

result in an elevated level of healthy workplace enthusiasm and the absence of work-related

stress alongside all the disadvantages and adverse outcomes with which this phenomenon is

associated. This model was chosen as a theoretical framework for this research because it

provides a basis for a deeper understanding of occupational stress and its causes, as well as the

conditions that lead to its increase and decrease.

Thus, the theoretical framework brings together the employee engagement theory and the

transformational leadership theory by utilizing JD-R model. Employee engagement theory

proposes that the JD-R model would be balanced, with job demands being allocated only

inasmuch as the necessary resources are provided for those demands to be accomplished.

Transformational leadership theory is included in the model by using leadership to exact

strategies that will ameliorate demands by providing the resources for workers to have challenge

and motivation without having too many demands and too few resources.
 20

Occupational Stress

Occupational stress is one of the most challenging problems of the modern workplace

organization, having adverse effects on both the welfare of employees and the future of an

organization. Cevenini et al. (2012) maintained that the phenomenon of occupational stress is

inseparable from the concept of occupational health, meaning that external factors specific to a

particular working environment affect both the physical and emotional well-being of employees.

Just like health promotion, the issue of occupational stress should be addressed by monitoring

and satisfying the needs of staff, eliminating potential risks, and recognizing the severity of

consequences. Work-related stress is a common cause of serious health concerns such as

cardiovascular diseases and depression, which affect the performance and success of the whole

organization (Cevenini et al., 2012; European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, 2014;

Leon & Halbesleben, 2013; Meško et al., 2013). In addition, there exists a broad range of minor

and significant physical signs and symptoms of occupational stress, some of which are

compromised professional judgement, depressive or negative outlook on life and work, mood

swings and irritability, aches and pains in different areas of the body, a feeling of frustration,

dizziness, nausea, constipation or diarrhea, elevated heart rate, starving oneself or binge eating,

loss of sleep, chronic fatigue, procrastination, or a neglectful attitude toward one’s professional

duties and responsibilities (Ajaganandam & Rajan, 2013).

Because the problem is severe and has significant consequences, a comprehensive

approach to estimating the risks of occupational stress is critical. According to Cevenini et al.

(2012), an effective approach includes both preventative and educational measures that point to

the significance of health and job productivity promotion and teach managers to identify the

signs of occupational stress and strategies to cope with it. The approach should incorporate
 21

psychological, physical, and social estimations of the working environment and should also

conduct investigations of the workplace atmosphere on a regular basis (Cevenini et al., 2012).

Discussing the nature of occupational stress as a health problem, it is important to specify

that it is not a toxic or acute health condition; and, therefore, there is no fixed treatment for it;

however, this condition is chronic and requires a deep and detailed knowledge of an affected

individual’s life history for a healthcare professional to be able to address it (Quick &

Henderson, 2016). In particular, the epidemiologic description of occupational stress includes

three main stages. The first stage is represented by the root causes of occupational stress that are

also recognized as its risk factors; the second stage includes what is known in psychology as the

stress response-a normal reaction of the human body and psyche to a stressful environment;

finally, the third stage covers the incidence of distress (psychological and medical stress), and

eustress-that is a healthy type of stress (Quick & Henderson, 2016).

Occupational stress is so called because it is usually the result of the influence of a

person’s professional occupation on his or her mental health that can often lead to physical

manifestations of stress and the development of various diseases threatening the affected

individual’s life and well-being (Beheshtifar & Modaber, 2013). The experience of the stress

response is quite normal and often can happen to any individual at least once throughout any

given day. However, the nature, as well as the signs and symptoms accompanying stress

response can differ individually from one person to another based on their gender and other

biological and psychological factors (Quick & Henderson, 2016). In particular, people’s stress

response is often determined by such factors as vulnerability and resilience to stress; in that way,

some of the features that increase one’s vulnerability to stress are loneliness and isolation, anger

and hostility, socioeconomic or physiological factors that boost one’s proneness to various
 22

diseases linked to higher mortality, being pressed for time, being highly competitive, and

quantification of achievement (Quick & Henderson, 2016). At the same time, the factors that

contribute to a higher stress-resistance include self-control, emotional maturity, and personality

hardiness; in addition, one of the most powerful boosters of stress-resistance is characterized as

healthy relations with other people, helping to form a caregiving system (Quick & Henderson,

2016).

Within the discussion of the conceptual framework of occupational stress, it is important

to mention occupational stress indicators (OSI). This indicator was first outlined at the end of

the 1980s within the Michigan occupational stress model and was said to include four core

aspects, such as sources and causes of occupational stress, the persons who are affected by these

negative influences, the effects that occupational stress produces, and the coping strategies used

for the purpose of overcoming it (Annamalai & Nandagopal, 2014). This approach to

occupational stress allows viewing the phenomenon from four different angles in every unique

situation and determining its magnitude and nature that potentially could help prevent

occupational stress or minimize it for each particular case.

Hakanen and Schaufeli (2012) demonstrated that workplace well-being is the primary

determinant of the long-term well-being of an employee. The authors claimed that remaining in

a constant state of helplessness and anxiety leads to serious health concerns such as burnout and

possibly depression (Hakanen & Schaufeli, 2012). One of the most significant breakthroughs

made by these researchers was the discovery that there are two aspects of occupational stress:

positive and negative. Hakanen and Schaufeli claimed that a strenuous atmosphere in the

workplace causes low employee productivity, enhances absenteeism, and fosters a desire to

switch jobs. However, if the atmosphere in the workplace is comfortable, and employees feel the
 23

support of management, they become motivated to fulfill their job duties effectively and make

the maximum effort to increase productivity and performance (Adriaenssens et al., 2015;

Hakanen & Schaufeli, 2012; Kula & Sahin, 2015; Patel, 2013).

Stressful professions. Hearing the phrase the profession with high levels of occupational

stress many people would automatically think of very dangerous jobs that are related to health

and life risks or the ones that involve many responsibilities and important decisions. However,

there exists a broad body of research exploring the kinds of professions whose features are linked

to occupational stress, and the findings indicate that the range of such professions is very wide

and includes jobs of various kinds and levels (Griffiths et al., 2011).

Regardless of field or industry, it is impossible to avoid workplace stress altogether

(Griffiths et al., 2011). Most jobs and positions involve deadlines, heavy workloads, extra hours,

tiring or difficult situations, the need for lengthy sessions of high concentration, workplace

conflicts, insufficiency of pay, the management of risks and dangers, fast decision-making, and

problem-solving, to name a few. In that way, it is logical to assume that occupational stress is a

common phenomenon and can occur in a variety of different career fields and industries.

However, some professions are recognized as more stressful than others (Griffiths et al., 2011).

The individuals who work in the public sector are at higher risk of workplace stress

because they fulfill job duties in environments with lower social support and less social appraisal

or gratitude. Together with overtime shifts and low payment, these problems make public

service employees the central risk group for occupational stress (RAND, 2015). Teo, Pick,

Newton, Yeung, and Chang (2013) claimed that workplace stress is the byproduct of

organizational changes to areas like budgeting, workloads, or recruitment requirements. Because

such changes are usually unexpected and are not accompanied by appropriate notice to
 24

employees or modifications to organizational policies and management styles, the emergence of

stress at work is inevitable, and its consequences can be adverse.

Professionals who are usually associated with high levels of occupational stress are the

ones known for emotional pressure and multiple responsibilities (Mirmohammadi et al., 2014);

some good examples of such professions are government officials and business executives. The

researchers found that people occupying such positions were exposed to high levels of stress

because of their duties and daily activities, the need for fast decision-making, as well as the

pressing responsibilities that contribute to the increased chance for these workers to develop

cardiovascular disease. However, interestingly, the same study suggested that employees whose

positions involved monotonous work with reduced complexity and few challenges were exposed

to the same health risks (Mirmohammadi et al., 2014).

Moreover, with the introduction of the newest technologies to everyday life, the

limitations of the workplace have been lifted, and the working environment has been shifted to

the virtual dimension. Such recent developments in the working environment have become a

source of additional challenges related to workplace organization and management. The new

type of workforce that is expanding in the modern world are the so-called invisible workers—the

employees of virtual offices and free-lance workers whose working process involves the delivery

of their tasks on their computers while staying home (Blount, 2015). Many researchers noted

that the specificity of such working process could be beneficial for both the employers and

employees; however, it also carries a set of challenges contributing to a high level of

occupational stress (Blount, 2015; Burman & Shastri, 2013; Raghuram & Wiesenfeld, 2004).

Indeed, the increased opportunity for virtual work decreases the risks of absenteeism and

presenteeism as well as eradicates the challenge of heavy workloads and interpersonal conflicts,
 25

because there is no physical working environment. Moreover, the opportunity to design the best-

fitting and most appropriate schedules is another contributor to enhanced employee productivity

(Blount, 2015). In addition, the more flexible and convenient working conditions allowed the

reduction of work-rest balance; however, there exists a challenge in the area of the creation of

organizational commitment and the maintenance of the company culture among long-distance

workers (Burman & Shastri, 2013; Raghuram & Wiesenfeld , 2004).

Nevertheless, enhanced flexibility of the working conditions does not eliminate the risks

of occupational stress; in fact, the challenge of controlling the availability of employees and

managers stimulates stress (Blount, 2015). Even though social networks such as Skype are

common tools for communication and represent the network status, the problem of controlling

employee performance and getting in touch with them is still challenging. Moreover,

individually designed schedules that benefit an employee are not always the most appropriate for

an employer. The same is true about the timeframes and deadlines proposed by senior

management, which might be stressful for a distant employee (Blount, 2015). Altogether, the

specificities of the digital working environment still expose employees to the risks of work-

related stress and emotional burnout, especially given the probability of overtime shifts and

heavy workloads accompanied by impaired communication.

In that way, it turns out that occupational stress is typical associated not only with jobs

related to frequent worrying and emotional pressure but are also associated with positions where

jobs are particularly uninteresting and lack healthy challenges and motivation, such as bottom-

level office jobs (Mirmohammadi et al., 2014). Differently put, Mirmohammadi et al. (2014)

findings make it possible to theorize that occupational stress is a broad phenomenon that can be

driven by a multitude of factors. In other words, it is wrong to believe that only physically or
 26

emotionally challenging jobs are related to a high level of occupational stress; in fact, it looks

like basic jobs of low complexity are just as stressful (Blount, 2015). The major difference is the

nature and quality of occupational stress experienced by the two groups of workers that are

usually determined by the kind of causes and risk factors involved.

Factors contributing to occupational stress. Some occupational stress risk factors

determine exposure to occupational stress regardless of the specific field of professional

activities. These factors belong to two groups: organizational and personal. According to

Mosadeghrad (2014), the workplace environment is the primary organizational stressor. The

environment includes a variety of factors such as differences in workloads and salaries,

management styles, job duties, the availability of resources and the effectiveness of allocating

and managing them, career prospects, and the overall atmosphere in the work environment

(Mosadeghrad, 2014). Altering management styles and adapting organizational policies are

effective approaches for eliminating these stressors.

The causes of occupational stress vary from organizational to emotional issues.

However, the foundation of stress is some kind of change in a stressor. In the simplest terms, a

stressor is an irritant; once the comfortable and acceptable level of a particular irritant is

exceeded, it invokes a negative reaction that is known as stress (Kelly & Barrett, 2011). For

example, Adriaenssens et al. (2015) noted that work-related stress is the outcome of changes in

job demands, a lack of social support, or a lack of job control. These aspects form the

foundation of the job characteristics model that is applicable to both estimating workplace

conditions and forecasting the risks of occupational stress (Adriaenssens et al., 2015). However,

in a broader context, such aspects are also useful for determining the primary causes of

occupational stress.
 27

There is one more approach to the understanding of stressors offered by Teo et al. (2013).

The authors suggested that stressors can be either administrative or non-administrative. The first

group of irritants is easy to identify because it includes items such as workloads and schedules

(Teo et al., 2013). The primary emphasis is on the exclusion of factors determining the nature of

the external environment and the selected management and communication style.

Administrative stressors also include cooperation between team members and workplace

atmosphere. However, when the administrative stressors happen to be related to professional

activities, personal factors tend to come into play. Even though the nature of the activity (e.g.,

the necessary level of skill or knowledge required to cope with the tasks) determines one’s

predisposition to occupational stress, the final outcome depends on personal character traits and

inner barriers to stressful situations, as personality is what defines a person’s predisposition to

stress, either at work or in private matters (Teo et al., 2013).

It is also worth mentioning that the workplace environment is the major stressor that

contributes to decreased employee productivity and increased occupational stress (Daniel, 2015).

Incorporating the elements of such approaches as those proposed by Cevenini et al. (2012), Chen

et al. (2014), and RAND (2015) are valuable options for analyzing the workplace environment.

Indeed, each of the constituents mentioned above is helpful in its own way for estimating the

current state of a work environment and for understanding the roots of occupational stress,

backing up the assumption that a negative working environment leads to lower employee

productivity (Roelofsen, 2012).

Since the range of jobs and professions that are associated with stressful environments is

very broad owing to the diverse nature of stress itself, the number of factors that can contribute

to the development of occupational stress is also large. In that way, the authors of different
 28

studies focusing on the factors of work-related stress in different career fields tend to identify

varied factors. For instance, in the study by Petarli et al. (2015), where the authors focused on

the field of banking, the following set of variables was determined as potential factors impacting

workers’ levels of occupational stress: daily work hours, length of employment, the time

individuals have worked the same job, the nature of the position itself, the place of residence and

distance the employees had to travel to get to work, and social support. At the same time, the

systematic review by Dias, Santos, Abelha, and Lovisi (2016) that explored occupational stress

in the petroleum industry, identified such causes as the necessity to master new technologies,

working hours and shifts, work-related dangers, the lack of career development and prospects,

the distance from home to work, physical conditions at work (climate, noise, lighting and

ventilation, among others), the lack of social support (having to work in isolation or being

separated from families). Moreover, Sharma (2015) reviewed factors of work-related stress

among blue-collar employees and named such contributing factors as heavy workloads, long

shifts, physical conditions, and workplace relations as the major drivers of work-related stress.

Also, Thanh (2016) focused specifically on workplace relations as the determinant of workplace

stress among academic employees and concluded that they played a significant role in causing or

preventing exhaustion of the workers.

Based on the findings of multiple studies, it is possible to notice that some of the factors

of work-related stress seem to remain consistent regardless of career field, culture, or job

position researched. In particular, workplace relations and other forms of social support,

physical conditions, career opportunities, and working hours are some of the factors that prevail

in many different studies (Petarli et al., 2015, Sharma, 2015, Thanh, 2016). However, owing to

the diversity of such causes, it could make sense to group them into several categories or types.
 29

As a general matter, there are several groups of stressors further divided into causes of

occupational stress based on the specificities of the environment of operation. According to

Kelly and Barrett (2011), among these groups are job qualities, role conditions, career progress,

lack of challenges, and work relations. Job qualities are related to job schedules (i.e., too many

or not enough job duties); these are made up of the number of tasks, their nature, and the length

of shifts. There are two perspectives for viewing job qualities: qualitative and quantitative

(Kelly & Barrett, 2011). Quantitatively, the number of tasks or the length of job duties is the

only way to estimate them; forcing an individual to cope with more tasks than predetermined for

an ordinary shift is an overload. The opposite situation turns into underload. From a qualitative

point of view, the major feature of job quality is viewing the job requirements, determining

whether these requirements include quality standards or the skills and knowledge necessary to

cope with the task appropriately (Kelly & Barrett, 2011). Overloads, both qualitative and

quantitative, are common determinants of occupational stress because they cause an employee

either to be unable to complete scheduled tasks or to work with maximum effort for too long,

leading to burnout (Teo et al., 2013). Underload is a rare stressor because of the very nature of

human beings and their natural desire to avoid excessive workloads. However, in some cases,

underload also entails workplace stress because it is synonymous with being undervalued and

unimportant (Kelly & Barrett, 2011; Teo et al., 2013).

Another common stressor is role conditions, a concept incorporating two constituents:

role conflict and role ambiguity (Kelly & Barrett, 2011). The list of job duties and

responsibilities is what determines role conditions. However, there is one crucial difference

requiring attention when it comes to estimating the importance of these stressors; in the case of

role conflict, an individual cannot cope with his or her duties or make appropriate decisions to
 30

address a challenging situation better-meaning that the employee is given full responsibility for

actions and decisions but lacks the competence or confidence to take it (Kelly & Barrett, 2011;

Teo et al., 2013). Role ambiguity refers to a lack of clear instructions and tasks-meaning that the

individual cannot fully carry out job duties because descriptions are blurred and unclear (Kelly &

Barrett, 2011; Teo et al., 2013). The authors maintain that both role ambiguity and role conflict

have an identical influence on the risk of occupational stress because they both impose

significant levels of stress on an employee (Kelly & Barrett, 2011; Teo et al., 2013). Together,

these concepts are even known as role stress, which points to their nature and their influence on

an individual. It is imperative to note that introducing a relevant system of social support to help

employees make necessary and accurate decisions is a helpful option for addressing role

challenges (Adriaenssens et al., 2015). However, as noted before, the lack of adequate social

support is a stressor itself (Griffiths et al., 2011; RAND, 2015), so only well-planned systems

would be effective in addressing the problem of role stress.

Another critical factor of occupational stress is career progress. According to Kelly and

Barrett (2011), there are two dimensions to this issue: under-promotion and job insecurity. The

first challenge, under-promotion, occurs when an individual is precluded from career

development based on bias or any other subjective reason. The primary focus in this area is on

the intended actions of managers or other team members who have enough authority to influence

the career path of colleagues (Kelly & Barrett, 2011). Moreover, there is also the challenge of

job insecurity. In simple terms, job insecurity corresponds to the absence of guarantees of future

career development and to a lack of protection of their right to career progress (Kelly & Barrett,

2011). This cause of occupational threat is synonymous with the instability of a position within

a company or organization. Kelly and Barrett claimed that under-promotion and job insecurity
 31

are the primary irritants invoking work-related stress. However, they miss out one more crucial

problem: a lack of career opportunities. The foundation of this challenge is a lack of company

resources necessary for enhancing employee self-development rather than the influence of any

external factors (job insecurity) or the subjectivity of influential and powerful colleagues

(Griffiths et al., 2011; Trivellas, Reklitis, & Platis, 2013).

Another type of stressor, a lack of challenge, is hard to separate from both career

progression and role stress. Generally speaking, it refers to the feeling of boredom in the

workplace. This sensation can be stimulated by the feeling of unimportance that derives from

qualitative or quantitative underload or by seeing no prospects for career development (Kelly &

Barrett, 2011). However, it is also important to draw attention to another case: a strong leader

who is too competent for his or her occupied position. In some cases, employees find tasks too

easy and complete them so quickly that they find themselves caught up by their competence as if

the potential and energy they possess are being wasted (Cevenini et al., 2012; Kelly & Barrett,

2011). Such individuals often end up feeling demotivated because they cannot find reasons for

further personal development, as they already have enough knowledge and skills to fulfill their

job duties (Cevenini et al., 2012). The issue might become severely aggravated if there is a lack

of future career opportunities and under-promotion.

Finally, there is one more group of stressors involving common irritants: work relations.

These factors of occupational stress include a variety of problems and challenges from

ineffective communication to job pressure and frequent conflicts in the workplace. According to

Kelly and Barrett (2011), the challenge has only one aspect: supervisor-employee interactions.

They see the main problem as authoritative leaders who supervise with an iron fist and do not

build any other interaction with team members (Kelly & Barrett, 2011). This model of
 32

communication becomes a source of occupational stress because of the way it suppresses the

personalities and aspirations of colleagues and makes them feel depressed and even want to

switch jobs (Kelly & Barrett, 2011). However, there are other stressors belonging to this group

of irritants, including misunderstandings, conflicts, ineffective communication, lack of trust and

openness, and a strenuous atmosphere in the workplace (Griffiths et al., 2011; Trivellas et al.,

2013).

Other factors that increase the risk of workplace stress are personal in nature

(Mosadeghrad, 2014). Indeed, there are complex socio-economic determinants aggravated by

the weight of social opinion and prejudice as well as both the internal and external characteristics

of an individual. Among the more significant factors within this group of personal predictors of

workplace stress are gender, as women are more emotional and predisposed to experiencing

stress because they work both at home and at work; educational level, which directly affects job

duties and the ability to complete tasks or foster career development; and status as a member of a

racial or religious minority, which is closely connected to under-promotion or overload based on

prejudice and subjectivity (Mosadeghrad, 2014). Developing the character traits of a strong

leader and learning interpersonal communication skills can be beneficial for addressing personal

factors and reducing their detrimental effects on employees (Mosadeghrad, 2014). However, in

people with weaker personalities, such factors can become a significant stressor that may be

impossible to cope with or eliminate (Mosadeghrad, 2014).

In addition to the causes of occupational stress mentioned above, there is one more

critical factor to mention. The major assumption is that there is a link between occupational

stress and the meaningfulness of a task (Daniel, 2015). There are several related perspectives.

The concept of task meaningfulness is synonymous with workplace importance. For example,
 33

an individual who is usually assigned simple tasks may tend to feel underestimated, thus

exacerbating his or her sense of helplessness and lack of job control. This problem is also a

constituent of underload or under-promotion, in that tasks of no significant importance may

become a tool for promoting inequality in the workplace. Still, Daniel (2015) pointed to the

existence of the following trend: realizing that one’s work is meaningful has a positive effect on

organizational outcomes and is valued by colleagues, reduces workplace stress and increases job

satisfaction.

Thus, occupational stress continues from factors both organizational and personal. Many

of the organizational factors are environmental in nature: a person’s job quality, the role

conditions in which one finds oneself, the perception of career progress and the amount of

challenge present, as well as the relationships that one has at work. Some of the factors are

personal. In effect, one’s importance in the workplace affects the amount of occupational stress

one may feel. These factors, if present, can have consequences for the affected employee.

Employee occupational stress effects. The consequences of occupational stress can be

grouped into personal ones, which are related to an individual and his or her personal life, and

organizational, which affect the company or organization (Adriaenssens et al., 2015; Hakanen &

Schaufeli, 2012; Meško et al., 2013; Mosadeghrad, 2014). The individual effects of work-related

stress include those that are physical and psychological. Headaches, cardiovascular disease,

musculoskeletal pain, increased blood pressure, disordered eating habits, substance abuse and

various addictions, and chronic fatigue belong to the first group-physical consequences. Lack of

concentration, mood swings, sleep pattern disturbances, anxiety, cynicism, aggression,

depression, emotional exhaustion, and even suicidal ideation or depersonalization are

psychological outcomes of work-related stress (Adriaenssens et al., 2015; Hakanen & Schaufeli,
 34

2012; Meško et al., 2013; Mosadeghrad, 2014). Even personal effects can affect an employee’s

productivity at work, which is discussed next.

Employee Productivity in a Stressful Environment

Employee productivity is the ability of an employee to complete assigned tasks by

meeting set deadlines and using available procedures and technologies (Campbell, 2015).

Roelofsen (2012) defined productivity as “the increased functional and organizational

performance, including quality” (p. 248). In other words, productivity means that employees

have enough competence and knowledge to meet quality expectations and defined time frames

(Roelofsen, 2012). Sometimes, the term also refers to the possibility of exceeding the

determined tasks without impairing the quality of the finished product or service. Because

employees form the foundation of the organizational and financial success of a company,

employee productivity is seen as the natural determiner for organizational success. For the same

reason, reaching a higher level of employee productivity is the primary strategic objective of

most organizations across all industries (Hanaysha, 2016).

According to the findings of Hanaysha (2016) and Sharma and Sharma (2014), employee

productivity has a positive effect on organizational development for several reasons. First and

foremost, it is the foundation of a company’s economic growth, as higher outputs lead to more

active economic development and growth rates. For the same reason, it entails higher

profitability and improves organizational image because a company turns into a synonym for

economic success (Hanaysha, 2016; Sharma & Sharma, 2014). In addition to fostering economic

development and supporting higher profitability rates, increased employee productivity is the

foundation of social progress. The rationale behind this statement is that with greater

productivity, an organization gains more social influence and control, obtaining the opportunity
 35

to drive changes in society that benefit both the company itself and the population of a particular

country (Diestel, Wegge, & Schmidt, 2014; Donia & Tetrault Sirsly, 2016).

Along with the organizational changes and developments mentioned above, higher rates

of employee productivity are a great source of motivation for employees and inspire them to be

more creative. Indeed, employees grow interested in the future success of their organization

because it will benefit them through higher wages, better career prospects, and greater chances

for success in life (Hanaysha, 2016; Sharma & Sharma, 2014). The basis of employee

motivation to develop professionally is the recognition of the significance of increased

effectiveness for both organizational and individual prosperity (Hanaysha, 2016).

In addition, higher employee productivity goes hand in hand with lower rates of

absenteeism and occupational stress and higher rates of job satisfaction. The justification for the

existence of this trend is that productivity suffers when the number of hours spent by employees

on fulfilling job duties decreases or when the employees miss work (Hanaysha, 2016). Instead,

employees’ dedication to the organization and their maximum efforts to meet quality and

recruitment requirements are the foundation of high productivity.

The negative perceptions of work conditions caused by occupational stress, burnout, and

depression are among the primary threats to employee productivity (Hakanen & Schaufeli,

2012). The problem is especially acute for companies working in the service industry, such as

aggression, cynicism, and negativity that can appear as the signs of occupational stress and

burnout often lead to poor quality of service. Low employee productivity affects not only the

prospects of an individual working with a company but also the whole organization because the

poorer the quality of manufactured goods or provided services causes a drop in customer

satisfaction (Hakanen & Schaufeli, 2012).

 36

To conclude, employee productivity is among the major features to be negatively

influenced by the existence of occupational stress. Even though there are a variety of opinions

on the concept of employee productivity and its connection with work-related stress, all of them

point to the existence of a negative correlation between the two, as higher levels of stress at work

inevitably entail lower levels of employee productivity (Chen et al., 2014; Kelly & Barrett, 2011;

Roelofsen, 2012). Still, the primary emphasis is given to the atmosphere of the working

environment, whether related to the emotional or physical aspects of working conditions

(Campbell, 2015; Roelofsen, 2012), and to the importance of allowing employees to reach a

work-life balance because it is a tool for fostering dedication and increasing employee

productivity (Kelly & Barrett, 2011; Roelofsen, 2012).

The organization of a work environment, the effectiveness of its management, and the

overall image of the company have a robust effect on the levels of occupational stress and

employee productivity. Campbell (2015) pointed to the existence of the following trend: High

employee productivity is under the influence of the positive perception of the organization’s

brand and image in the eyes of society, as well as the selection of effective management and

communication strategies, especially those that encourage openness in sharing opinions and

participation in making vital decisions. Moreover, this phenomenon is inseparable from senior

management’s perception of the significance of work-life balance. When a company recognizes

and guarantees the right of employees to live their own personal lives and helps them reach a

healthy balance, they will grow more dedicated and make greater efforts toward reaching

organizational objectives and working to guaranteeing the successful future of their company

(Campbell, 2015). If managers do not recognize the importance of a healthy work-life balance,
 37

employees will grow dissatisfied with organizational policies and strategies, thus becoming less

productive and experiencing a higher rate of occupational stress (Campbell, 2015).

The recognition of the critical significance of work-life balance is incomplete without

pointing to the importance of a comfortable workplace and working toward the establishment of

a friendly working environment. Both Campbell (2015) and Roelofsen (2012) argued for the

crucial influence of a comfortable workplace atmosphere on the level of employee productivity.

In this way, comfort in the workplace is the primary tool for reducing the risks and negative

consequences of occupational stress. However, it is worth mentioning that Roelofsen exceeded

and investigated physical comfort instead of focusing on communication and interactions like

Campbell did. The author found that specific levels of brightness of lighting, thermal conditions,

office or building design, and noise levels enhanced job productivity (Roelofsen, 2012). Another

critical feature of a comfortable working environment is the strictness of control measures, as

severe control has a negative influence on job productivity and increases occupational stress

caused by role stress, while fulfilling job duties in a democratic environment with independence

and freedom of choice has a positive effect on employees, decreasing the level of occupational

stress and increasing productivity (Kelly & Barrett, 2011; Roelofsen, 2012).

Approaches to defining employee productivity. There are many different approaches

to defining employee productivity. For example, RAND (2015) designed the environmental

approach to discussing the phenomenon. According to the conclusions of RAND, employee

productivity should be estimated from the perspective of three constituents: work environment

factors, health and physical factors, and personal factors. The work environment aspects of

employee productivity include organizational issues such as workplace atmosphere, instances of

conflicts between co-workers, and corporate policies. Timeframes for completing appointed
 38

tasks, managerial strategies, and different interventions designed to improve the working

atmosphere, employee productivity, and communication within teams and departments are

determinants of employee productivity as well. The second constituent, health and physical

factors, covers any health concerns and conditions that might have a short-term or long-term

influence on the physical and mental well-being of an employee. It is important to note that

these factors are predetermined by the external environment and are not connected to personal

development. Finally, personal factors are those related to personal attitudes, perceptions, and

lifestyle that affect employee performance and organizational outcomes (RAND, 2015).

Furthermore, Chen et al. (2014) claimed that estimating the determinants that have a direct

influence on employee productivity is helpful for understanding the phenomenon. For example,

the authors emphasized the importance of absenteeism rates, stress levels, and job satisfaction.

The primary idea was the following: lower rates of absenteeism and lower levels of occupational

stress accompanied by high levels of job satisfaction are the major determinants of a high

employee productivity rate. The specificity of this approach was determined through the use of

interviews, questionnaires, and employee feedback as the tool for collecting necessary

information (Chen et al., 2014).

Another unique approach to determining the level of employee productivity is the one

designed by Cevenini et al. (2012), who posited that there are six important dimensions of

employee productivity that should be addressed and measured. These dimensions are the ability

to find the right balance between work and private life, interpersonal relationships including

communication and the frequency of conflicts in the workplace, the fulfillment of job duties and

relevance of job responsibilities, the desire to enhance personal growth and sensitivity to changes

in the work environment, the correspondence of roles in the workplace, and the organizational
 39

structure of a team or a department (Cevenini et al., 2012). This approach is one of the most

comprehensive ones because it addresses many aspects of the work environment, including the

challenges related to working with other team members.

The approaches to estimating employee productivity offered by Chen et al. (2014) and

Cevenini et al. (2012) were comprehensive ones involving numerous details for analysis. For

this reason, they could be quite difficult to use, and some researchers may prefer methods for

estimating employee productivity that have less detail and fewer requirements. For example,

Hanaysha (2016) proposed measuring employee productivity as output during a determined

timeframe. This output could be measured using both qualitative and quantitative approaches.

The first one stands for meeting quality requirements or standards determined by the employer.

The quantitative perspective for estimating performance comes down to the number of

completed tasks or the amount of provided services. The issue is also impossible to view apart

from meeting company requirements in terms of quantity. The foundation of another approach

mentioned by Hanaysha (2016) and Sharma and Sharma (2014) was measuring the number of

hours spent at the workplace. Because this measurement lacks reliability on its own, it is

supplemented by pointing to the significance of being mentally present at work (i.e., completing

tasks in time and satisfying quality requirements; Hanaysha, 2016; Sharma & Sharma, 2014).

Thus, employee productivity has a number of detailed and simplified measures (Cevenini

et al., 2012; Chen et al., 2014; Hanaysha, 2016; RAND, 2015; Sharma & Sharma, 2014) that

attempt to ascertain the quality of an employee’s perceptions regarding their working

environment, which includes their level of work-related stress (Chen et al., 2014; Kelly &

Barrett, 2011; Roelofsen, 2012). While work-related stress has physical and psychological

effects that affect the individual employee (Adriaenssens et al., 2015; Hakanen & Schaufeli,
 40

2012; Meško et al., 2013; Mosadeghrad, 2014), it can also be responsible for issues throughout

the organization as well. This topic is the subject of the next section.

Organizational Occupational Stress Effects

The consequences of workplace stress are adverse. In most cases, they affect the

organization, such as an employee growing dissatisfied with a current position or having the

desire to switch jobs, lessened employee productivity and worsened performance, and employee

absenteeism (Chen et al., 2014; O’Keefe et al., 2014; Patel, 2013). However, in the most severe

cases, occupational stress leads to serious health concerns, including emotional burnout and

depression, cardiovascular disease, workplace accidents because of a lack of concentration,

excessive aggression, and cynicism that worsens the team atmosphere and the work environment

as a whole (Adriaenssens et al., 2015; Aftab & Javeed, 2014; Cevenini et al., 2012; Chen et al.,

2014; Hakanen & Schaufeli, 2012; Trivellas et al., 2013).

The reflection of the influence of professional stress on an organization is seen in

employee performance, decision-making, and workforce organization; such stress has a

significant effect on management style and leadership, workplace morale, job satisfaction,

quality of work in both manufacturing and service sectors of the economy, incidents of critical

errors and mistakes, absenteeism, and the intention to switch jobs (Adriaenssens et al., 2015;

Mosadeghrad, 2014). The following subsections provide a detailed overview of the influence of

occupational stress on the level of job satisfaction and employee productivity and explore how

stress contributes to absenteeism.

Job satisfaction. Job satisfaction has a strong correlation with occupational stress

because the higher the level of work-related stress, the more dissatisfied employees grow with

the current work conditions (Chen et al., 2014; Griffiths et al., 2011). There are many studies
 41

exploring the connection between professional stress and job satisfaction, and all of them

highlight that the influence of stress is devastating regardless of the field of professional

activities and the past experiences of employees and management (Aftab & Javeed, 2014;

Cevenini et al., 2012; Chen et al., 2014; Griffiths et al., 2011; Trivellas et al., 2013).

The feeling of stress in the workplace can be overwhelming, but it all starts when

employees feel a loss of control over events in the work environment. The causes of

occupational stress may differ from heavy workloads and excessive pressure from senior

management to taxing job duties and conflicts with other team members (Griffiths et al., 2011;

Trivellas et al., 2013). However, in nearly all cases, professional stress results in a sensation of

helplessness and fatigue accompanied by anxiety and a lack of hope for career development

(Trivellas et al., 2013). Similar workplace situations are possible to avoid or moderate, but doing

so requires the provision of a social support system and the effective implementation of such

professionals in the workplace environment (Griffiths et al., 2011). If such systems are

unavailable, and an employee or the whole team is left alone with ineffective models of

communication and with no support from leaders or senior management, they cannot find relief

in the workplace, leading them to negative emotions and dissatisfaction with their working

environment (Griffiths et al., 2011; RAND, 2015). If these feelings of devastation and

helplessness persist without being properly addressed, they have an adverse effect on the level of

job satisfaction and increase the risk for anxiety disorders, aggression, depression, and emotional

burnout (Adriaenssens et al., 2015; Griffiths et al., 2011; Hakanen & Schaufeli, 2012).

The understanding of work-related stress and its influence on job satisfaction can be

complemented by reviewing the research by Adriaenssens et al. (2015), who offered a model of

job characteristics that are beneficial for estimating the levels of satisfaction with work
 42

conditions and occupational stress. There are three vital elements of the model: job control, job

demands, and social support (Adriaenssens et al., 2015). Job control refers to the feeling of

freedom and the sense of opportunity for career development and career switching in case of

need and is similar to the resources of the JD-R model. When an individual has job control, he

or she fulfills job duties in a comfortable environment and assumes full responsibility for

decisions made and actions taken. Moreover, job control is the knowledge that no pressure on

the part of a team leader or senior management can affect career opportunities. Simply speaking,

job control is about being confident in one’s self and future possibilities for development

(Adriaenssens et al., 2015). This aspect is integral to job demands-the list of job duties and

responsibilities, the hierarchy of functions in a team, and the interaction between senior and

junior team members, which is similar to the job demands part of the JD-R model. Adriaenssens

et al. considered that in an ideal world, job demands would refer only to carrying out the

functions predetermined by the employment contract, but in practice, there might be additional

pressure from managers that force employees to work beyond the determined scope of

responsibilities. Finally, social support is the system of social justice incorporated and operating

within an organization; it strives to create a friendly atmosphere in the working environment,

enhance trust and open communication between team members, and recognize the significance

of occupational health (Adriaenssens et al., 2015), and corresponds with resources in the JD-R

model.

There are numerous scientific studies pointing to the existence of the correlation between

workplace stress and job dissatisfaction mentioned above (Aftab & Javeed, 2014; Cevenini et al.,

2012; Chen et al., 2014; Trivellas et al., 2013). One of the primary findings from recent

investigations is that the trend toward low job satisfaction in cases of high occupational stress is
 43

strong across all spheres of professional activities. For example, studies point to the high risk of

work-related stress among financial counselors (Griffiths et al., 2011). Because financial

counselors work in isolation from social support networks and the significance of their hard work

is usually underestimated, these employees tend to experience high levels of occupational stress.

Griffiths et al. (2011) maintained that the issue is more severe in remote areas or in small

companies lacking the resources for appropriate educational and preventative measures,

including the implementation of stress coping strategies. Moreover, these positions are known to

have an older workforce and constantly increasing workloads (Griffiths et al., 2011). Griffiths et

al. also underscored that even though only around 7% of respondents among financial counselors

reported being dissatisfied with work conditions because of reasons connected to occupational

stress, the figures are higher in other professional disciplines, and no employee can avoid it,

regardless of whether they are employed in a blue-collar job or as an engineer in the aircraft

industry. It is especially significant to note that the level of workplace stress is one of the most

effective tools for estimating the level of job satisfaction and is even used to forecast changes in

the latter (Griffiths et al., 2011). Addressing the challenge of work-related stress by creating a

friendly atmosphere in the workplace, moderating workloads, and fostering other preventative

measures is one of the best options for increasing job satisfaction and improving employee

performance and financial outcomes for an organization (Griffiths et al., 2011).

Employees who frequently work with people and fulfill job duties known for heavy

overloads are at a higher risk of losing their job satisfaction. Healthcare workers are the best

representation. The high pressure and heavy workloads common in this career field result in

high turnover intentions and low job satisfaction (Cevenini et al., 2012; Trivellas et al., 2013).

Cevenini et al. (2012) argued that medical workers are exposed to the risks of the decreased job
 44

satisfaction because of the lack of social appraisal for their work. Because they are not often

rewarded, healthcare professionals tend to feel demotivated and believe that their work is

ineffective, despite saving thousands of lives annually. Such feelings may include anxiety and

stress, which foster a desire to quit or an unwillingness to improve and develop professionally

(Cevenini et al., 2012). Moreover, Trivellas et al. (2013) claimed that there are other stress-

related reasons for growing dissatisfied with work conditions. The authors highlighted that

healthcare professionals are usually involved in constant conflicts with colleagues and lack

access to information about preventative measures and management of the work environment.

Because their work is inseparable from heavy workloads, the lack of career opportunities, a

negative and death-infused atmosphere, and a feeling of responsibility for human life, medical

workers are at a higher risk of occupational stress and have lower job satisfaction compared to

workers in other industries (Trivellas et al., 2013).

Any change in one or more constituents of the work environment brings about

corresponding changes in levels of job satisfaction and work-related stress. That being said,

positive changes-such as introducing a system of rewards and benefits or moderating workloads-

have a positive effect on job satisfaction, fostering dedication and motivating employees to make

more effort to carry out predetermined job duties. However, the opposite case is also true;

negative changes in work environment lead to decreased satisfaction and increased stress

(Adriaenssens et al., 2015). All three aspects of the job characteristics model described above

appear in one form or another throughout various studies of professional stress in different

sectors of the economy such as those conducted by Aftab and Javeed (2014), Cevenini et al.

(2012), Griffiths et al. (2011), RAND (2015), Trivellas et al. (2013), and others.
 45

Other studies point to high levels of job dissatisfaction in public service positions,

highlighting the critical role of little appreciation and uneven workloads (Kula & Sahin, 2015;

Obiora & Iwuoha, 2013). For example, Obiora and Iwuoha (2013) underscored the significance

of employees having a rewarding and self-satisfying feeling about their work. If an individual

fulfills job functions in poor work conditions accompanied by low or unequal pay, overloads,

hazardous working conditions, and difficulties in work-life balance, he or she is more likely to

experience higher levels of occupational stress, contributing to lower levels of job satisfaction.

The issues mentioned above are common for public service positions and impose an additional

emotional strain on workers (Obiora & Iwuoha, 2013). According to Kula and Sahin (2015), the

risks of low job satisfaction are higher when employees must work in hazardous conditions and

under a constant threat to health and well-being. Even though the authors focused on the

physical safety of employees operating in the law enforcement sector, they recognized that the

link between physical safety and emotional well-being is strong, with the first having a strong

and direct effect on the latter (Kula & Sahin, 2015). Although both groups of researchers

investigated the cases of people fulfilling job duties in different sectors around the world, they

arrived at identical conclusions that underscore the role that low pay and overtime have in

contributing to employee dissatisfaction with work conditions in public sector careers. Both sets

of researchers also noted these factors are the primary contributors to increased turnover rates

and wasted human resources, directly affecting the operational outcomes of organizations and

the opportunities for future growth (Kula & Sahin, 2015; Obiora & Iwuoha, 2013). The same

point was made by Dias et al. (2016), whose research focused on petroleum industry workers; in

the systematic review of studies identifying the factors that affect workers’ job satisfaction; the

drivers related to physical conditions prevailed. These drivers included such factors as climatic
 46

conditions, ventilation, lighting, noise level, safety conditions and the likelihood of becoming

injured at work, and the length and frequency of their shifts that often clashed with their needs

for rest and night sleep.

Employee turnover. Low job satisfaction is a common cause of employees’ desire to

switch jobs, which, in turn, becomes the basis for turnover intention and high turnover rates.

According to the findings of a recent research study, a combination of multiple factors entailed a

decrease in job satisfaction determined by occupational stress (Kelly & Barrett, 2011). The same

was true about turnover intentions related to workplace stress. To invoke the desire in

employees to change places, job dissatisfaction must be accompanied by other more significant

issues such as frequent conflicts at work, excessive pressure from management, or an overly

dominant supervisor (Kelly & Barrett, 2011). Even though there are several factors that

minimize the risk of turnover intentions, such as employee marital status, gender, job experience,

and age, the correlation between turnover intentions and job dissatisfaction is significantly

affected by the level of occupational stress (Adriaenssens et al., 2015; Chen et al., 2014).

Some studies offer suggestions for increasing job satisfaction (Maran, Varetto, Zedda, &

Ieraci, 2015; Teo et al., 2013). The primary mechanism of these strategies is to decrease the

level of occupational stress or, at least, moderate its negative influences. Both Teo et al. (2013)

and Maran et al. (2015) promoted employee involvement and participation as the foundation for

reducing professional stress and increasing job satisfaction. The motivation behind these and

similar recommendations come from the view of job dissatisfaction as the result of a lack of job

control and social support (Adriaenssens et al., 2015). Enhancing cooperation between

individuals and senior management and making a joint effort to cope with current organizational
 47

issues stimulates feelings of self-confidence and importance within a working environment, thus,

increasing the level of job satisfaction (Adriaenssens et al., 2015; Maran et al., 2015; Teo et al.).

The findings of the investigations mentioned above point to the existence of a strong

correlation between occupational stress and job satisfaction, highlighting that the working

environment is the major stressor that leads to lower job satisfaction (Kula & Sahin, 2015;

Obiora & Iwuoha, 2013). Lack of job control, career progress opportunities, and social approval

are factors that further aggravate the challenge; many employees, especially those employed by

companies operating in the public sector, feel a lack of public gratitude and thus feel unimportant

and see no meaning in their work (Griffiths et al., 2011; Kula & Sahin, 2015; Obiora & Iwuoha,

2013; Trivellas et al., 2013). This sense contributes to demotivation and helplessness, which

may make the employee unwilling to develop new skills and obtain the necessary knowledge to

fulfill job duties and help others (Cevenini et al., 2012; Hakanen & Schaufeli, 2012). Therefore,

the level of occupational stress skyrockets, leaving employees dissatisfied with their lives and

their work.

In addition, turnover could be one of the coping strategies that are employed by the

workers suffering from occupational stress and emotional burnout (Cho, Rutherford, Friend,

Hamwi, & Park, 2017; Leone et al., 2015). Practically, this is one of the strategies that are used

as a response to the work environment, conditions, and demands that are perceived negatively

and thus are avoided consciously or unconsciously; such strategies clash significantly with the

workplace expectations placed on the employees by their employers because turnover results in

the overall decrease of the organizational performance and can even lead to the loss of revenue

over a lengthy period (Chang & Taylor, 2013).

 48

Employee absenteeism. Closely related to the challenge of occupational stress and job

satisfaction is the problem of employee absenteeism (Banerjee & Mehta, 2016; Petarli et al.,

2015). Alternately, this phenomenon refers to employees ignoring work schedules and not

attending work (Prater & Smith, 2011). A hazardous workplace environment, the risk of work-

related injuries, low pay, and frequent conflict with colleagues are common causes of employee

absenteeism (Prater & Smith, 2011). However, taking a closer look at the factors that contribute

to absenteeism, it becomes evident that they are synonymous with the causes of occupational

stress. In fact, the more determiners of work-related stress such as emotional burnout and

depression occur in a workplace, the higher the risks of absenteeism (Daniel, 2015; Deery,

Walsh, & Zatzick, 2014).

Regardless of the nature of the working environment and the causes of occupational

stress, two groups of factors foster absenteeism: subjective and objective. It was the conclusion

of Meško et al. (2013) that, in some cases, absenteeism is forced and may even be the best choice

for guaranteeing safety in the workplace. According to Meško et al., it is imperative to point out

the difference between subjective and objective causes of absenteeism. Subjective reasons are

synonymous with individual perceptions of the workplace; they can include being dissatisfied

with work conditions, growing tired of ineffective communication strategies, having no job

control or career opportunities, and feeling helpless and fatigued. Generally speaking, subjective

causes of absenteeism cover personal concerns related to the psychological well-being of an

individual and his or her comfort in the workplace (Meško et al., 2013). Objective reasons are

not determined by an employee or organization, but rather refer to the unpredictable and

uncontrollable external environment and situations that contribute to the choice to miss work.
 49

These reasons usually involve some serious health concerns, natural disasters, or political and

military developments.

Meško et al. (2013) claimed that in cases of serious objective causes, especially regarding

health concerns such as a lack of focus or concentration, absenteeism is justifiable and may even

be the best possible option. In this rationale, it is better and safer for an employee to stay away

from work in cases of extremity given the potential opportunity to save the life of the absent

individual or even those surrounding him or her. These decisions are extremely important when

considering professional activities of doctors or those who work in hazardous environments and

are responsible for dangerous activities such as construction or working with weapons.

Absenteeism can be further encouraged by feelings of demotivation caused by a lack of

social appreciation or gratitude of one’s work. These instances are frequent among healthcare

professionals, financial counselors, and public service workers (Griffiths et al., 2011; Kula &

Sahin, 2015 Obiora & Iwuoha, 2013; Trivellas et al., 2013). Because these positions are usually

known for low pay and heavy workloads, those employed within these sectors of the economy

end up thinking that their work is not important; so there is no reason to attend and fulfill job

duties (Kelly & Barrett, 2011; Teo et al., 2013).

Significantly, this challenge of absenteeism is closely related to the concept of

occupational health because employers are legally obligated to provide employees with the

necessary care to promote emotional and physical well-being and to eliminate any physical

hazards in the workplace. Similarly, organizations must minimize the risks of occupational

stress because the costs deriving from the negative outcomes of occupational stress are

spectacular (The European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, 2014). For example, Prater
 50

and Smith (2011) highlighted that American companies spend $83 billion annually to combat the

consequences of depression and anxiety disorders among employees.

Causes and determiners of absenteeism. Absenteeism is a serious organizational

problem common for countries and industries around the globe. According to the findings of

Sharma and Magotra (2013), around 10% of employees do not attend work regularly, ignoring

the fulfillment of job duties and the significant role they play in achieving organizational

objectives. This form of work and workplace disengagement is often the result of occupational

stress that forces people to experience emotional burnout and a strong desire to lower this level

of stress by means of deliberately minimizing their job duties and tasks and alleviating their own

work-related pressure through doing less work or even staying from the workplaces

(Amarakoon, 2015; Diestel et al., 2014; Robertson & Cooper, 2009). There are several

significant antecedents that predetermine absenteeism intentions. As mentioned above, such

antecedents are divided into personal and organizational factors (Chakraborty & Subramanya,

2013; Tadesse, Ebrahim, & Gizaw, 2015). However, paying more precise attention to the causes

leading to absenteeism is a valuable contribution to the understanding of occupational stress and

employee productivity. Lack of public appreciation, low pay, and heavy workloads are not the

only causes of absenteeism. It is also fostered by a great number of different determinants of

occupational stress such as job dissatisfaction, bullying in the workplace, a strenuous

atmosphere, unrealistic job demands having nothing to do with job duties, a lack of positive

interventions aimed at promoting employees’ physical and mental well-being and improving the

working environment, and ignoring the significance of health and employee well-being (RAND,

2015; Tadesse et al., 2015). The opposite of these determinants enhances positive presenteeism,

contributing to higher levels of employee productivity and lower levels of occupational stress.
 51

According to RAND (2015), the intentions to miss work are motivated by low employee

performance and a failure to meet quality requirements, especially when systems of sanctions are

implemented within a working environment.

Tadesse et al. (2015) maintained that absenteeism has origins in mental sicknesses. Even

though it is caused by occupational stress, its roots go beyond work conditions and extend to

social bias and prejudice; indeed, not only do heavy workloads contribute to absenteeism but

also belonging to a racial, religious, or gender minority. Findings by Tadesse et al. can be

supplemented by the results of the investigation conducted by Chakraborty and Subramanya

(2013), who pointed to the strong correlation between absenteeism intentions and sociocultural

factors such as age, sex, educational background, and marital status; personal cognitive matters

such as substance abuse, constant emotional fatigue, and depression; and organizational factors

including heavy workloads, gross pay, and overtime shifts. Indeed, these three groups of factor-

sociocultural, personal, and organizational-predetermine one’s disposition to absenteeism and

aggravate the severity of the sickness (Chakraborty & Subramanya, 2013; Tadesse et al., 2015).

Several groups of researchers, namely Tadesse et al. (2015), Chakraborty and

Subramanya (2013), Rabacow, Levy, Menezes, do Carmo Luiz, and Burdorf (2014) and Sharma

and Magotra (2013), have pointed to the influence of gender on the intention to miss work.

More specifically, women are more likely to miss work than men. There are several reasons for

this phenomenon. First of all, women are typically responsible for a variety of functions at home

including childrearing, which is why some women find it especially difficult to find a balance

between personal life and work. Men are often assumed to be the breadwinners. For this reason,

the responsibility to attend work and earn money is higher for men, thus leading to lower rates of

absenteeism compared to women (Banerjee & Mehta, 2016). It is paramount to note that there is
 52

no distinction between industries of operation or positions occupied within a company; indeed,

the trend is always the same (Banerjee & Mehta, 2016). The persistence of this connection may

also be integral with the nature of men and women, as men are generally more resistant to stress

than women, who can be weaker in work-related areas and may be more exposed to occupational

stress (Sharma & Magotra, 2013). However, there is no direct connection between marital status

and absenteeism intentions, as single employees (i.e., those without a significant other and

children) tend to skip work more often for various reasons, including the desire to actualize

themselves in their personal lives and the deep responsibility they feel to take care of and support

their parents, families, and elderly relatives (Sharma & Magotra, 2013).

The next determiner of absenteeism intention is the tenure of an employee (Catano &

Bissonnette, 2014). This correlation is easy to associate with human nature, as a longer tenure

implies a higher level of confidence in the future, thus, leading to more frequent instances of

absenteeism. It is worth mentioning that this correlation is contemporary, as it is affected by the

volume of tenure (Sharma & Magotra, 2013). Once an individual begins to lack confidence in

his or her future well-being and feels the need to increase income, he or she will skip work less

frequently and focus on improving performance because it is directly connected to financial

well-being.

Work experience has a strong correlation to absenteeism. To put it simply, those who

have worked with a company for many years are more likely to ignore it, unlike the newly

employed (Huang & Lin, 2016). The rationale behind this trend is similar to the case of the

length of tenure, as lengthy experience brings a sort of confidence in future career progress that a

lack of experience and perceived knowledge does not. Moreover, it is closely related to the

opportunity of switching jobs because employees with more experience have greater chances of
 53

filling well-paid positions. However, the correlation between age and work attendance is just the

opposite, as older employees are more likely to be responsible when it comes to attending work

and fulfilling job duties than younger colleagues who do not yet have this sense of responsibility

(ten Brummelhuis, Johns, Lyons, & ter Hoeven, 2016). The explanation of this phenomenon is

that once employees grow devoted to the workplace, they develop a habit of regularly attending

over long years of life and work.

In addition to the determiners mentioned above, Sharma and Magotra (2013) underscored

the role of remuneration in estimating the rate of absenteeism. The revealed trend was relatively

simple: those who are paid more attend work more regularly than people who earn less money

(Løkke, 2014; Sumanen, Pietiläinen, Lahti, Lahelma, & Rahkonen, 2015). The basis of this

phenomenon is either relative importance of the positions, as those receiving higher wages

usually have more responsibility and authority, or the sense of power and the fear of losing it.

Regardless of the causes of this trend, it exists, and it is strong. Indeed, wages are impossible to

separate from levels of job satisfaction and intentions regarding absenteeism. According to the

findings of Sharma and Magotra (2013), those who are paid more tend to be more satisfied with

the positions they occupy within a company, which is why they give preference to attending

work. In this way, higher job satisfaction directly affects presenteeism in its positive

representation.

As identified by Sharma and Magotra (2013), there is also a connection between

absenteeism and an effective and comprehensive system of rewards and benefits. More

specifically, promotion and confidence in career progress have a direct influence on lower

instances of absenteeism. The same is true about being rewarded for a high level of employee

performance. Those who do not feel the positive effect of the system of promotion and rewards
 54

are more likely to be absent from work because they feel demotivated and do not see the point in

attending work (Huang & Lin, 2016).

Finally, Sharma and Magotra (2013) underscored the significance of personal perceptions

of the workplace environment and the influence they have on job dedication and work

attendance. These perceptions depend on every aspect of workplace organization, from the

choice of management strategy and communication model to the implementation of professional

policies aimed at reducing workplace stress and mitigating its consequences. The primary idea is

the following: if an employee’s worldview is negative and he or she believes that organizational

strategies promote inequality, then that employee will prefer to be absent from work. A positive

perception of the working environment and the managerial techniques in place invokes a desire

to be present at work and fosters an increase in job performance (Sharma & Magotra, 2013).

The perception of the workplace is impossible to separate from interpersonal

communication skills. When it comes to estimating absenteeism intentions and giving

preference to attending work, the role of communication is critical. The instances of open and

trust-based communication are the determinants of higher rates of work attendance, while

ineffective communication skills add to the establishment of a strenuous atmosphere in the

workplace and more frequent cases of absenteeism (Sharma & Magotra, 2013).

The only drawback of the studies mentioned above is that they do not estimate the

significance of leadership style, focusing only on personal and organizational factors

contributing to employee absenteeism (Chakraborty & Subramanya, 2013; RAND, 2015;

Tadesse et al., 2015). The study by Mayfield and Mayfield (2009) is helpful for filling this gap.

The authors investigated the complex phenomenon of absenteeism from the perspective of

leadership style and the use of motivational language. They concluded that frequent occurrences
 55

of motivational language are beneficial for decreasing the level of intentions regarding

absenteeism because this communication strategy directly addresses the individual need for

gratitude and public appraisal (Mayfield & Mayfield, 2009). Moreover, the friendly and

inspiring behavior of a leader stimulates desirable changes in the work environment, including

dedication and perseverance that have a positive influence on the organization’s performance and

employee productivity (Mayfield & Mayfield, 2009).

According to the findings of Mayfield and Mayfield (2009), absenteeism intentions are

further connected to the organization’s reaction to employees missing work. The emphasis is on

the response of the employee’s team leader or senior management. Using strict control measures

or deploying sanctions without making an attempt to find out the cause for being absent (i.e.,

reacting negatively to employee absenteeism) engenders further instances of absenteeism in the

future. Addressing the experience of absenteeism positively by implementing steps to avoid it in

the future without using sanctions contributes to positive changes in the working environment.

Indeed, the employees and other team members will grow more dedicated and attend work more

regularly, making the maximum effort to benefit the company (Mayfield & Mayfield, 2009).

Absenteeism and presenteeism. Because workplace stress significantly affects the

psychological well-being of individuals, the issue of absenteeism should be viewed in terms of

emotional burnout and other mental concerns. First and foremost, it is paramount to note that

burnout is characterized by a sense of constant mental fatigue, feelings of helplessness and

demotivation, an unwillingness to complete work, a loss of concentration, and procrastination

(Hakanen & Schaufeli, 2012). Hakanen and Schaufeli (2012) stated that in the most severe

cases, burnout could lead to depression, substance addiction, despair, anger, aggression, and

other self-destructive behaviors (Martin et al., 2013). These cases are among the instances of
 56

justified, objective absenteeism because the individual requires professional help before getting

back to work with colleagues. The challenge is especially severe for public servants and

healthcare professionals. The difficulty with depression is that some of its physical symptoms

such as nausea, stomachaches, headaches, and diarrhea are common and not only related to the

severe mental health concerns (Prater & Smith, 2011). For this reason, some individuals choose

to ignore them and attend work anyway. Emotional burnout and depression caused by

occupational stress are among the most common reasons for absenteeism (Daniel, 2015; Meško

et al., 2013; Prater & Smith, 2011).

There is another negative phenomenon closely related to absenteeism that is called

presenteeism. This term refers to the situation of employees always being present at work, even

while ignoring health concerns, signs of depression or burnout, and potentially negative

consequences for productivity that presenteeism might lead to (Martin et al., 2013). Working

under such conditions, in most cases, becomes a source of further threats to the individual’s

health, which only aggravates the effects of occupational stress and emotional burnout. This

phenomenon is one of the aspects of presenteeism (i.e., always being present at work) and

making a maximum effort to fulfill job duties, even while ignoring physical signs and the

potential effect on organizational outcomes and the well-being of colleagues (Martin et al.,

2013). This phenomenon was described in detail by Martin et al. (2013), who found that around

30% of Americans experience severe health concerns but do not seek professional help; instead

choosing to attend work out of a fear of being fired and thus losing an opportunity to make a

living, accompanied with the further exacerbations of occupational and personal stress on their

work and family relationships. This vicious cycle is impossible to disrupt because it requires the
 57

involvement of the affected individual while forceful activities on the part of senior management

will lead to no positive outcomes.

Presenteeism has negative effects on the performance of both the affected individual,

who has shown up to work while ignoring health concerns and his or her colleagues (Prater &

Smith, 2011). The primary challenge in attending work while suffering from serious health

concerns is the risk of spreading a contagious disease to other members of a team (Prater &

Smith, 2011). Similar cases are frequent and influence organizations negatively, as they force

senior executives to increase spending to cope with illness and promote health. According to

Prater and Smith, not only do ordinary employees tend to ignore the signals of their bodies and

attend work out of a fear of being punished or sanctioned for the absence; managers and team

leaders who are responsible for the physical and emotional well-being of their colleagues also

choose to be present at work while ignoring the need for professional help and increasing the risk

of infecting others. Such rash acts may have a negative effect on both individual and

organizational performance, as physical health is the foundation of emotional well-being and

reduces the risks of occupational stress (European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, 2014;

RAND, 2015).

In conclusion, the opinions on absenteeism in recent research highlight that, in most

cases, this phenomenon is closely related to high levels of occupational stress (Hakanen &

Schaufeli, 2012; Martin et al., 2013). Moreover, it is worth noting that the antecedents of

absenteeism are synonymous with the causes of work-related stress and that addressing them

may be a valuable step for coping with the challenge of distress at work. Even though there are

other determiners of absenteeism such as organizational, personal, sociocultural, and health-

related factors (Chakraborty & Subramanya, 2013; RAND, 2015; Tadesse et al., 2015), they are
 58

all contributors to work-related stress; thus, fostering absenteeism. Still, there is some conflict of

opinion, because Meško et al. (2013) justified absenteeism in cases related to well-being or

safety, while most findings highlight its negativity (Daniel, 2015; Hakanen & Schaufeli, 2012;

Martin et al., 2013).

Summary of effects of occupational stress on organizations. The magnitude of the

effect of occupational stress is rather high because this phenomenon does not dwell solely in the

personal dimension of the employees affected by it. In reality, occupational stress has the

capacity to produce an adverse effect on the organizational structure of large and small

companies, entire markets and industries, and national economies (Chirico, 2016). The

psychosocial conditions in the workplace are linked to the overall organizational performance,

the employees’ readiness to work, cognitive state and focus; differently put; the level of work-

related stress affects the workplace safety and the overall business results and success (Chirico,

2016) directly. In that way, the theoretical definition of occupational stress includes physical,

social, and psychological dysfunctions in the workplace causing the dissatisfaction of the

affected personnel members (Chirico, 2016).

The importance of occupational stress as a public health and organizational problem is

based on the following set of facts:

 A single stressed out employee can willingly or unwillingly cause damage to many other

employees, as well as his or her own or the organization’s property

 Stress is known to be the leading cause of increased job dissatisfaction and growing rates

of turnover and absenteeism.

 Stress harms the people it affects in a physical and psychological manner.

 59

 Managing an organization effectively involves addressing and reducing the levels of

work-related stress (Beheshtifar & Modaber, 2013).

Moreover, occupational stress is a prominent issue for organizational leadership and

management because it is known to cause three different forms of distress-behavioral,

psychological, and medical-that are linked directly to the employees’ loss of productivity and

decreased performance, as well as a set of other consequences and behaviors that tend to produce

negative effects on work (some of such outcomes are alcohol and drug abuse as stress-coping

behaviors, desire to skip work, a higher likelihood of conflicts in the workplace, the workers’

desire to compensate for the damage caused by the harsh organization; the latter wish often

results in workplace theft (Quick & Henderson, 2016).

As a result, it is easy to notice that occupational stress is a significant problem that brings

a multitude of negative effects to several groups of involved stakeholders-the employees who

have to work under stressful conditions, their managers and leaders who are forced to handle

groups of workers who are out of control, and organizations as a whole that are affected by the

decreasing performance and lack of balance in the workplace.

Workplace Stress in the Ship Repair Industry

The ship-repair industry is characterized by the existence of a variety of specificities. For

example, the primary focus of employees is always on safety issues, as it is one of the central

determinants of employee productivity (Al-Raqadi et al., 2015). Even though the maritime

industry is close to other sectors of the economy, when it comes to determining the roots of

occupational stress, working in a hazardous environment is the major stressor that makes the

ship-repair industry one of the most stressful ones (Cardoso et al., 2014). According to the

findings of Cardoso et al. (2014), working in a ship-repair company carries higher risks of work-
 60

related accidents, allocation of workloads, overtime shifts, and problems with work-life balance

compared to other industries. Bakotić and Babić (2013) highlighted the significance of safe and

comfortable working conditions for both the emotional and physical well-being of employees.

Constantly working under the realization of the high risk of work-related accidents is another

critical stressor affecting dock workers and those employed by ship-repair companies (Cezar-

Vaz et al., 2014).

Occupational stress in the ship-repair industry. In the shipbuilding and ship-repair

industries, the level of occupational stress is higher in comparison to other sectors of the

economy and the effectiveness of managing the problem is lower in the shipbuilding and ship-

repair industries than in other sectors of the economy (Bakotić, & Babić, 2013). The low

efficiency of strategies for minimizing the risks of work-related stress are impossible to separate

from the lack of necessary skills to address the challenges resulting from work-related stress, as

well as the significant pressure employees face with regard to overtime shifts, work-related

accidents, and poor quality management (Al-Raqadi et al., 2015; Cardoso et al., 2014; Cezar-Vaz

et al., 2014).

In conclusion, a thorough examination of the existing literature relating to the

investigation of the influence of work-related stress on employee productivity and job

satisfaction in the ship-repair industry has identified the existence of significant gaps in this area

of knowledge. Among the primary discoveries covered by the research on the effect of

occupational stress in the maritime industry was the emergence of work-related stress as a

response to the introduction of changes to the working environment or to communication

strategies, as well as the connection between such changes and the industry’s shared

understanding of hazards in the workplace (Al-Raqadi et al., 2015; Cardoso et al., 2014;
 61

Workplace Safety and Health [WSH] Council, 2014). According to the primary findings of the

studies, the causes of occupational stress among workers employed in the ship-repair industry are

fulfilling job duties in a hazardous environment, handling a heavy workload with many overtime

shifts, and constantly running high risks of work-related accidents having a negative influence on

their physical and emotional well-being and threatening their future professional activities (Aftab

& Javeed, 2014; Bakotić & Babić, 2013; Cardoso et al., 2014; Cezar-Vaz et al., 2014; Sherridan

& Ashcroft, 2015). Moreover, the issue of strategies for reducing the risks of occupational stress

is also under-investigated; the only reference made to this issue was that preventive measures

aimed at enhancing the psychological atmosphere of the workplace are ignored, and their value

is called into question (Aftab & Javeed, 2014; Sherridan & Ashcroft, 2015). Indeed, this review

of the literature underscores the significance of the present qualitative exploratory case study as

there are significant knowledge gaps to address and fill.

Strategies for Minimizing Occupational Stress

Because occupational stress is a complex organizational and societal phenomenon, it

requires the development and implementation of comprehensive techniques to minimize the risks

of its emergence and to mitigate its negative personal and organizational consequences. These

strategies should be based on the specific needs of people and organizations-meaning that they

should be highly customized because of the impossibility of inventing a one-size-fits-all formula

for effective stress coping techniques (Meško et al., 2013). In particular, there exists a wide

variety of strategies aimed at the minimization of work-related stress. Some of them are

designed to be applied by organizations and their managers, and some are self-management

strategies used by employees independently and sometimes even unconsciously. When it comes

to the employees’ performance, in many cases, it can suffer significantly because of the workers’
 62

choice of the coping strategies that clash with job demands and expectations (Chang & Taylor,

2013). It is critical for organizations to make sure that the strategies applied by the employees

stimulate healthy workplace environments and result in the maintenance of the desired levels of

workplace performance without causing disengagement and absenteeism.

Meško et al. (2013) argued for the division of strategies aimed at coping with stress into

two groups: those focused on problems and those focused on emotions. This categorized

approach is easy to apply to coping techniques for both individuals and organizations.

According to the findings of Meško et al., strategies focusing on problems are helpful for solving

problems that emerge in the workplace. For example, a possible problem-focused strategy

would address low job satisfaction or seek ways to enhance an employee’s motivation and desire

to fulfill job duties effectively. The primary idea behind this type of strategy is its contemporary

effect; in the case of addressing the existing matter of concern and mitigating its influence, there

is no sense in preserving the strategy, so the related activities cease while management waits for

the emergence of similar challenges in the future (Meško et al., 2013).

As for emotion-focused strategies, their significance for combating occupational stress is

vital, and studies show they are effective (Meško et al., 2013). The primary specificity of these

coping techniques is their comprehensive and permanent character. In this case, the focus of the

strategy is on preventative measures instead of addressing a problem that has already emerged.

The basis of this type of strategy is long-term tools for preventing stress, focusing on the

emotional well-being of employees as the foundation of their performance and job satisfaction,

as well as a natural barrier against occupational stress. More specifically, Meško et al. (2013)

identified the necessity of investing in establishing a friendly atmosphere in the workplace by

enhancing trust and openness in communication and building a democratic management and
 63

leadership style to minimize the risks of work-related stress. It is assumed that feeling supported

by other team members and eradicating the possibility of prejudice on the basis of racial,

religious, educational, gender, or any other background is the best option for organizing friendly

workplace relations and diminishing the threats of occupational stress (Meško et al., 2013).

Teo et al. (2013) further investigated the effectiveness of problem-focused and emotion-

focused strategies for reducing occupational stress. The authors recognized the significance of

designing a strategy that incorporates elements of both techniques mentioned above, as the

proposed strategy would aim at both creating a friendly environment in the workplace and

addressing any problems that emerge in the course of work activities (Teo et al., 2013).

However, the primary emphasis of this strategy remains on the necessity and significance of

cooperation and involvement. It is assumed that no strategy will be effective if employees do not

actively participate in its design and implementation. Teo et al. underscored the importance of

free and open communication and encouraging employees to share insights on ways to improve

organizational stress coping strategies by adding any aspects they find valuable and eliminating

any elements they believe are unimportant. The idea behind this strategy is quite simple:

Employee participation enhances the feeling of importance in a team; every time an employee

has an opportunity to discuss and propose changes, his or her confidence in career opportunities

and feeling of job control increases, leading to a higher level of job satisfaction and a lower level

of occupational stress. In addition, choosing communication and employee involvement as the

foundation of the stress-coping strategy will allow the organization to craft a completely unique

technique for coping with stress at work because every individual who shares his or her

particular needs makes the strategy more comprehensive and human-centered (Teo et al., 2013).
 64

Organizational and individual strategies for reducing work-related stress. The most

significant breakthrough in the current research on stress coping strategies was that

implementing organizational strategies for mitigating the consequences of stress is not a

comprehensive step for addressing the problem (Mosadeghrad, 2014). Indeed, even the most

effective and well thought out strategy that focuses on the needs of individuals and the objectives

of organizational development cannot fully address the challenges of occupational stress if it is

not supplemented by an individual stress coping strategy for a particular employee

(Mosadeghrad, 2014). In other words, each individual working with the company should design

his or her own technique for overcoming workplace stress, because, first of all, it is impossible

for management to address the needs of all employees, especially in multinational corporations.

Second, organizational strategies really serve as a framework for actions that establish the scope

of the organization’s responsibilities and determine potential steps it could take to promote the

psychological well-being of its staff (Mosadeghrad, 2014). For example, the company can

conduct training and teach employees how to mitigate the influence of stress at work. The

organization can also take steps to prevent stress by creating a friendly atmosphere in the

workplace or enhancing equality, but no company can implement comprehensive techniques that

address the needs of all employees; ultimately, individual well-being falls within the scope of the

responsibility of the individual (Mosadeghrad, 2014).

Some of the individual strategies for minimizing the risks of occupational stress and

mitigating its negative consequences were recommended by Mosadeghrad (2014) and included

leading a healthy lifestyle by giving preference to healthy food and being active in sports,

developing time management and interpersonal communication skills to avoid overloads and

conflicts in the workplace, and meditating. The following illustration serves as one good
 65

example of the required level of cooperation between an organization and an individual: a

company can afford to design the space for meditation, but it cannot force employees to meditate

when they are experiencing particular difficulties in the workplace. The same is true about the

introduction of a social support system in a team: even though an organization might choose to

invest in the establishment of the social support department, senior management cannot force

employees to share their troubles with professionals and seek ways to overcome them

(Mosadeghrad, 2014).

Gender-based strategies. To effectively address stress at work, it is also imperative to

keep in mind the roots of this complex phenomenon and incorporate the primary aspects of the

determinants into stress coping techniques. For example, according to Mosadeghrad (2014),

women are at a higher risk of occupational stress because of the specificities of their emotional

nature and their double loads, working both at home and at work. Managers should keep this

specific feature of female employees in mind by creating a more comfortable environment in the

workplace, guaranteeing rewards for overloads, and providing adequate social support

(Mosadeghrad, 2014).

In particular, the authors of multiple research studies published throughout the last

decade found that there exists a significant difference in the ways male and female employees

experience occupational stress and respond to it (Cifre, Vera, & Signani, 2015; Drabek &

Merecz, 2013; K. Miller et al., 2000). Namely, while the researchers repetitively found that the

levels of stress experienced by male and female workers employed in the same positions are

equal, they also noted that the reported and observable levels of work-related well-being were

quite different. To be more precise, the researchers noticed that male workers seemed to cope

with occupational stress in a more effective manner than their female peers (Cifre et al., 2015;
 66

Drabek & Merecz, 2013; K. Miller et al., 2000). The theoretical background behind these

findings was set based on the approach to the concept and phenomenon of occupations stress as

quite diverse with regard to peoples’ personal traits and characteristics. In that way, the

employees’ resistance and vulnerability to occupational stress was related to their individualities;

however, in addition to the previous approach, the authors supporting this approach added the

characteristics correlating with the employees’ genders (Cifre et al., 2015; Drabek &Merecz,

2013; K. Miller et al., 2000).

The issue of gender is rather sensitive and even though there exists the body of research

proving that there are differences in the ways men and women respond to stress, the workplaces

attempting to adopt this approach and introduce different strategies aimed at the minimization of

work-related stress should be very careful and avoid encouraging the division based on gender as

such action could be perceived as discriminatory. After all, even though the findings may be true

for certain groups of workers in certain workplaces and, to a certain extent, transferable to larger

populations, it is still important for the employers to remember that gender is an important social

issue and not all males and females match the general statistics. For the purpose of introducing

gender-based strategies successfully without disrupting the workplace environment and causing a

social backlash, the employers are recommended to discuss this issue with the workers and find

out their attitudes and opinions prior to starting gender-based interventions.

Education-based strategies. Moreover, Mosadeghrad (2014) noted the existence of a

correlation between the level of education (perceived knowledge) and the risk of occupational

stress, as characterized by the following trend: lower academic performance entails lower

chances for high-paid work; thus, leading to higher risks of workplace stress. It is impossible to

invest in all employees in all professions obtaining a college education, but most companies can
 67

afford to conduct training and provide enough educational materials so that each employee has

enough competence to fulfill predetermined job duties appropriately and address workplace

issues effectively. Furthermore, Mosadeghrad (2014) revealed the role of belonging to a racial

or religious minority in invoking occupational stress. The problem is severely aggravated in the

case of having only one representative of a minority on a team. This situation requires the

development and implementation of a special minority-neutral strategy of communication and

interaction between team members that enhances equity and respect for human dignity without

regard to the religious or ethnic background (Mosadeghrad, 2014). The primary idea is to

develop techniques to promote long-term occupational health in the workplace, as it is the

foundation of not only employee well-being but also of the successful future of the organization

as a whole.

Job characteristics helping to overcome the challenges or workplace stress.

Furthermore, it is believed that there are three crucial job characteristics: job demands, job

control, and social support (Adriaenssens et al., 2015). These aspects of the workplace, which

are common causes of occupational stress, can become the foundation of another strategy for

coping with the challenges of workplace stress. For instance, a lack of job control and

opportunities for career progress can be addressed by implementing a communication and

leadership strategy that fosters unbiased interactions between team members by estimating work

progress on the basis of accomplishments and competence instead of subjective opinion.

Moreover, overcoming a lack of social support is possible; using a strategy that enhances

communication and equality, as mutual understanding of team members and shared feelings of

trust are the best options for building the necessary support system, especially in cases related to

feelings of helplessness, emotional burnout, or depression. Finally, the problem of job demands
 68

related to occupational stress is easy to mitigate by estimating the competence and knowledge of

each individual and assigning tasks strictly within these levels of expertise and according to the

list of job duties and responsibilities (Adriaenssens et al., 2015). Guaranteeing particular

workloads, as overtime shifts are also a stressor pertaining to higher job demands, is an option

for addressing this challenge. The primary idea is to accompany any changes in job

characteristics with corresponding alterations in the organizational strategy for minimizing the

risks of stress and coping with its negative consequences; in this way, employees will feel less

stress because of innovations and can adapt to them with the necessary support that guarantees

their emotional well-being.

Preventative strategies. Another comprehensive opinion on addressing occupational

stress is that of Maran et al. (2015), demonstrating the significance of preventative measures as

the foundation for any effective stress coping strategy. The authors regarded the best techniques

should incorporate both educational measures and social support (Maran et al., 2015). The

authors emphasized the centrality of gender and race differences in the work environment.

Based on the specificities of a team and employees, they offered strategies for coping with

occupational stress and systems of social support. The challenge with this strategy requires

individual involvement to foster positive changes in the working environment and mitigate the

consequences of work-related stress (Maran et al., 2015). The focus is not only on the racial and

gender composition of a team or an environment but also on the unique features of the work. For

example, those who are functioning within a hazardous environment should have more detailed

educational and preventative measures because of its a priori higher level of work-related stress.

One more beneficial strategy for reducing the risks of occupational stress within an

organization relies on the development of an internal system for the exchange of information and
 69

feedback (Teo et al., 2013). There are two strategies for viewing this strategy-the roots and

consequences of work-related stress. When estimating the causes of occupational stress, a lack

of access to necessary or helpful information is one of the primary stressors (Cevenini et al.,

2012; Trivellas et al., 2013). The issue is impossible to view apart from communication between

team members and senior management when it comes to introducing changes and implementing

strategies for increasing productivity or reducing stress. The consequences of inadequate access

to information are the further aggravation of occupational stress and mistrust of management’s

ability to address any significant organizational or developmental challenges. The development

of channels for distributing information and gathering feedback is supplemented by the

introduction of a participative management style that increases employee involvement as the

foundation for combating work-related stress (Maran et al., 2015). This strategy mitigates the

negative consequences of occupational stress because it enhances job satisfaction and focuses on

communication, which is the key to effective interactions and feelings of job control.

There were also several stress-coping strategies offered by Chan, Leung, and Yu (2012).

The foundation of their approach is the provision of social support to employees who feel

distressed and helpless as the tool for minimizing the risks of occupational stress and moderating

its negative consequences. The authors proposed the division of this approach into different

groups of strategies based on the nature of provided support: individual coping strategies, planful

problem-solving, cognitive reappraisal, instrumental support seeking, emotional discharge, social

support seeking, escapism-avoidance, adjustment support, career support, and financial support

(Chan et al., 2012). The first approach of individual coping strategies includes the emotion-

focused and problem-focused strategies mentioned above and described by Meško et al. (2013)

and Teo et al. (2013). There were no new contributions to this strategy made by the authors.
 70

Furthermore, attention was drawn to the existence of planful problem-solving, a method

that involves group strategies for coping with occupational stress and eradicating its influence on

a team operating within one working environment. The cognitive reappraisal strategy is a

combination of both individual and collective approaches to combating work-related stress that

addresses each problem from different perspectives and analyzes all aspects of the situation to

fully and comprehensively address it (Chan et al., 2012). Instrumental support seeking is a

strategy that focuses on the individual search for external sources of information containing

details about helpful instruments for addressing similar challenges and problems. This strategy

is beneficial for seeking help from senior management or from those who have had lengthy work

experiences in a similar working environment and have faced numerous stressful situations.

Moreover, Chan et al. (2012) identified the effectiveness of emotional discharge as a means of

revealing negative emotions and focusing instead on the positive aspects of work. This might

include meditation, playing sports, or pursuing hobbies (Mosadeghrad, 2014). As for social

support seeking, this strategy includes asking for help from people who are not operating within

the same working environment. These might be friends or family members. This strategy relies

on the trust and openness in communication that may be hard to achieve with colleagues.

However, in some cases, employees find it more comfortable to share problems and matters of

concern with colleagues, team leaders, or managers. This strategy is referred to as seeking

organizational support, and it has a high level of effectiveness because it draws on similar

challenges in the same workplace and offers the opportunity for positive changes in terms of

cooperation, communication, and involvement of co-workers (Chan et al., 2012).

Organizational support can be further divided into financial, career, and adjustment

support. Financial support is as simple as it sounds: those experiencing financial problems are
 71

supported by a company through several different means such as the implementation of a system

of benefit and rewards, compensation plans, living allowances, and bonuses (Chan et al., 2012).

Another form of organizational support, adjustment support, refers to changes in organizational

policies needed to minimize the risks of work-related stress and improve work conditions.

Finally, companies might choose to deploy career support for reducing stress; in this approach,

management focuses on satisfying the career needs of employees and being objective when

deciding on career progress (Chan et al., 2012). Chan et al. (2012) supported the notion that a

combination of individual and organizational practices is the most effective and beneficial

strategy because it is comprehensive and focuses on the needs of both the employees and the

organization. Two similar opinions were those of Teo et al. (2013) and Maran et al. (2015), who

drew specific attention to the significance of involvement and participation of individuals when

it comes to developing and implementing a stress-coping strategy within an organization.

The idea of organizational support expressed by Chan et al. (2012), Mosadeghrad (2014),

and Teo et al. (2013) was further supported by the findings of RAND (2015). However, there is

a significant difference in the findings of the studies mentioned above, as, according to RAND

(2015), the foundation of organizational support is the variety of interventions such as different

educational programs, counseling sessions, lifestyle-guidance programs, assessments of

cognitive and mental atmosphere in the workplace, and more. Even though Chan et al. (2012),

Mosadeghrad (2014), and Teo et al. (2013) pointed to the significance of developing and

implementing supportive strategies and policies, they never mentioned an in-depth investigation

into the potential causes of occupational stress or the psychological state of employees,

determining no real basis for implementing the changes.

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Strategies for reducing stress in the ship-repair industry. To guarantee the personal

safety of workers and reduce the risks of workplace stress in the ship-repair industry, quality

management is the most common strategy (Al-Raqadi et al., 2015). The foundation of this

popular strategy is the implementation of the newest technologies with the aim of increasing

productivity, modernizing operations, and meeting the extremely high-quality expectations

imposed by the trend toward introducing innovations in all sectors of the economy (Al-Raqadi et

al., 2015). Because of high rates of development and implementation of the newest technologies

in docks and within ship-repair companies, fostering modernization and comprehensive

reorganization are critical (Cardoso et al., 2014). However, being a traditional industry, the

maritime sector is highly sensitive to even the slightest changes in organization and operation,

and modifications to common procedures and quality requirements can be seen as an additional

source of occupational stress because doing so requires employees to develop new skills and gain

new knowledge. Moreover, workers face an increased risk of work-related accidents when

obtaining these skills and learning to deploy the newest technologies (Cardoso et al., 2014).

Nevertheless, quality management and higher quality requirements are beneficial for

improving employee performance. Even though the transition toward the use of innovations and

the newest technologies is both time- and cost-consuming and demands the development and

implementation of well thought out and well-organized plans of actions for fostering progress, it

also increases the rate of employee safety and security in the workplace (Cardoso et al., 2014).

Therefore, the modernization of the workplace is a source of emotional comfort because of the

creation of better and safer physical conditions that reduce the risks of stress at work and

mitigate its negative consequences by enhancing the safety and security of those employed.
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The process of introducing the newest technologies into the operations of companies

within the ship-repair industry is a troublesome road, including a variety of ups and downs that

are in turn closely related to changes in occupational stress levels. Initially, employees are at

increased risk of work-related stress, as gaining new knowledge and developing new skills

necessary to deploy modernized technologies are challenging. Low job satisfaction, high

turnover rates, and increased absenteeism, as well as loss of human resources, are common

factors accompanying the change. Moreover, this learning process is inseparable from a constant

fear of work-related accidents because of mistakes in operating the new technologies (Al-Raqadi

et al., 2015; Cardoso et al., 2014). The existence of this trend points to the paradoxical nature of

the ship-repair industry, as changes introduced to foster positive changes in the workplace lead to

progress only after a wave of dissatisfaction and negative consequences related to the efforts at

modernization.

To obtain an in-depth understanding of occupational stress in the ship-repair industry, it

is imperative to understand the industry’s concept of a hazard and the determinants of a

hazardous environment. According to the WSH Council (2014), a hazard refers to the way of

organizing work and procedures for carrying out operations, managing and organizing the

workplace, and testing and using the equipment. Any change in the normal state or workplace

organization is hazardous because it entails further changes that are impossible to predict and

control (WSH Council, 2014). The WSH Council underscored the significance of preventative

measures for enhancing the safety and security of employees, thus decreasing the level of

occupational stress. However, the identification of preventative measures in the ship-repair

industry goes beyond establishing a friendly and open environment such as the cases of other

industries; indeed, the primary emphasis in this industry remains on eliminating or at least
 74

controlling the risks of the hazards mentioned above, designing safe environments on the basis of

both quality and security requirements, and controlling the emergence of hazards by ensuring the

proper maintenance of all equipment (WSH Council, 2014). Bearing in mind the definition of

hazard in the maritime industry, the justification for calling the implementation of the newest

technologies or any modernization efforts hazardous becomes evident, because it minimizes the

ability to control and maintain the newly introduced technologies because of the lack of

knowledge and skills necessary to use them.

Sherridan and Ashcroft (2015) noted that most industries recognize the significance of

preventative measures, such as establishing an atmosphere of trust and openness in the

workplace, as the best option for addressing the challenge of occupational stress and mitigating

its negative influence, thus enhancing the emotional well-being of employees and improving

performance (Aftab & Javeed, 2014). However, another significant specificity of the ship-repair

industry is that preventative measures commonly deployed by other industries are often ignored

(Aftab & Javeed, 2014; Sherridan & Ashcroft, 2015). Just as modernization is seen as a threat to

stability and security, so is the introduction of stress coping strategies and techniques for

mitigating the negative influences of occupational stress.

Summary

The workplace environment is the most significant stressor, imposing a negative

influence on the effectiveness of organizational management and employee productivity.

Occupational stress is a common work-related mental concern caused by heavy workloads,

overtime shifts, operating within a hazardous environment, frequent instances of conflicts in the

workplace, ineffective communication, and other similar factors (Adriaenssens et al., 2015;

Aftab & Javeed, 2014; Al-Raqadi et al., 2015; Cevenini et al., 2012; Chen et al., 2014; European
 75

Agency for Safety and Health at Work, 2014; Griffiths et al., 2011; Hakanen & Schaufeli, 2012;

Kula & Sahin, 2015; Obiora & Iwuoha, 2013; O’Keefe et al., 2014; Patel, 2013; Trivellas et al.,

2013). Occupational stress has been studied through a variety of theories; the three main ones

selected as the framework for this study are the job demands–resources model that connects

intensity of the jobs and the resources needed to address occupational stress, transformational

leadership theory according to which the organizational leaders and the ones capable of fostering

positive change in regard to work-related stress, and the employee engagement theories in which

the level of the worker’s engagement is correlated with occupational stress (Amarakoon, 2015;

Schaufeli & Taris, 2014; Liu et al., 2010; Lyons & Schneider, 2009; Robertson & Cooper, 2009).

The consequences of work-related stress vary and include mental issues such as

substance addiction, emotional burnout, depression, and mood swings; a multitude of physical

issues including the risk of cardiovascular diseases, eating disorders, and chronic fatigue; and

organizational consequences such as job dissatisfaction, impaired employee productivity,

turnover intentions, absenteeism, and presenteeism as well as higher risks of work-related

accidents (Ajaganandam & Rajan, 2013; Sunal, Sunal, & Yasin, 2011).

In general terms, the causes of occupational stress make up three groups of factors:

personal, organizational, and health-related (RAND, 2015). In each case, an organization

dealing with the challenge of workplace stress faces the need for examining specificities of

working conditions and designing a comprehensive strategy for reducing the risks of stress at

work, satisfying the needs of employees, and addressing organizational objectives by focusing

either on addressing problems or emotions (Meško et al., 2013). In addition, the problem of

occupational stress has a very diverse nature and thus tends to be faced with a wide range of

organizations operating in many different industries (Griffiths et al., 2011). In addition, the
 76

concept of occupational stress is directly connected with the issues of employee turnover,

absenteeism, and organizational performance or productivity (Chen et al., 2014; Griffiths et al.,

2011; Hanaysha, 2016; Petarli et al., 2015). The collective presence of all of these phenomena

driven by their tight correlation with one another increases the negative effect they produce on

the affected organizations and also complicates the process of development of the solutions for

the problem (Meško et al., 2013). Also, on account of the diverse nature of the issue, the

strategies aiming at the minimization of occupational stress, employee turnover, and absenteeism

and the consequent enhancement of the workers’ productivity can vary depending on the unique

sets of factors that contribute to the formation of negative environments in different workplaces

(Maran et al., 2015).

For dock workers and the individuals employed by ship-repair companies, the challenge

of occupational stress is especially severe because of constant exposure to the risk of accidents,

serious safety and security concerns, an industry sensitivity to modernization, and an increase in

work-related stress in response to any slight change in the organization of the workplace or its

procedures (Al-Raqadi et al., 2015; Cardoso et al., 2014). The latter factors have repeatedly been

recognized in a variety of research studies as some of the most influential and powerful

workplace stressors leading to the workers’ reduced job satisfaction (Dias et al., 2016; Petarli et

al., 2015; Sharma, 2015).

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Chapter 3: Research Method

Various industries face the challenge of occupational stress having a significantly

negative impact on job satisfaction, employee performance, absenteeism, and turnover rates

(Campbell, 2015; Leon & Halbesleben, 2013; Meško et al., 2013; Prater & Smith, 2011).

Compared to other industries, however, the ship-repair industry has higher levels of professional

stress (Aftab & Javeed, 2012), high risks of work-related accidents (Bakotić & Babić, 2013), a

large number of overtime shifts (Cardoso et al., 2014), and heavy overloads (Cezar-Vaz et al.,

2014)-all of which are supplemented by a managerial lack of knowledge and skill in terms of

reducing workplace stress (Sherridan & Ashcroft, 2015). The purpose of the present qualitative

exploratory case study, therefore, is to discover what techniques production managers and

project managers of a ship-repair company in the maritime industry used to minimize

occupational stress, absenteeism, turnover rates, and poor employee performance. I sought to

explore management’s techniques for managing work-related stress and its effects on employee

turnover, absenteeism, and productivity. Gathering company documents, corporate policy,

interviews, and a reflective dairy were the methods of data collection, and the participants were

production managers and project managers of a ship-repair company in New Jersey.

To achieve the research objectives, gain a comprehensive understanding of the research

problem, and fill the existing knowledge gap regarding occupational stress in the ship-repair

industry, the following question was the focus of the study:

RQ1. What techniques do production managers and project managers at a ship-repair

company use to reduce work-related stress?

Preceding this is an in-depth discussion of the research method and design used and the

rationale for why these were the best means of addressing and answering the research question.
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This discussion is followed by an introduction to the study population and sample, including the

sampling method, followed by an introduction to the survey instruments and process for

collecting, processing, and analyzing the collected data. The conclusion of this chapter includes

the assumptions, limitations, and delimitations of the study, along with the steps and assurances

necessary to ensure the safety and confidentiality of the participants and a brief summary of the

most important points.

Research Method and Design

Finding accurate and relevant answers to this study’s question required the selection of an

appropriate research method. Because the focus of the study was analyzing personal

experiences, behaviors, and social contexts, the qualitative research method was most suitable

(O’Sullivan et al., 2008). There are several motivations for choosing this method instead of

others. Unlike the quantitative research based on cause-and-effect relationships, qualitative

research does not require testing hypotheses or making generalizations (Caruth, 2013; Frels &

Onwuegbuzie, 2013). Unlike a mixed research method combining aspects of both qualitative

and quantitative research and providing both exploratory and explanatory perspectives on the

subject under investigation, the present study’s focus was on investigating (Caruth, 2013).

Moreover, the qualitative research method is the only one that allows for an in-depth

understanding of a chosen phenomenon and focuses on different aspects of a research subject

(Lund, 2012). It is also the only method that justifies the use of small sample sizes because they

are valuable for obtaining a deeper understanding of the matter of interest (Dworkin, 2012).

Because the focus of the current research was on employees’ knowledge of occupational stress

and their related personal experiences, the qualitative research method was the best choice.
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The selected research design was a case study. Two primary reasons drove the choice of

this particular design: first, it is useful for drawing accurate conclusions and making

recommendations based on personal experiences and a comprehension of the research subject;

second, it is appropriate for analyzing situations and behaviors affected by the external

environment instead of the researcher (Yin, 2013). The design of the study’s research questions

further pointed to the suitability of the qualitative research method because it underlines the

importance of the interviewees’ personal histories while also hinting at the research objectives

(Agee, 2009). In addition, Crowe et al. (2011) specified that the case study design is the best

choice for research that entails an analysis of the respondents’ natural environment and for issues

that dynamically change over time under the influence of external factors, such as alterations in

techniques for reducing occupational stress or changes in working conditions or schedules.

Since the primary goal of the present exploratory study was to explore specific techniques used

by the project managers and production managers of a ship-repair company to minimize

occupational stress, absenteeism, turnover rates, and poor employee performance, the case study

design was the most relevant approach. This research design was appropriate for reaching the

given research objectives because it is perfect for assessing work-related stress in the ship-repair

industry from several different perspectives, as the opinions of project managers and production

managers provided the necessary background for drawing accurate conclusions. The main focus

of the case study design is to evaluate certain environments and search for specific patterns to

confirm or disprove a hypothesis (Rubin & Babbie, 2010). The intention of the study was to

collect data about employees’ perspectives and techniques for addressing occupational stress.

The approach is replicable in any other organization whose employees face work-related stress

and need ways to prevent it.

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Population/Sample

Roller and Lavrakas (2015) stated that a population is a group of individuals possessing

equal, or nearly equal, experience and knowledge necessary to provide a better understanding of

the research topic. According to Patton (2014), it is critical to guarantee the representativeness

of the selected population (i.e., to ensure that they meet particular research criteria so that it is

possible to generalize findings). Moreover, it is essential to focus on the geographical range of

the target population and choose whether respondents should reside in one city or across the state

(Roller & Lavrakas, 2014). In the case of small samples, it is recommended to minimize the

risks of heterogeneity because diverse experiences add enough heterogeneity (Patton, 2014).

The target population for the present study was project managers and production

managers of a ship-repair company. The primary location for data collection was New Jersey.

The rationale for choosing the area was the number of ship-repair companies operating there

(Maritime Association of the Port of New York/New Jersey, 2016). The given location

increased the opportunity to choose people with enough knowledge and expertise to achieve the

research objectives, collect the appropriate data, and reach accurate conclusions, as well as to

reduce the risks of excessive heterogeneity (Patton, 2014; Roller & Lavrakas, 2014). To fully

answer the research question, several stratifications guided the selection of the most appropriate

respondents, meaning those individuals who had enough professional competence and

experience to give adequate and trustworthy information regarding the issues of interest (Johnson

& Christensen, 2014).

Patton (2014) stated that a sample is a group of people chosen among the target

population based on the researcher’s belief that they are representative and their experience is

generalizable. To identify appropriate people for the sample, the author of the current study
 81

relied on purposeful and stratified sampling techniques. The basis of purposeful sampling is the

assumption that only those with an adequate background and level of knowledge about the issue

under consideration should become respondents because they are the only people able to provide

the required information and level of detail (Miles et al., 2014). The purposeful sampling

technique is one of the most frequently used in qualitative research owing to the specific

attention the research may pay to respondents’ personal experiences and its role in the researcher

being able to draw conclusions from the rich data (Palinkas et al., 2015). The professional

background of each potential interviewee was reviewed to ensure that he was knowledgeable and

experienced enough to answer the research question; in this manner, the researcher purposely

chooses appropriate participants.

Stratified sampling is a useful supplement to purposeful sampling, allowing the

researcher to gather more accurate data. The foundation of purposeful sampling is the selection

of people who belong to a particular group or population or who meet particular selection criteria

or strata (Johnson & Christensen, 2014). For this study, several criteria for selecting respondents

were appropriate: occupying a particular position within the company, having a lengthy tenure

(at least 5 years), and working within one department. The motivation for including the last

stratum was the researcher’s desire to mitigate the risks of respondent heterogeneity (Patton,

2014).

The sample comprised eight project and production managers of a ship-repair service

company located in New Jersey. A small sample is beneficial for obtaining an in-depth

understanding of the issue under consideration, and it is the best way to conduct the individual

interviews necessary to collect enough information to achieve the research objectives (Crouch &

McKenzie, 2006; Hesse-Biber, 2016). Including both production managers and project
 82

managers were also necessary for the sample to gather adequate information for coding, so data

saturation could be reached (Fusch & Ness, 2015). Moreover, it is the best approach to drawing

comprehensive conclusions because it considers multiple perceptions and worldviews (Patton,

2014).

Materials/Instrumentation

In the current study, interviews were the primary tool for data collection. Additionally, a

reflective diary was used to collect notes during interviews and company documents were

collected. Interviews were carried out with each of the participants individually and recorded by

means of a voice recorder. To avoid any possibility of bias, the use of coding provides typing

and analysis for each of the interviews. Coding was the instrument used to detect patterns and

themes in the participants’ responses and then group them together for future analysis. As a tool,

interviews require the use of different materials such as an interview guide, which contains the

interview questions and directs the collection of data (Castillo-Montoya, 2016). Even though the

interview questions were open-ended, making them adaptable and easy to change in the course

of an interview, it is imperative to use the interview guide to ensure that the same questions are

asked, and the same topics are discussed with all respondents (Roller & Lavrakas, 2015).

According to Roller and Lavrakas (2015), interview guides should include the list of interview

questions constructed in such a way as to cover all topics significant to the issue of occupational

stress, including techniques for reducing it and mitigating its negative consequences on both

organizational and human resource performance. Organized and semi-structured interviews

allow for data accuracy while preventing unplanned detours from the main topic (Rubin &

Babbie, 2010). In addition, prior to the interviews, it is important to carry out a pilot interview

using a test sample to ensure that the interview questions are appropriate for the collection of
 83

meaningful data. Based on this trial run, the author of the study finalized the interview guide to

better direct the respondents and avoid inconclusive or irrelevant answers.

After conducting the interviews, finalizing reflective diary, collecting the old and new

company policy, and gathering additional company documents, it is necessary to ensure the

validity of data using triangulation of analyses to guarantee accurate conclusions that can be

generalized for the company under investigation and to deal with the threat of an inadequate

representation of reality (Flick, 2014). Finally, NVivo 10 software was used for data processing

and analysis because this program helps avoid the errors common to manual processing,

increases the possibility of drawing accurate conclusions, and reduces the time required for data

processing and recommendations (Shaw & Holland, 2014). Although there exist individual

stress level tests and tests for assessing one’s stress-management skills, there are no instruments

that assess the stress-coping techniques that are the focus of the present study. The techniques

are unique to each individual and vary depending on the employees’ preferences, habits,

personalities, and other factors.

Data Collection and Analysis

Interviews are a common tool for data collection. According to Patton (2014), an

interview is the exchange of worldviews between two people: the interviewer and the

interviewee. Developing interview questions is the first step in the data collection process. The

motivation for selecting interviews over other data collection tools is their usefulness for

estimating and analyzing different perspectives on a single issue and the opportunity they

provide for the examination of numerous aspects of reality and working conditions within one

environment (King & Horrocks, 2010). Moreover, interviews are the best option for obtaining

an in-depth understanding of a particular phenomenon without missing any significant details or

 84

facts (Grbich, 2013). The designed interviews included only open-ended questions that did not

limit the respondents’ reflections and did not hint at the correctness of an answer (Seidman,

2013). Open-ended questions represented the research objectives and questions, hinted at the

subjectivity of answers, and focused on obtaining information about personal experiences and

perceptions related to occupational stress and its consequences (Agee, 2009; King & Horrocks,

2010).

The process of data collection began with the recruitment of appropriate people to

include in the sample. After the recruitment, the scheduling of interviews began; obtaining the

informed consent of participants was a necessary part of this step (Johnson & Christensen, 2014).

Next, each of the participants attended a private one-on-one interview; upon completion, each

participant reviewed the interview transcript for accuracy using Dragon Naturally Speaking 13.0

software. Then, the researcher organized, coded, and grouped the data using NVivo10 software,

and interpreted it, reporting the findings in the appropriate section of the study report (Palinkas et

al., 2015). The classification of responses by similarities in perceptions and experiences helps

the researcher analyze the data and draw accurate conclusions (Shaw & Holland, 2014). The

main selection criterion was that each participant had successfully used a technique to reduce

work-related stress at a ship-repair company.

Interviews are the tool for collecting primary data that forms the foundation for future

recommendations. However, it is paramount to refer to other sources of data because a focus

only on the lived experiences of people in the research sample is not sufficient to draw accurate

conclusions (Flick, 2014). Additional sources of interest for the present research included

company documents, a reflective diary, and investigations of employee performance and

turnover rates; studies on work-related stress and its causes; and studies on techniques for
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reducing the risks of stress in the workplace and mitigating the negative consequences (Flick,

2014). The value of these sources required analysis for drawing accurate conclusions and

making comprehensive recommendations, together with their usefulness for generalizing the

findings of the current qualitative case study, checking the findings’ reliability, and integrating

them within the broader frame of research (Flick, 2014; Hesse-Biber, 2016).

After collecting the required data from interviews, reflective diary, and company

documents, the processing stage began. The purpose of data processing is to make sense of the

obtained facts and use them to find answers to the research question (Roller & Lavrakas, 2015).

Data processing involves the fractionalizing and conceptualization of answers, a step that is

completed by identifying the most frequently occurring concepts and topics in the interviews

(Miles et al., 2014). The first step of data processing included the transcription of collected data

and a request that the respondents check the accuracy of transcripts (Shaw & Holland, 2014).

This check was necessary to ensure data validity and reliability as well as to enhance ethical

assurances. The next step includes coding responses to interview questions to organize them and

simplify the analysis of trends and patterns in responses (Rubin & Babbie, 2010).

To define major coding categories-the themes under which the interview responses can

be grouped-several basic steps were taken (Saldana, 2015). The categories were given specific

short titles that were used to categorize the information in the interviewees’ answers. It is

important to keep the coding categories general enough to cover a broad but definite topic.

Otherwise, if too few ideas, answers, and points of view fall under one or more of the outlined

coding categories, it is a sign that the categories have to be reassessed and redefined (Rubin &

Babbie, 2010). The key aspects of the coding process are that categories should be broad enough
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to cover the entire body of interviews with all of its topics and themes and also differ from one

another as much as possible (Vaismoradi, Jones, Turunen, & Snelgrove, 2016).

Flick (2014) pointed to some specific threats to data validity posed by small sample sizes.

Although they are the best option for qualitative research, small samples require extra attention

on behalf of the researcher to ensure validity (Flick, 2014). To cope with this problem, the

researcher must implement both transcript review and triangulation of analyses. Transcript

review is the simplest tool for guaranteeing the reliability of the obtained information, and it

includes interviewees’ review transcripts to ensure that what was said is accurate and reflects

what they truly intended to convey (Harper & Cole, 2012). Though time-consuming, this

technique is valuable for minimizing the risks of error when taking notes or of missing any

important details (Harper & Cole, 2012).

As for triangulation, this technique enhances the reliability and validity of collected data

on account of its use of different methods for data analysis (Flick, 2014; Grbich, 2013). For

example, methodological triangulation entails a comparison of the current findings with the

results of research in the area of interest or the use of various tools for analyzing perceptions

(e.g., both software and manual estimations; Hesse-Biber, 2016; Miles et al., 2014; Roller &

Lavrakas, 2015). The central goal is to obtain identical results through different methods and

tools for data processing; achieving this mark highlights the reliability of the collected

information and the credibility of the research (Johnson & Christensen, 2014).

An exacting transcript review with the participants ensured the validity of the collected

results while adding clarity to the interpretation process and expanding the scope of insights from

interview responses (Flick, 2014; Grbich, 2013). By performing this member check

confirmation or whether the responses were documented and marked appropriately can be made;
 87

helping to increase the validity of results and findings and minimizing any interpretation bias that

is a common limitation in open-ended interviews (Campbell, Quincy, Osserman, Pedersen,

2013). Another technique that the present study incorporated to increase the accuracy of the

collected data was keeping a reflective diary during the interviews. By doing so, the researcher

can supplement answers to interview questions with observations and interactions, which might

reveal some crucial factors leading to occupational stress in the chosen company (Grbich, 2013;

Miles et al., 2014).

Assumptions

According to Patton (2014), assumptions in qualitative research are ideas that a

researcher believes to be true and basic, which make up the foundation of the study. In the

current study, several assumptions were extant. One assumption was that the people included in

the sample represent the perceptions of employees and managers working in the ship-repair

industry (i.e., reflect the whole population of interest; Yin, 2013). Another was that respondents

were open and honest during interviews. According to Miles et al. (2014) and Palinkas et al.

(2015), it is necessary to guarantee that all obtained data are relevant, accurate, and

generalizable, reflecting the current matters of concern in the maritime industry. The third

assumption was about the competence and professionalism of the people chosen for the sample;

in other words, the participants should not only reflect the ship-repair worker population as a

whole but should also possess knowledge and information relevant to answering the research

question and achieving the research objectives (Yin, 2013). Furthermore, an assumption was

that enough data and facts were collected during interviews to address all significant questions

and draw accurate conclusions, without the need to carry out more interviews or gather more

data. Another assumption was that the interviewees gave honest answers concerning the
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techniques they use to cope with work-related stress. The final assumption was that those who

were chosen based on their positions in the organization were qualified and knowledgeable

enough to serve as respondents for the study. In addition to these assumptions, there were some

limitations and delimitations of the present research design.

Limitations

The primary challenge in processing data is combating potential threats to data validity

and reliability. Patton (2014) stated it is crucial to ensure that the information gathered in the

course of research is accurate and does not distort reality because the truth of the data determines

the comprehensiveness of the study’s conclusions and recommendations. According to Flick

(2014), limitations are structural features of a research study that impose risks of drawing

inadequate conclusions or failing to reach research objectives. There are several significant

limitations of the present research. The central research limitation was the small sample size of

8; it might serve as a threat to the accuracy of conclusions and recommendations as well as to the

generalizability of the research findings (Flick, 2014). According to Yin (2013), interview

questions should not be too wordy, should leave space for freedom of reflection, and should not

hint at any direction of an answer. Moreover, there should not be too many questions in the

interview; a sense of hurry and a lack of time for collecting and recording necessary details and

facts pose a threat to adequate and accurate information (Yin, 2013). One more limitation

involved the professional duties of the respondents; the employees may become unwilling to

participate in the research owing to some personal or work-related obligations on the day of

conducting interviews (Emmel, 2013). A follow-up strategy was in place to address this

limitation and to reach out to the respondents who missed their interviews because of work

requirements. The other limitations of this study were the need for manual data input (i.e., the
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typing of the reflective diary content into text files) and the individual approach to each of the

respondent's reviews of their interview transcript. These measures extended the time required to

collect and process data, and thus, increased the study’s cost. However, the improved quality of

these collected data and the thoroughness of its analysis outweigh the increased time and

potentially elevated cost.

Delimitations

Patton (2014) stated that delimitation is the process of eliminating repetitive, inaccurate,

or overlapping data. Because the primary matter of concern was sample size and the competence

of people chosen for the interviews, selecting only people who were currently employed and

working within one working environment was the central delimitation helpful for drawing

conclusions for the given environment. Reducing the scope of generalizations to the chosen

ship-repair company instead of the maritime industry as a whole is the central guarantee of

appropriate findings of the research and recommendations. According to Dworkin (2012) and

Crouch and McKenzie (2006), small samples are the most appropriate option for obtaining an in-

depth understanding of the research subject. Because this was the central research objective, the

small sample size was also a delimitation of the current research design.

Ethical Assurances

Flick (2014) stated that the foundation of meaningful research is appropriately addressing

ethical issues and fulfilling an obligation to value the human and social rights of respondents. In

addition, ethical and methodological choices should come together to protect interviewees and

support conclusions and recommendations (Patton, 2014). In other words, researchers need to

collect, process, and store data without breaching the privacy and confidentiality of the

respondents or exposing them to ethical issues in the workplace. At the same time, ethical
 90

assurances have a direct influence on the dissemination of research findings and the recognition

of their significance by higher levels of the academy (Roller & Lavrakas, 2015). A study that is

ethically conscious and whose author has implemented the measures necessary for the

respondents’ confidentiality and safety and the security of data is more likely to be replicated and

trusted as a reliable academic source. There are several steps of the research process that require

ethical assurances, from the development of the interview questions to the analysis of collected

data and the storage and maintenance of information. It was also imperative to obtain the

consent of the senior management of the company under investigation. Guaranteeing the

confidentiality of employees and managers as well as the anonymity of the company was an

appropriate approach for overcoming these ethical challenges (Hoonaard, 2002). Additionally, it

is paramount to point to the potential positive consequences of the research for the company in

question (Roller & Lavrakas, 2015), because the findings and conclusions might be helpful for

reducing occupational stress and improving job satisfaction and employee performance.

Obtaining the informed consent of interviewees is critical as well (Patton, 2014). The

central idea is to guarantee the privacy and confidentiality of respondents by defining the frames

of the research project and maintaining anonymity through the gathering, analyzing, and sharing

of data (T. Miller, Mauthner, Birch, & Jessop, 2012). Moreover, it is necessary to guarantee

each individual’s right to self-determination (i.e., the right to choose whether he or she wants to

become part of the project upon the revelation of all study details or whether he or she would

rather not participate; Hennick, Hutter, & Balley, 2011). According to Hennick et al. (2011),

guaranteeing the right to self-determination, together with confidentiality and anonymity, is the

only option for ensuring the safety of participants in studies similar to the present one where no

physical or psychological risks exist. By giving informed consent, the respondents become
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aware of what kind of data the researcher will collect, for what purposes, and how the researcher

intends to use it. Having the given information, the participants are able to make an informed

choice about whether or not they wish to partake in the study and what kind of consequences

such participation may entail.

Furthermore, for the present study, developing interview questions was an area of ethical

concern; it was imperative to design them in an unbiased manner that demonstrated respect for

human dignity and avoided gender- or race-based discrimination (Milton, 2013). By conducting

interviews in a gender-neutral and race-neutral manner, the researcher can avoid bias and foster

the trust and openness of respondents, thereby maximizing the chances of collecting relevant and

accurate data (T. Miller et al., 2012). Finally, ethical assurances are also present in data analysis

because this step requires the researcher to remain unbiased and objective to draw accurate

conclusions and recommendations (T. Miller et al., 2012; Roller & Lavrakas, 2015).

Three principles apply to any research involving the participation of human subjects: (a)

respect for the participants and the provision of anonymity and protection; (b) beneficence that

stands for causing no harm and maximizing positive outcomes; and (c) justice that involves

taking into consideration the participants’ equality and individual needs (The Belmont Report,

1979). The given principles are a part of the Belmont Report of 1979, the primary objective of

which is the protection of human subjects involved in scientific research of any kind. Regardless

of the subject matter or research design, the authors of any ethical study must adhere to all of the

principles preserving the rights of the participants.

Summary

A qualitative exploratory case study was the best choice for achieving the objectives of

the current research because of the study’s focus on perceptions and worldviews, as well as its
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need for a comprehensive analysis of one particular environment and different aspects of the

chosen phenomenon (Dworkin, 2012; O’Sullivan et al., 2008). Interviews comprising open-

ended questions that focused on the respondents’ lived experiences, feelings about occupational

stress, and ways to reduce it were the primary tool for data collection. Previous research in the

same area, company investigations of workplace stress, and statistics of job performance and

turnover rate were the study’s sources of secondary data. The sample for the research was small,

made up of eight people (both project managers and production managers of a ship-repair

company located in New Jersey). However, the small sample size was the best option for the

present research on account of the ability to conduct individual interviews and gain detailed

information for achieving the research objectives (Crouch & McKenzie, 2006; Hesse-Biber,

2016). The foundation of the data analysis was conceptualization and fractionalizing, which

entailed the identification of the most frequently mentioned concepts and trends in the responses

to the interview questions (Miles et al., 2014). To guarantee the reliability and validity of the

collected data, as well as the credibility of the research study as a whole, required the use of

transcript review and methodological triangulation.

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Chapter 4: Findings

In this qualitative case study, I explored the experiences of project and production

managers concerning the effectiveness of management techniques at a ship repair company in

New Jersey. The objective was to answer the primary research question: What techniques do

production managers and project managers at a ship-repair company use to reduce work-related

stress? Confidential, face-to-face, interviews were conducted with eight project and production

managers who had at least 5 years’ experience as a manager in the ship-repair industry. The

participants shared their experiences regarding management techniques used in the company.

Before the interviews, the managers reviewed and signed consent forms as acceptance for

participation in this study. Each interview lasted approximately 20 to 30 minutes, and all

interviews took place in a coffee shop. The seven interview questions (see Appendix F) helped

to answer the primary research question. I transcribed all interviews verbatim using Dragon

Naturally Speaking 13.0 software and prepared the data for analysis. After transcribing the

interviews, transcript review and transcript review were performed, and then the participants’

experiences were analyzed using the NVivo10TM software. Additionally, I utilized reflective

diary was used to collect notes taken during interviews and to note the participants’

demographics. The use of multiple sources of data, such as the reflective diary, old and new

workplace policies from the ship repair company, and the last 5 years of company data regarding

employee turnover rates, absenteeism, and vacations made it possible to confirm the results of

the study through a convergence of different perspectives, validating the effect of management

techniques on the minimization of stress in measurable terms. Specifically, I arrived at a robust

set of findings by relying on the data collected via interviews, document reviews, and by keeping
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a reflective diary. Through data analysis, three themes emerged. The chapter contains

discussions on the trustworthiness of the data, results, discussion of the findings, and summary.

Trustworthiness of Data

I used four strategies to ensure the credibility and comprehensiveness of the data and to

enhance the understanding of the phenomenon under investigation: peer debriefing, transcript

review, member checking, and methodological triangulation. Peer debriefing with the

dissertation chair was a strategy that helped test the trustworthiness of insight emerging during

the research process (Elo et al., 2014). Peer feedback improved the quality of data findings and

the exploration of more informed conclusions. Another approach to ensuring the trustworthiness

of data was the application of transcript review and member checking. The strategies are

commonly used in the research community to verify the accuracy of gathered data as well the

interpretations (Alsaawi, 2014; Harvey, 2015). The responses of participants were printed at the

end of the interview using Dragon Naturally Speaking 13.0 Software, and each was asked to

verify the accuracy of presented information. Participants checked the accuracy and were invited

to share their perceptions of the transcript. Upon receiving feedback from the managers,

necessary corrections were introduced, which allowed eliminating inaccuracies and achieving a

higher level of clarity.

Methodological triangulation was an important step taken to improve the trustworthiness

of the results. I employed methodological triangulation under the assumption that interviewing

alone is not sufficient to assess the phenomenon of stress in a professional context. The

usefulness of collecting data from multiple sources and in different ways has been confirmed by

multiple independent lines of investigation (Balzacq, 2015; Hantrais, 2014). The method

involved the collection of qualitative data with two methodological instruments: interviews and a
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reflective diary. The advantage of multiple sources of data collection is the findings produced by

one collection method are corroborated by the results produced by another.

The reflective diary provided a supplemental means of data collection because it made

possible the collection of additional data during the interviews beyond just the words spoken and

provided a better understanding of managerial experiences and insight with regard to workplace

stress management and the collection of participant demographics. According to Bryman

(2015), researchers use reflective diaries for data collection to help recall their experiences.

Taking into consideration the level of workplace stress greatly varies, I chose a reflective diary

as the second dimension of methodological triangulation. The employment of this the reflective

diary was critical for gaining additional insight into the effects of stress in the workplace as well

as stress management techniques used by the participants of the study. In addition to the use of

semi-structured interviews and a reflective diary, I relied on administrative data from the ship

repair company. I gathered company documents for the last 5 years regarding employee

turnover rates, absenteeism, and vacations. All interviews were transcribed verbatim using

Dragon Naturally Speaking 13.0 software and analyzed with the help of NVivo10™ software. I

conducted transcript review and peer feedback to ensure the accuracy of the additional data.

To ensure that transferability inferences can be made after analyzing the study’s data, I

provided a thorough description of the contextual information that should be critical for readers.

Contextual factors such as the location of the company and the quality of its services and

products were omitted from the discussion. The reason for not addressing these elements of the

study’s context was to narrow the boundaries of the inquiry for the readers. For the purpose of

clarifying transferability of the data, I listed the following information: (a) the type of

organization taking part in the study, (b) the data collection methods, (c) the number of
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interviews, (d) the types of data gathered, (e) the number of participants, (f) the managerial

experience of participants, (g) and the demographic data of participants. I deemed the inclusion

of additional information unnecessary for developing a baseline understanding of the context in

which the qualitative research took place.

To meet the dependability criterion, I utilized the overlapping methods of data collection:

semi-structured interviews, and a reflective diary. Therefore, if the same techniques are repeated

in similar conditions, inquirers should arrive at similar results. To address the issue of

dependability more thoroughly, I made sure that research practices were properly followed.

Specifically, I included in the text of the study the following sections: research design

(descriptions of research practices and their execution on the practical level), data gathering

methods (description of data collection instruments and techniques), and evaluation of the

project (reflective assessment of the undertaken inquiry and its results), which were followed.

Another trustworthiness criterion used in this study was confirmability. To ensure the

meaningful objectivity of the study’s results, I made the admission of my beliefs underpinning

critical decisions and adopted methodologies. Furthermore, I acknowledged shortcomings of

utilized methods of data gathering and provided a reflective commentary on variable constructs

that emerged during the process of data analysis. In addition, the study contains a discussion of

critical steps taken in the process of inquiry, which will allow readers to understand the course of

the study in detail. The reflective commentary explains potential weaknesses with respect to

data interpretations and my conceptual predispositions. Specifically, bias might have been

induced at the stage of keywords selection. Additionally, the sample size was not large enough

to claim with a high degree of certainty that experiences of the managers are typical.
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Results

One research question helped to gain a comprehensive understanding of the research

problem and fill the existing knowledge gap regarding occupational stress in the ship-repair

industry.

Q1. What techniques do production and project managers at a ship-repair company use

to reduce work-related stress?

Eight managers participated in face-to-face, semi-structured, confidential interviews. I

explored the experiences of project and program managers concerning the effectiveness of work-

place stress management techniques. During the interviews, each participant responded to the

same set of seven interview questions (see Appendix F). I encouraged participants of the study

to answer each interview question with as much detail as they wanted.

Each interview began with a participant’s demographic information (see Table 1). The

responses to the demographic questions indicated that management experience ranged from 6 to

40 years. All participants in this study were male.

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Table 1

Participant Demographics

Participant Total years Total years project or

Pseudonym managing production managing
P1 6 6
P2 10 7
P3 40 25
P4 8 6
P5 12 7
P6 7 6
P7 6 6
P8 30 18

I transcribed seven audio-recorded interviews verbatim with the help of Dragon Naturally

Speaking 13.0 software and prepared them for data analysis. P8 was not audio recorded. After

the interviews were transcribed, each participant reviewed the printed materials for accuracy.

Transcript review by the interviewee led to improved accuracy of the transcripts, thereby

increasing the validity of the research findings. Next, I analyzed the data by using specific words

and phrases to identify patterns and determine emerging themes in NVivo10™.

I allowed the participants to check the summaries of their responses after the interview.

This action of verification was essential for ensuring that respondents had completed every

question as they desired (Hancock & Algozzine, 2016). It also allowed me to determine how to

handle missing data in a manner that corresponded with the intentions of the participants.

Specifically, the strategy helped to determine whether the participants had left questions blank

intentionally or forgotten to answer them. The interviews for this study were open-ended to

broaden the scope of the responses that the participants gave regarding the research. The views
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that the respondents offered indicated the emergence of three themes. The themes that arose in

the analysis of the interview data included:

 Work Environment and Employee Stress

 Effects of Employee Stress

 Employee Stress Reduction Strategies

Theme 1: Work Environment and Employee Stress

The first theme that emerged from the analysis of the participants’ responses was that the

work environment affects the level of employee stress. Emotional and social experiences of

workers in the company are substantial contributors to mental strain or lack thereof in the

workplace. The production and project managers of the ship repair company argued that

different work environments are characterized by various levels of stress. The participants

mentioned that a match between skills, requirements, and needs of an employee is critical for

avoiding excessive stress and negative health effects associated with it. By analyzing the

participants’ responses, I established that the work environment is formed not only by

interpersonal relations between members of the company but also by the nature of the workplace

norms.

The responses of the managers were indicative that occupational stress contributes

greatly to emotional exhaustion, which has deleterious effects on employee well-being. The

detrimental effects of stress span a large number of health indicators and facets of employee

lives. Stress in the occupational context functions as an inhibitor of productivity and

performance. Production and project managers often rely on environment-based techniques to

improve employee productivity, increase employee performance, and reduce the level of

occupational stress.
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The responses of P2 and P6 were dedicated mainly to the discussion of the work

environment and employee stress. Participant P6 stated, “The work environment plays a huge

role [on the] stress [of the] employee” in response to the question regarding workplace aspects

that act as stressors to the employees. Interviewee P2 listed “the responsibility of the employee,

time crunch[es] that one might face, [the] work environment, [and] job difficulty” while

responding to the same inquiry, thereby, indicating that it is an equally essential factor for

consideration. The responses to this question emphasized that the work environment can

contribute to increase or decrease of workplace stress depending on its nature. The respondents

argued that the following elements of the work environment have the most bearing on the levels

of stress experienced by employees: comfort, shared values, positive reinforcement, team

connections, respect, role clarity, and possibilities for self-development. The responses indicated

that these elements are inter-related. Most importantly, the lack of comfort and overabundance

of work-related conflicts are antecedents of stress. The responses opened avenues for managerial

intervention, which will be discussed later.

Opinions expressed by P2 and P6 were in line with the findings of the study conducted by

Theorell et al. (2015) that pointed to the presence of a bidirectional link between negative work

environment and stress. Respondent P6 argued that the presence of workplace stress “negatively

affects employees and their environment.” That answer was indicative that exposure to

workplace stressors also affects the way people operate in the organization. Therefore,

workplace stress leads to negative outcomes for employees in particular and for the work

environment in general.

Data analysis revealed several features of the positive work environment that can

decrease occupational stress: safety, comfort, appreciation, respect, friendship, and corporate
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social activities. According to respondent P2, “Working in a safe environment, taking all the

precautions when needed, [and] changing the environment” are some of the strategies that an

organization can utilize to reduce workplace stress. The views of interviewee P1 were, “Just

making the workplace a happy place employees would want to be at” can alleviate stress. These

two responses indicated that the organization’s managers are cognizant of the mediating role of

the workplace environment on the relationship between stress and performance. Specifically, the

elimination of stressful components of the professional environment is an organizational-level

intervention technique that is used by company managers to reduce the workers’ exposure to

stressors. It is well established that the effectiveness of environment-directed interventions in

reducing the level of stress at work (Ruotsalainen, Verbeek, Marine, & Serra, 2015).

The data gathered with the help of interviews and the reflective diary points to strong

leadership helping employees to feel confident about their jobs, which positively contributes

toward the reduction of occupational stress. Employees who are confident in their leaders’

ability to manage company projects and provide sufficient guidance show lower propensity for

emotional exhaustion. This is especially important for workers who face overwhelming

demands of interpersonal interaction with customers. Moreover, high levels of stress are best

managed by workers who feel appreciated by their immediate managers. It follows that work-

related stress is a function of the work environment, which is manageable to a great extent. By

controlling the key features of the work environment contributing to the emergence of negative

emotional states, it is possible to diminish the role of stress in paid employment.

Theme 2: Effects of Employee Stress

The analysis of the interview data helped to establish a thematic link between work-

related stress and its effects. Distinct work conditions that contribute to the development of
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stress responses by employees are controlled by managers of the organization to avoid the

reduction in performance and productivity. Another deleterious effect of stress is the increase in

absenteeism rates among employees of the company. High job stress affects job performance

and productivity by diminishing employees’ capacity to adequately respond to demands of their

job while carrying out their professional functions. By analyzing the responses, I established that

overabundance of daily occupational stressors negatively affects the moods of workers, thereby

increasing the intensity of workplace conflicts.

The heightened intensity of interpersonal conflicts takes place at both worker-worker and

worker-customer levels. Stressed employees are not capable of conveying feelings of respect for

their co-workers and customers, which substantially diminishes their performance. Respondent

P4 observed that “stressed-out employees might project a negative image of the company, which

is extremely damaging.” The statement was in response to a question regarding the effect of

employee stress on the organization. Manager P6 argued that “employee mood is severely

affected by high levels of stress.” The response was in line with the sentiment held by

participant P8 who claimed that stress “can lead to [a] bad reputation for the organization if

stress is constant.” Respondent P4 equated stress with “emotional dilapidation,” which indicated

one of its numerous harmful manifestations. Participant P6 encapsulated similar sentiment in the

following statement: “First off, stress raises unnecessary confrontations within the workforce.

When everyone is exasperated, it is hard to cooperate. Also, it is hard to work with customers

when workers do not trust each other.” That view resonated with previous responses and showed

that workplace stress negatively affects the performance of the workforce. To clarify the

reciprocal relationship between employee stress and negative occupational outcomes the theme
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was subdivided into two sub-themes: employee stress, performance, and productivity and

employee stress and absenteeism.

Employee stress, performance, and productivity. Prior to the discussion of the effect

of employee stress on performance and productivity of the workforce, it should be noted that the

production and project managers treat performance as a function of efficiency; whereas,

productivity is measured in terms of output per unit of time. It was evident from the analysis of

the reflective diaries’ content that high-performance work environments are characterized by low

levels of stress. Participant P4 indicated that focusing “on positive aspects of employee's

performance and not always talk[ing] about the negative or the things that they [(the workers)]

are not doing” is an effective approach to enhancing the performance of the workforce. The

view held by the manager is indicative that the level of stress is at the core of professional

performance and productivity.

A similar sentiment was espoused by Harrington and Lee (2015), who believed that

positive performance appraisal, is a common feature of high-performing organizations.

Respondent P5 stated that using incentives “seems to help increase productivity without the

adverse effect of creating stress.” The manager also maintained that incentives could be both

financial and non-financial. The participants emphasized strategies that they used to improve the

production and performance of both the employees and the organization. Respondent P5

discussed the need for proactive leadership as a part of the approaches that enabled managers to

control their workers and boost the overall performance of the organization. Manager P3

mentioned that stress in the workplace causes “low morale and job performance.” That

perspective resonated with that of respondent P8 who indicated that work stress “degrades

performance and health.” In a question related to the effects of workplace stress in the
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organization, participant P8 indicated that it leads to “performance at a reduced level.” It should

be mentioned that the respondent also espoused the view that the frequency of stressor

occurrence also has a bearing on employee performance. The answer was supplemented by the

remark that a “longer duration of stressors is more detrimental in its impact on the productivity

of the workforce.” It follows that both frequency and duration of occupational stressors should

be examined to understand how they affect work performance.

Participants P4 and P5 also reflected on how workplace stress affects the productivity of

both the employees and the organization. In one question relating to the effect of stressors on the

employees, respondent P4 stated, “This worry has proven to be detrimental on some jobs where

their [(the workers)] production has decreased dramatically.” Under the same inquisition,

respondent P5 said, “Productivity decreases, employee morale decreases, absenteeism or time off

increases, [and] interpersonal work relationships become strained.” In response to the interview

question on the impact of stress on the functioning of the organization, respondent P5 stated,

“Productivity is affected, planning is affected due to uncertainty in manpower, and financially

the company’s affected.” The financial dimension of the effects of occupational stressors is

especially relevant for the for-profit organization, which renders additional importance to the

study. Within entrepreneurial settings, the criterion of performance is viewed as critical by both

managers and customers. Thus, the impact of workplace stress on productivity and performance

is a particularly salient aspect of the study. If employees are not capable of carrying out their

professional duties at a sufficient level of productivity, the long-term success of the organization

might be undermined. In this context, it is clear why many managers of the company expressed

their concern over this dimension of the influence of occupational stress on employees.
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The participants also highlighted the effect of lower production to the organization. In

one statement, respondent P5 stated, “Poor production also projects a negative image of our

company to our customers.” The individual indicated that stressed-out employees could be

difficult to control. Additionally, P5 described an incident involving a confrontation between

workers that was witnessed by customers. The respondent maintained that such events degrade

the company’s image, thereby harming its competitive standing. These findings are pertinent to

those of earlier research activities indicating that work stress can lead to organization failure by

lowering productivity and overall performance (Siegrist, 2016). The respondents’ decision to

focus on productivity and performance can be viewed as an indicator of the saliency of the

deleterious effects of employee stress.

Employee stress and absenteeism. The second sub-theme that emerged from the

analysis of the participants’ responses was that workplace stress and absenteeism could

substantially disrupt the effectiveness of the organization by damaging its reputation. I

established that stress is a causal agent in absenteeism, which accounts for the substantial

reduction in a company’s effectiveness. A close analysis of the gathered data produced a clear

picture of why occupational exposures to stress result in heightened rates of absenteeism.

Participants’ responses convincingly demonstrated that workplace stress negatively affects

employees’ health; thereby forcing them to increase the frequency and duration of absences.

Cumulative effects of the prolonged exposure to occupational stress can result in both sickness-

induced and voluntary absence. Regardless of the motivational underpinnings of absenteeism, its

effects on the organization are deleterious.

The majority of the participants espoused the view that stressful working conditions are

detrimental to the health of their workforce. Participant P2 offered the response, “Employees get
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frustrated, angry, worn out, and might lose sleep” to the question of how workplace stress affects

workers. There is ample evidence for the link between occupational stress and emotional

breakdown. A study by Mullan (2014) suggested that stress mediates the relationship between

insomnia and depression, which are conditions that can result in negative health outcomes for

employees. It follows that workplace stress is a causal agent of health problems, which are key

antecedents of involuntary absenteeism (Marzec, Scibelli, & Edington, 2014).

Manager P2 pointed to the link between stress and sickness-induced absence and said,

“First off, absenteeism can lead to the deterioration of the customer service quality. This in turns

results in arguments and complaints. And when everybody is angry at each other nothing gets

done.” The respondents also observed various adversities that emerge in stressful workplaces

and contribute to increased rates of illness-related absence. In response to the question on the

effect of stress on personnel, participant P4 stated, “Also, we have noticed that stressed-out

employees tend to be more confrontational with their coworkers, which is also detrimental to the

job.” Respondent P7 held a similar view: “I believe stress affects the employees by not being

able to work as a team due to problems in their personal life.” Participant P5 stated,

“Productivity decreases, employee morale decreases, absenteeism or time off increases, [and]

interpersonal work relationships become strained.” The respondents’ insights corresponded to

the findings of a study on the impact of stress burden on absenteeism. A study by Marzec et al.

(2014) showed that a high level of work-related stress is a reliable predictor of absenteeism. It

follows that the management of stress levels can help to reduce the frequency and duration of

voluntary and involuntary absence periods.

When discussing stress-management techniques, respondent P4 mentioned, “Our

company also has an open-door policy with the owner and management for [an] employee to
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bring out any grievances, so that management can address these promptly.” This view can be

squared with a large body of academic literature on the topic by underscoring the importance of

grievance handling (Zoysa, 2016). Manager P1 stated, “Working with them, listening to them

when they have ideas and problems, to make a happy workplace, so they want to be at work.”

The respondents indicated the significance of promoting a culture that focuses on grievance

handling as an approach to reducing workplace stress and absenteeism. Figure 1 illustrates the

relationship between work environment, absenteeism, performance and productivity, customer

relationship management and stress.

Figure 1. Relationship between work environment, absenteeism, performance and productivity,

customer relations management and stress

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Theme 3: Employee Stress Reduction Strategies

The theme of employee stress reduction strategies emerged in the analysis as a key factor

in managing the severity of stress experienced by the workforce. The analysis of the data from

the interviews and the reflective diary also led to significant clarity on this theme. Managers of

the company use stress management interventions to ensure that their employees are capable of

coping with a wide range of occupational stressors. I established that the managers increase

employees’ emotional capacity to deal with work-related strains by using strategic mediators

based on communication, role clarity, and incentives. These approaches to stress management

have a causal influence on the negative effects of stress such as excessively high absenteeism

rates and diminished productivity. In other words, the application of employee stress reduction

strategies is instrumental in eliminating work-related outcomes that do not contribute toward the

long-term success of the company. My principal objective was to explore stress management

techniques used by managers of the company and their contribution toward outcome variables

such as absenteeism and turnover rates. Therefore, for the clarity of presentation, managerial

stress-management strategies were divided into three sub-themes: communication and stress, role

clarity and stress, and incentives and stress.

Communication. The alleviation of workplace stressors in the organization can be

achieved with the help of communication-based approaches. The analysis of the data pointed to

employees who have well-developed communication channels with their superiors are capable of

handling stressful professional encounters without burnout development. Communication-based

interventions are, therefore, necessary to ensure that workers are not emotionally exhausted,

which may lead to increased turnover and absenteeism rates.

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The existence of normal communication patterns between various stakeholders in an

organization is essential to its performance and productivity (Cho, Park, & Ordonez, 2013). It

has to be borne in mind, however, that differences in stress levels experienced by members of the

workforce stem from variation in approaches to professional communication. For instance,

Participant P8 stated the “lack of communication” is a key workplace stressor in the

organization. Respondent P2 agreed with this statement by indicating that “communication with

employees” is a strategy they commonly apply to minimize stress in the workplace. Interviewee

P8 indicated that the use of effective approaches to communication contributes to the reduction

of the stress burden among employees who are performing demanding tasks. Respondent P8

stated, “Better communication through documentation and clear oral instructions” assist in

achieving this objective. Another respondent, P3, presented a similar opinion by saying,

“Extensive communication with employees and project managers” is an approach they use to

minimize workplace stress for the workers. Both respondents maintained that organizational

leaders are responsible for ensuring the success of organizational communication strategies.

Interviewee P4 indicated that the company also treated “inter-employee communication”

as one of the strategies to reduce stress on the job. The respondent added, “A huge thing to

know is the ability to communicate with other employees and also listen to them when they have

problems and issues.” That statement indicated the importance of inter-employee

communication. In the same response, participant P4 indicated the essence of creating

communication channels that enhance cognition by stating that it enables them to “promote a

family type atmosphere in the workplace.” That ideal reflected the connection that exists

between effective communication and reduced levels of stress on the job. It is then vital to

reveal the approach that offers the satisfaction for the employees in this regard.
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Respondent P5 mentioned “knowledge exchange can both boost productivity,” and hence

reduce the level of stress experienced by the workforce. The effect of proper information flow

on the elimination of stress has been well explored in the field of business research. Specifically,

the sentiment adopted by the fifth participant was supported by a study that suggested that

knowledge management plays a mediating role between stress and performance (Michaelis,

Wagner, & Schweizer, 2015). The findings of the study also suggested that by encouraging

employees to exchange their knowledge, it is possible to reduce turnover rates in an organization

(Michaelis et al., 2015). Participant P3 stated, “All-hands meetings at least monthly keeping all

employees informed [of] coming tasks [and] making sure employees receive the positive

feedback from our customers” were strategies for diminishing stress. The response is aligned

with that of manager P5 on both conceptual and practical levels.

The respondents indicated that conversations between one another are an essential

component of daily occupational activities that help them to reduce work stress. However, the

interviewer did not ask questions that would pin down the particular nature of these activities.

For example, the dialogs can occur through digital media or face-to-face interactions. Participant

P6, who was one of the advocates of a conversational approach to stress reduction, stated, “I

found that open conversation about stress can reduce stress on the job.” This participant

proposed dialog that focused on the personal context of an individual and their work. In another

response, the same respondent suggested, “Open conversations [on a] consistent basis can assist

minimizing workplace stress.” However, this statement failed to put interactions occurring in the

workplace into personal or professional context. Still, it was an indicator of the value that dialog

has in reducing stress. The respondent expressed a similar opinion by stating, “Having

conversations about employee expectations” is one of the strategies that enable management to
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reduce absenteeism and employee turnover. This statement indicated the value of conversational

approaches to managing work-related issues in a professional context.

Role clarity. Communicating responsibilities that an employee undertakes is essential

for reducing uncertainty concerning their professional functions. The issues of role clarity

emerged in these interviews as a cause of workplace stress. Participant P3 said, “Most stressful

for the employees would be the uncertainty” when asked to name key stressors. When

highlighting the detriments of workplace stress, manager P1 also suggested that “stress-related

work can affect employee's work quality.” Other respondents also agreed with this view through

their responses to various questions. Interviewee P5 stated, “Being asked to work on tasks

outside [a worker’s] skill set, [or] being tasked with a larger workload than they [(the workers)]

feel comfortable with” or “being tasked with limited time parameters” are some of the factors

that lead to stress in the workplace. Participant P7 stated, “Problems that would occur in the

organization would be, not being able to get the job done in a timely manner or professional

manner” owing to the lack of clarity in defining the roles and responsibilities of an employee.

Some of the respondents provided insight into the implementation of role definition and

clarity as solutions to workplace stress. Interviewee P5 stressed that he had “tried to manage

manpower within the confines of their skill set in their ability to handle a particular workload.”

This response was to the question of the approaches that the managers used to eliminate stress in

the workspace. Participant P2 stated, “The responsibility of the employee” is essential in

determining his or her stress levels in the workplace.

The respondents indicated the importance of clarifying employee roles in the reduction of

stressor factors in the organization. Participant P2 stated, “Parts availability and the breaking of

[an] item” that relates to the worker’s functions enables the firm to minimize workplace stress.
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Respondent P1 reiterated this view by offering that “making sure they [(workers)] have all their

parts to perform through their duty at work” is an influential consideration in increasing

employee performance. Participant P2 offered, “Preplanning for a job. Having all parts needed

for finishing a job. Being flexible with employee situations” are some of the approaches that an

organization can use to attain the same objective of better-performing workers who are not

harmed by stress.

Incentives. The third subtheme that emerged in this analysis was the use of incentive-

based techniques to reduce the level of occupational stress experienced by the workforce. The

participants of the study conceptualized the incentive-based approach to stress management in

the workplace as a collection of financial and non-financial rewards to achieve behavior change

needed for reducing a mounting burden of stress. The analysis of the gathered data showed that

by incentivizing employees to take longer vacations, it was possible to reduce their work–family

imbalances, which contribute greatly toward heightened occupational stress.

Participants in the study conducted by Lyness and Judiesch (2014) pointed to the

disruption of work-life balance as one of the causes of work-related stress. The company’s

project and production managers espoused the view that the establishment of work–life balance

has a beneficial effect on the reduction of employee stress. It follows that by incentivizing

employees to restore the work-life balance, it is possible to improve their performance.

The analysis of data produced by the interviews and secondary data on employee

turnover and absenteeism rates showed the relationship between work-life balance and

workplace stress. The respondents almost unanimously agreed that proper alignment of

incentives could improve the harmful influence of stress. A study by Lyness and Judiesch

(2014) suggested that equilibrium between the roles outside work and workplace functions is one
 113

of the factors that diminish stress. The study by Lyness and Judiesch also pointed to the

disruption of work-life balance as one of the causes of work-related stress. It was evident that

managers of the organization were intent on helping workers channel their stress coping skills by

focusing on incentives instead of punishments.

Participant P7 gave an insightful response stating, “I believe many people don't have

stress in the workplace. I believe it comes from home and is brought to the workplace.” This

answer was to the question on the aspects of the workspace that leads to stress. The respondent

indicated that people might have difficulties establishing boundaries between workplace issues

and personal life responsibilities. Respondent P7 stated, “I believe stress affects the employees

by not being able to work as a team due to problems in their personal life.” This statement

further indicates that the lack of the work-life balance can be detrimental to the staff.

Familial responsibilities of the employees can dissolve their work-life boundaries,

thereby producing an undue amount of stress. Participant P4 indicated, “Also, with personal

lives, some employees worry about their families when they are out of town.” The respondent

echoed the previous statement by adding, “We do a lot of traveling, which can affect our

personal home lives.” Both responses indicated that employees worry about the deterioration of

the familial relationship because of work duties. Furthermore, these sentiments revealed that the

investment of substantial time into professional life reduces the level of familial engagement,

which produces stress. Long commutes disrupt worker’s schedules take the time that enables

them to meet their familial responsibilities. Participant P4 offered further insight on the

approaches used by the organization to reduce the level of occupational stress:

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When employees are in town, we try to be very aware of their personal lives and the need

to take time off of work to spend time with their family and really try to accommodate

any vacation requests and days off.

This statement indicated that the lack of free time is one of the concerns that employees

have. Participant P5 presented the essence of maintaining equilibrium between job and domestic

stress factors for the workers. The statement that respondent P5 used was, “Trying to maintain a

work-home life balance also keeps employees focused satisfied and secure.” This response

implies that it is in an employee’s best interest to establish a proper balance between personal

and professional life. Manager P7 elaborated on the strategies that they used to help their

workforce to deal with stress:

Some things that I have implemented have been to talk to somebody on a personal level

outside, away from the work environment, and ask him if he needs help with anything, if

[we] can provide that, [it] is a win-win situation for everybody.

The respondents also indicated the significance of breaks within the work schedule as

well as those longer events such as vacations. Interviewee P5 stated, “Being cognizant of the

fact that employees have responsibilities outside the workplace and trying to accommodate them

results in higher morale and retention of employees.” That statement resonated with the

perspective that work-life balance can enhance the performance of employees if the organization

maintains it well (Lyness & Judiesch, 2014). Participant P2 stated that they encourage workers,

“Taking a break, go for water, or a snack, or take a lunch break. Also, asking for help.”

Respondent P8 indicated that “changing vacation policy” has allowed his department to reduce

stress, thereby eliminating absenteeism and turnover intentions substantially. Participant P4

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further highlighted the essence of encouraging workers to spend more time outside the

workplace in contexts that allow them to connect with their families:

We try to promote more employees to take vacations throughout the years to get away

from the job for [a] little bit [and] spent [sic] time with family to take care of things that

they need to take care of for your daily life and just to de-load a little bit.

The effectiveness of this approach to stress reduction is underscored by the analysis of

the organization’s administrative data. In 2014, the ship repair company changed the regulations

on employee vacations in an attempt to reduce turnover intentions. The change led to a steep

decline in turnover rates, from 17.62% in 2012 to 1.72% in 2014. Even though there was a

marginal increase in turnover in 2015 (3.57%), the following year was marked by an extremely

low percentage of employees who left the company (1.78%). Figure 2 shows the effect of the

implemented changes on employee turnover rates over the period of 5 years.

Employee Turnover Rate 2012-2016

100%
90%
80%
70%
Percentage

60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
17.62% /2012 15.62% /2013 1.72% /2014 3.57% /2015 1.78% /2016
Percentage / Year

Figure 2. Employee turnover rates (2012-2016)

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To better understand the incentives that produced the positive outcomes, it is necessary to

review the changes to the company’s vacation policy. The company made changes to the use of

unpaid leave by its employees as a means of encouraging those individuals to take their days off

from work. The old policy that the organization used stated:

No unused leave or sick days can be carried forward to the succeeding anniversary year;

any unused leave will be purchased and any unused sick days will be lost. Employees

receive monetary compensation in lieu of unused paid leave.

The new policy states that:

The company no longer offers to buy back unused vacation or sick days. Up to 50% of

unused leave can be carried forward to the succeeding anniversary year adding to the new

anniversary year total. Any carried over vacation days will expire six months into the

new anniversary year. It is mandatory for all employees to take 5 consecutive days off

from employees earned vacation, between anniversary dates.

The new policy encourages employees to take regular days off their work as a mandatory

procedure. In the previous setting, the organization allowed the workers to take monetary

compensation for the unused paid leave days, which negatively affected their emotional and

mental states. However, the new policy was developed to diminish emotional exhaustion of

workers, thereby ameliorating negative effects of stress on the workforce. Every employee has 5

days of mandatory earned paid leave and needs to take up the remaining paid leave days within

the specified period or lose the earned benefit. The policy change has promoted more workers to

attain a proper work-life balance according to the data that the company provided. Figure 3

shows the influence of the new vacation policy on absenteeism rates in the company.
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Administrative Data on Absenteeism after the

Implementation of the New Vacation Policy
100
90
80
70
Percentage

60
50
Sick days off
40
30 Days off no pay
20 15.61
9.04 10.68 7.67
4.38 6.84
10 3.28 2.19 0.82 0
0
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Years

Figure 3. Absenteeism rates in the company (2012-2016)

Respondent P3 mentioned the issues of pay raises and bonuses as a part of the

discussions in most of the organizational meetings. This response aimed at answering the

question on how managers reduce absenteeism. That brought to light the idea of compensation

and its relation to employee motivation in a firm. Respondent P5 stated, “Financial incentives,

including employees and the overall strategy of the particular worksite and the company as a

whole help to keep them motivated and focused” are significant in achieving the same objective.

The same respondent further noted that “a positive direction using incentives instead of using

punishment seems to help increase productivity without the adverse effect of creating stress

between management and production.” These responses indicated a connection between

compensation and the vices of poor employee performances, workplace stress, and absenteeism.

The respondents indicated that positive rewards would generate desirable outcomes in those

aspects.
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Empowering the employees to undertake their roles also came out as a prominent topic in

the interview. The respondents provided information on the various actions they undertake to

promote the way that workers handle their professional functions. Participant P4 indicated that

the company leaders “provide training for employees being on the job.” This answer was in

response to the question of the strategies that the organization uses to increase employee

performance. The same participant stated, “Also, we provide tools, computers. Basically,

anything employees need to do the job and try to limit downtime between jobs.” The statement

indicated that the managers seek to attain the two objectives of empowering their workers and

also enhancing process efficiency. That provided a hint of the benefits that arise from employee

motivation strategies. Another respondent who reiterated this perspective was P6, who stated,

“Assisting employees by putting them in situations to succeed” leads to an increase in

performance. The statement below by interviewee P6 put that issue into context by highlighting

the areas a manager should focus on in attaining this objective:

I feel that one of the key traits that any manager needs is the ability to interact with

different types of personalities in the workplace and utilizing your employees in the best

way possible. Knowing your employee's strengths and weaknesses and also giving them

the support when they need it on-the-job without micromanaging them is a balancing act.

Respondent P7 provided further insight into the matter by saying that “some of the

strategies that I believe increased employment performance would be to trust the person to do the

job, [and] not be over his shoulder all the time.”

Planning and managing time along with other resources arose as significant topics from

the interviews. The study questions asked the respondents to name factors that they considered

stressful and participant P1 stated, “Deadlines are very tight due dates.” That was an indication
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that employees experience some schedules as stressors to their activities in the workplace.

Respondent P5 noted that “planning is affected due to uncertainty in manpower; the company is

also affected financially from the presence of stress in the workplace.” Respondent P2 pointed to

“planning, time management, and flexibility on the job site” as effective approaches to the

minimization of workplace stress.

Table 2

Subtheme Frequency

Subthemes Keywords and Phrases # of Units % of Units

Employee stress, Productivity decreases 4 6.64
performance, and
Productivity is affected 4 6.64
productivity
Poor production 3 4.98
Low morale and job performance 2 3.32
Performance at a reduced level 2 3.32
Production has decreased dramatically 1 1.66
Seems to help increase productivity 1 1.66
Positive aspects of employee's performance 1 1.66
It degrades performance and health 1 1.66
Employee stress Stress employee 5 8.30
and absenteeism Reduces absenteeism 3 4.98
Absenteeism or time off 1 1.66
Absenteeism can lead to the deterioration 1 1.66
Communication Lack of communication 4 6.64
Communication with employees 5 6.64
Better communications 3 4.98
More communication 3 4.98
Ability to communicate 2 3.32
Ability to interact 2 3.32
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Subthemes Keywords and Phrases # of Units % of Units

Open conversation 2 3.32
Inter-employee communication 1 1.66
Having conversations 1 1.66
Role Clarity Role clarity 4 6.64
The responsibility 3 4.98
The uncertainty 2 3.32
Being tasked with limited time parameters 1 1.66
Incentives Incentivize employees 4 6.64
Accommodate any vacation requests 1 1.66
promote more employees to take vacations 1 1.66

Evaluation of Findings

The purpose of this section is to interpret the preceding results in light of the existing

literature, the employee engagement and transformational leadership theories as well as the job

demands-resources model that constituted the theoretical framework for the study. The

alignment of the results of the study with the components of the framework will be discussed in

the following subsections.

Theme 1: Work environment and employee stress. The respondents of this research

highlighted the effects of work environment on employee stress. The managers also offered

insights into various strategies that are used by the firm to alleviate those challenges. A

prominent environment-based technique offered by respondents was proactive problem-solving

through the involvement of leaders.

The respondents of this study offered information that reflected on how the work

environment interacts with workplace stress. The results are consistent with previous research

on the same topic and indicate that a safe workplace contains fewer stressors for workers (Smit,
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2014). The respondents stated that making a positive workplace allows employees to undertake

their functions better because it reduces stress. It was proposed that an organization should seek

to reduce the occurrence of traumatic events to employees as one of the approaches to

eliminating stress.

The managers indicated that prolonged exposure to stress could cause emotional

breakdowns, which are extremely harmful to employees’ health. Other outcomes of

occupational stress are frustration, anger, and burnout. These factors relate to a destructive

manner of behavior that affects the whole conception of organizational culture in that workspace.

The participants observed that the primary effects of these outcomes are lower productivity and

performance. The respondents proposed the use of an open-door policy as the approach that

allows employees to express their grievances and reduce stress.

The analysis of the gathered data was instrumental in showing that work environment is a

heterogeneously defined concept that describes many overlapping characteristics of work-related

experiences such as comfort, shared values, positive reinforcement, team connections, respect,

role clarity, and possibilities for self-development. Despite heterogeneities in the interpretations

of the work environment, all respondents concurred that the level of work-related stress depends

on the quality of conditions in which employees perform their professional functions. The

association between negative work environment and increased stress perceived by the workforce

was a recurring theme in the majority of responses provided by the participants.

Theme 2: Effects of employee stress. The respondents indicated that the presence of

stressors lowers workers’ ability to complete their functions effectively, thereby lowering

performance and decreasing productivity. According to the participants of the study, employee

performance and productivity under the conditions of heightened stress are deteriorated because
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of their inability to handle demanding tasks such as customer relations management properly.

From the point of view of the managers, stressed employees show substantial reductions in co-

operative behaviors, which are essential for resource deployment and overall performance. The

prolonged exposure to occupational stressors prevents employees of the company from achieving

mental states necessary for concentration. Furthermore, stressed employees are more likely to

exhibit confrontational inclinations than their counterparts with better stress-coping skills

(Swanson, Territo, & Taylor, 2016). Such behaviors can introduce disruption in performance,

thereby damaging the company. The findings of this investigation are consistent with those of

previous studies that suggest that workplace stress has negative effects on both employees and

organizations (Bakker & Demerouti, 2014).

In addition to reduced motivation and effectiveness in the pursuit of professional tasks,

employees exposed to occupational stressors are more likely to take sick leaves and participate in

voluntary absenteeism. The latter is especially important because increased absence frequency

and duration diminishes work productivity. The results of the study also suggest that prolonged

emotional strains can contribute to the increase in turnover rates, which also damages the

company.

The findings of the study indicated that stress affects the ability to plan and manage

various operations in an organization. The participants showed that different stressor factors are

responsible for this outcome because it encompasses the relationship between employees, their

managers, functions, and the expectations that are in place to guide them all. The respondents

mentioned that deadlines put pressure on workers and led to low quality work. The participants

also stated that the presence of stress in the organization disrupts the ability of the workers to
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align the relevant resources properly. The respondents offered solutions in the direction of

planning tasks beforehand and communicating the information to the employees.

The employee engagement and transformational leadership theories were used to create

the theoretical framework for this study. The job demands-resources model offered the

conceptual framework for this research. The findings of the investigation are consistent with the

theoretical underpinnings of the study. The employee engagement theory is based on the

organizational and managerial role of ensuring a balance between the activities of mitigating

workplace stress and challenging the employees to perform better through motivation (Truss,

Alfes, Delbridge, Shantz, & Soane, 2013). This theoretical approach offers strategies that

involve managing emotional burnout, balance, organization, and management. The results of

this investigation are also consistent with the employee engagement theory. Participants P3, P4,

P5, P6, and P7 stated that they regularly employ motivation strategies in their workplaces.

Respondents P4, P5, and P7 mentioned various work-life balance issues experienced by the

organization’s workforce. All of the participants indicated that the correct use of relevant

strategies improved performance and lowered stress in the workplace.

The results of this study are consistent with the transformational leadership theory, which

posits that managers have the responsibility of ensuring that they develop a stress-free workplace

and promote work exceptionalism (Syrek, Apostel, & Antoni, 2013). Respondents P4, P6, and

P7 indicated that they use tools for professional development of their workers. The JD-R model

enables leaders to ascertain expectations that they impose on workers and essential resources to

facilitate the achievement of organizational objectives (Bakker & Demerouti, 2014).

Respondents P1, P2, P3, and P5 mentioned the need for clear role definitions to enhance the way
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employees undertake their functions in the workplace. These are indications that the results of

this study are consistent with the theoretical foundation of the JD-R model.

Theme 3: Employee stress reduction strategies. The analysis of the data showed that

the absence of good communication strategies could lead to the creation of a stressful

environment for the employees. The presence of effective channels of communication allows

employees to share their feelings with others. Communication-based interventions that the

respondents offered included conversations between employees as well as with their leaders.

Establishing a dialog with people outside the workplace is also a significant factor in reducing

stress according to the suggestions of the interviewees. The respondents encouraged workers to

converse outside the workplace to enhance their communication abilities. These findings are

consistent with other studies showing that bidirectional communication is essential for reducing

stress and conflicts among the workers (Swanson et al., 2016).

The participants of this study highlighted the effects of role definition. Specifically,

employees who do not have a sufficient understanding of their professional functions face

multiple uncertainties that act as stressors. The respondents also indicated that performing tasks

outside their scope of knowledge and job description led to stress among workers. In other

cases, such arrangements involved large workloads that employees needed to handle while

knowing they were not in their area of expertise. The findings of this study are consistent with

prior research results that indicate that continuous workflows in areas that fall outside the scope

of employees’ responsibilities and knowledge increase uncertainties and stress among them

(Anthony‐McMann, Ellinger, Astakhova, & Halbesleben, 2017).

The findings of this research resonate with previous studies on the role of the work-life

balance in reducing stress among the employees (Deery & Jago, 2015). The respondents of this
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investigation suggested that the lack of proper skill arrangements leads to high levels of stress

and a consequential drop in performance and productivity. The participants suggested that

family responsibilities are a primary concern that increases workers’ worries in the workplace.

Other responses indicated that workers might have other significant activities that they wish to

undertake outside the workplace. The respondents stated that having the time to perform those

functions is essential in reducing stress and motivates companies to offer breaks and vacations to

their employees. The managers also pointed to the use of inter-employee interactions outside the

context of the workplace as one of the approaches to ensuring the work-life balance and

minimizing stress.

The findings of this study touch on the issues of compensation, incentives, and employee

motivation that have shown high sensitivity in previous research results (Cerasoli, Nicklin, &

Ford, 2014). The respondents reported that the lack of these aspects leads to an increase in

workplace stress. The participants also showed that this event causes lower performance

deriving from the absence of employee engagement in various operations. The findings are

consistent with the results obtained by other researchers who have collected evidence on

organizational improvements that arise from employee development programs (Cerasoli et al.,

2014). The respondents offered various solutions that seek to empower workers as a part of the

motivational approaches. The managers submitted proposals that included implementing

training and development activities, providing tools that enhance functionality, and the presence

of pay raises and bonuses as incentives that motivate workers to increase their efficiency. The

respondents indicated that employees need to feel appreciated by the organization to improve

their perception of their work. The leaders also need to show that they can trust various persons

to undertake multiple roles as a means of encouraging their engagement. Dhar (2015) confirmed
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the validity of this view by indicating that trust between workers and their occupational seniors

promotes performance in the organization.

Summary

The opening section of this chapter presented the results from the analysis of the

responses that the eight respondents provided. Three themes emerged from the analysis of the

interviews and secondary data (reflective diary): (a) work environment and employee stress, (b)

effects of employee stress, and (c) employee stress reduction strategies. The study proceeded to

the second part that involved the evaluation of these themes. The findings of this study agree

with the assumptions of the theoretical framework derived from the employee engagement and

transformational leadership theories as well as the JD-R model. The research develops a

discussion of each of the themes and topics that arose during the analysis of the interview data.

The primary findings indicate that workplace stress reduces the performance and productivity of

the organization. The recommendation is to outline strategies that could allow the organization

to solve these challenges and develop successful workspaces. The discussion of those

approaches is presented in the following chapter.

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Chapter 5: Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusions

The purpose of this chapter is to present the implications, recommendations, and

conclusions of the present research study. Before turning to the implications, I first provide a

brief review of the research problem, a restatement of the purpose of the research, a short note on

the research methodology, and a summary of the study design, the sample, and the data

collection procedures. In addition, this introduction to the chapter includes a brief description of

the study results and its significant limitations. Following these introductory remarks,

subsections contain the implications, recommendations for practice, recommendations for future

research, and conclusions. The research findings showed that managers in the ship-repair

industry have a strong awareness of the potential dangers of occupational stress and employ six

specific strategies to address the problem.

Workplace stress is a primary concern for many organizations because it affects an

employee’s ability to reach high levels of performance (Beehr, 2014). Beehr (2014) reviewed

the literature on the relationship between employee performance and stress and concluded that

stress negatively influences performance level. Employees may experience occupational stress

related to many work processes, including both occupational functions and interactions that take

place within the work environment (Griffiths, Baxter, & Townley-Jones, 2011). For that reason,

workplace stress is a primary causal agent in numerous organizational challenges, such as high

employee turnover rates, absenteeism, and a wide range of mental and physical health issues

among the staff (O’Keefe et al., 2014). According to O’Keefe et al. (2014), occupational stress

can produce substantial dissatisfaction within a company’s workforce, which can reduce its

productivity levels by up to 20%. In addition, work-related stress is an underlying cause of

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increased healthcare expenditure. White (2015) stated that prolonged exposure to occupational

stressors accounts for $150 billion in healthcare expenses annually.

Employment in the ship-repair industry entails regular exposure to occupational stressors,

including physical environment, job demand, job insecurity, organizational system, unfair

compensation, and workplace culture (Kim et al., 2017). The stress-related challenges in the

ship-repair industry served as a primary motivator for selecting the ship-repair industry for

investigation in this study. To better understand the nature of the problem, it is necessary to

identify some of the stress-related concerns endemic to the industry. The primary stress-induced

issue that individuals employed by ship-repair companies regularly face is a lack of work-life

balance (Cardoso et al., 2014). Managerial pressure on employees is another factor of concern in

the industry (Kim et al., 2017). Further significant effects of occupational stress in the industry

include a reduction of the general well-being of the workers and the deterioration of their health

(Cardoso et al., 2014). The present study addressed the problem of occupational stress in the

ship-repair industry.

The purpose of this investigation was to identify the techniques that project managers and

production managers in the ship-repair industry use to minimize occupational stress, turnover

rates, absenteeism, and reduced employee performance. I chose to focus on the ship-repair

industry because it is a manufacturing sector of the economy, and, as such, findings from the

ship-repair industry could yield broader perspective on the issue under discussion. I used a

qualitative exploratory case study as the research method to investigate the phenomenon of

interest.

The study involved semi-structured interviews with eight respondents in managerial

positions within the ship-repair industry. I chose the study method after formulating the research
 129

question, determining which method would best answer that question. O’Sullivan et al. (2008)

noted that a qualitative research method is most appropriate when the researcher’s goal is to

analyze personal experiences, behaviors, and social contexts. Since the purpose of this study

was to analyze participants’ personal experiences, behaviors, and social context, the qualitative

research method was most appropriate for this study. A qualitative approach required the use of

open-ended interview questions, which facilitated in-depth analysis and exploration of the issue

of occupational stress in the ship-repair industry.

To address the research questions, I recruited a small number of participants. Yin (2013)

noted that the sample size is largely irrelevant for qualitative case studies because the focus is on

emerging themes rather than their transferability. Case studies with small sample sizes enable

researchers to analyze the effects that environments have on situations and behaviors (Yin,

2013). I interviewed eight individuals as the primary source of data for case study analysis. The

target population for this research consisted of project managers and other individuals occupying

managerial positions across several departments of the company.

I transcribed interview data using Dragon Naturally Speaking 13.0 software to facilitate

analysis and transcript review. After completing the interviews, I used NVivo 10TM software to

analyze the participants’ responses. The principal tool to ensure the validity and reliability of

this study was methodological triangulation, which is the use of different techniques to collect

and analyze data (Balzacq, 2015). For this study, I achieved triangulation by collecting data

from interviews, keeping a reflection diary, and reviewing of the organization’s documentation

with a focus on turnover rates and culture. The use of a reflection diary is becoming more

common among qualitative researchers because it enables them to elicit more meaning and

insights (Bryman, 2015). The review of organizational documents is beneficial because it helps
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in understanding the existing culture. Materials like guidelines and policies are instrumental in

analyzing people’s attitudes toward their working environment because such materials enable the

researcher to learn about a company’s normally accepted practices. Document review is an

important element of qualitative research because it facilitates triangulating information from

multiple sources (Bretschneider, Cirilli, Jones, Lynch, & Wilson, 2017).

To ensure ethical research practices during data collection, I abided by several ethical

principles when conducting the interviews. Confidentiality was my top ethical priority;

therefore, data were de-identified at transcription, and the transcripts will be locked in my home

office for 7 years, after which all data, both paper-based and digital, will be destroyed. I adhered

to the confidentiality principle to ensure that the managers do not face any form of hardship as a

consequence of their participation in the study. Additionally, I followed the ethical principle of

informed consent as a guide. It is critical to inform respondents that their personal information

will be kept confidential during the processes of gathering, analyzing, and sharing the research

data (Miller et al., 2012). Additionally, informed consent is used to guarantee the right of every

participant to self-determination, which means that, upon the revelation of all study details, every

person can choose whether he or she wants to become part of the project or whether he or she

would rather not participate (Hennick et al., 2011). To ensure that the participants were capable

of providing informed consent, I briefed them on the details of the study. In addition, all

managers who volunteered to take part in the research received a notification about their right to

decline participation and to withdraw their participation at any stage. I achieved voluntary

participation without exercising undue influence on the members of the sample.

Additionally, I adhered to the ethical principle of beneficence in conducting this study,

which involved the formulation of unbiased and dignified interview questions that did not violate
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any cultural or gender boundaries. I followed the principles of transparency when conducting

the study by assuring the participants that the conduct of the interviews would be impartial and

that I would subsequently disclose the results of the study relevant to their interests.

Furthermore, I assured the managers that complete records of the study would be securely

retained in a locked file cabinet in my home office for 7 years in case they were needed for audit

purposes by administrative authority for conflicts of interest.

The research question of the investigation was: What techniques do production managers

and project managers at a ship-repair company use to reduce work-related stress? The results

were relevant to the formulated research question, and the following three themes emerged: (a)

work environment and employees stress, (b) effects of employee stress, and (c) employee stress

reduction strategies. Such results are largely consistent with previous findings, contributing to

the literature on work-related stress and its peculiarities in the ship-repair industry.

This study has some limitations that are important to recognize. Flick (2014) opined that

limitations are structural features of a research study that impose risks of drawing faulty

conclusions or failing to reach research objectives. It is critical to identify such constraints to

reduce the risk of inappropriate conclusions. One of the primary limitations was that all research

participants worked at the same ship-repair company. The results could be different for other

companies in the industry because work-related stress depends on managerial styles and work

environments, both of which differ from company to company. According to Yin (2013), one of

the limitations of the case study method is associated with contextual conditions. A focus on one

case (for example, one organization) can be beneficial because researchers can implement an in-

depth analysis of existing phenomena and people’s perspectives. The themes that emerge in one

context, however, may have no relevance in similar contexts. Another limitation involves the
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necessity of manual data input, which introduces the risk of researcher bias. Yin (2013) argued

that the researcher bias limitation is common to all research methods and designs. To minimize

the possibility of bias, I provided every respondent with an opportunity to review his or her

interview transcript.

The following subsections provide the research implications of the findings and their

contribution to answering the research question. Additionally, the chapter contains a description

the factors that could have influenced the research findings and their interpretation, as well as a

discussion of the extent to which the findings address the problem of the study and their

correlation with previous results. Moreover, the chapter contains present recommendations for

practice and for further research in the area of occupational stress in ship repair and other

manufacturing industries. Finally, the chapter includes conclusions that briefly summarize the

core points of the investigation.

Implications

The study focused on identifying the methods that managers used to solve the problems

relating to occupational stress in their workplace. The primary interest was in answering the

overarching question: What techniques do production managers and project managers at a ship-

repair company use to reduce work-related stress? The remainder of section presents the

implications of the findings related to the research question. First, I present the concrete

strategies managers use to reduce stress. Additionally, this study revealed important findings

regarding the mechanisms by which stress influences organizational success. I present,

therefore, the findings on the impact of organizational stress in the ship-repair industry. The

findings contribute to answering the research question by shedding light on the reasons that

managers use the strategies they use in their stress-reduction efforts. I additionally connect the
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findings of the study to previous literature and explain how the research promotes organizations’

capacity to prevent and reduce occupational stress. Because the study has only one research

question, it was not possible to organize the subsection by different research questions.

Strategies managers employ to reduce employees’ work-related stress. The major

finding of the study was that, in the ship-repair industry, managers actively develop and use

employee stress reduction strategies. Because the research question asked about what strategies

managers used, the strategies constitute the primary finding of the study and answer the research

question. There were six primary strategies: communication, role clarity, and feedback,

developing communication skills, developing personal relationships, monetary and non-

monetary incentives, and safe working environment. The next paragraphs describe each strategy

in detail.

Communication was one strategy that managers used to promote communication among

employees. Indeed, one of the most important findings of this study was that managers placed a

high value on communication as a stress mitigation strategy. The implication is that a high level

of professional communication can serve as a buffer for occupational stress. Employees who

face excessive demands for close interaction with customers, as ship-repair employees often do,

are more likely to have a reduced ability to manage their emotional states and are thus more

exposed to stress. The same applies to members of the workforce who have negative interactions

with their more experienced or excessively demanding colleagues. According to the findings of

this study, open communication can mitigate the stress-inducing effects of customer interaction

and demanding colleagues. The finding that communication is a key strategy for reducing stress

implies that, by creating opportunities to discuss stressful experiences, managers can strengthen

workers’ emotional coping mechanisms.

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In addition to constituting a stress mitigation strategy in its own right, communication

was central other strategies that managers used. For example, managers focused on developing

proper relationships with their subordinates as a way of ensuring that assigned workloads were

appropriate, and they saw a connection between unfavorable working environments and stress-

inducing external communications (e.g., owing to time limits and long working hours, which can

strain familial relationships). Conversely, psychological support serves as a remedy for the

adverse effects of employment in the ship-repair industry. This study’s findings imply,

therefore, that a managerial focus on communication could be effective for reducing

occupational stress in ship-repair and other manufacturing industries.

There are several possible reasons that communication could reduce occupational stress.

First, interpersonal communication functions as a social support in crisis situations, so employees

may suffer less from high-stress situations when they can communicate. Second, communication

between managers and employees strengthens the relationship between them, creating a

foundation for a willingness, on the part of employees, to disclose negative feelings. Such a

willingness is especially important because, if workers do not discuss their negative emotional

and physical symptoms, managers cannot address any potential problems, contributing to the

negative work environment. Furthermore, employees may suffer additional stress from not being

able to talk about their problems. By fostering open communication, therefore, it is possible to

both build a trusting relationship among members of the workforce and improve the harmful

effects of stress.

The finding that managers use communication as a strategy to reduce occupational stress

aligns with previous research. According to Swanson et al. (2016), communication that

encompasses listening to employee concerns and providing appropriate information is important

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to reducing the frequency and duration of stressors in an organization. The Swanson et al. study

revealed that managers regard conversations, along with an open-door policy, as essential

methods for reducing stress. Swanson et al. argued that, by offering positive feedback to the

workers after they complete tasks successfully, leaders can motivate employees to dedicate more

energy to their work. Mosadeghrad (2014) further emphasized the importance of effective

communication, arguing that psychological support often compensates for factors that contribute

to stress. Finally, the findings of the present study regarding managers’ use of communication

were consistent with data provided by Campbell (2015), who found that employee empowerment

and open knowledge sharing are instrumental in motivating people to focus on organizational

goals. Previously, scholars have argued that managers should implement open-door policies

because such policies allow workers to interact and share ideas and solutions regardless of their

place in the organizational hierarchy (Cooper & Quick, 2017). By adopting communication-

oriented approaches like open-door policies, managers may be able to reduce occupational stress

and its negative consequences, like turnover and absenteeism rates, in turn reducing their

potentially negative effects on company performance.

In addition to communication, managers in this study used role clarity and regular

feedback on performance as a strategy to motivate employees. Role ambiguity could have

adverse effects that lead to an increase in the occupational stress experienced by workers.

Managerial staff, therefore, are concerned that a lack of clarity in tasks performed by employees

and in the scope of relevant functions contribute to occupational stress. Additionally, feedback is

important to provide employees with motivation to continue performing well and clear

instruction on how employees could perform better. The importance of role clarity is consistent

with previous literature highlighting how poor role clarity and little understanding of work roles
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lead to uncertainties that are stressful to workers (Anthony-McMann et al., 2017). Additionally,

this study found that managers see a connection between clear communication and role clarity.

The finding about role clarity and feedback aligns with Swanson et al. (2016), who identified a

link between proper communication and instruction and reduced work-related stress.

Despite its alignment with existing literature, clarity and feedback appeared to be more

important in this study than in previous studies. The elevated importance of clarity and feedback

in this study is attributable to the complexity of the ship-repair industry. The focus on clarity,

however, could be a result of the use of ineffective communication patterns and strategies in the

organization studied. Indeed, findings indicated that clarity and feedback were not intrinsic

components of the organizational culture, but rather strategies that the managers were eager to

integrate more actively into their practice.

Another strategy that managers in this study used to reduce occupational stress was

employee development focusing on communication skills. The development strategy related to

the finding that customer relations management, particularly interacting closely with customers,

is an important source of occupational stress in the ship-repair industry. The stress problem is

prominent in cases in which the workers have to interact with demanding consumers. Managers

thus use communication skills development as a stress reduction strategy.

The ship-repair industry is associated with communication patterns that can often be

negative. Customers often have a negative attitude if they are initially dissatisfied with certain

issues (e.g., the need to pay for the repair, the need to prioritize areas of major concern). The

strategy of communication skills development, therefore, may be more important in the ship-

repair industry than it is in other industries. Similarly, the finding regarding communication

skills development could indicate gaps related the functioning of the organization under
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investigation in this study. The organization is likely to have a poor staff development culture

because employees tend to lack communication skills.

Despite its specificity to the organization under study, the finding related to

communication skills development aligns with previous literature indicating that negative

attitudes from customers can lead to lower job satisfaction among employees, especially when

the negative attitudes are related to dimensions of employee performance that the employees

cannot control (Lam & Mayer, 2014). Swanson et al. (2016) also addressed the correlation

between external communication and employee stress. The researchers found that stressed-out

employees were likely to exhibit confrontational behaviors.

Findings indicated that encouraging employees to interact outside of work could result in

stress reduction and encourage work-life balance. The importance of developing personal

relationships is consistent with previous literature that has shown the need for creating a work

environment that makes it possible to reduce stress as a means of enhancing performance

(Siegrist, 2016). Additionally, the research findings support previous research that revealed the

necessity of encouraging interpersonal interactions as a way of detecting and handling external

influences on the work environment (Babatunde, 2013). Finally, this study’s findings are

consistent with the underlying principles of the JD-R model, as well as with the employee

engagement and transformational leadership theories. All three theories stress the relaxing of

professional demands at times of heightened personal stress to assist employees in achieving a

positive work-life balance (Schaufeli & Taris, 2014). For example, introducing bereavement

policies into a company’s policy toolbox can result in substantial reciprocal relationships

between managers and their employees, thereby enhancing workers’ engagement.

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Managers of the company increase the capacity of the workforce to cope with a host of

occupational stressors by using incentives of a monetary and non-monetary nature. Managers

believed that incentives motivate employees and reduce their work-related stress. The fact that

the participants did not make incentives central to their discussion could imply that managers

believed that the incentives available at their company were sufficient. Stiff competitiveness and

the lack of resources are important considerations for managers deciding on the use of

supplementary monetary rewards. If the organization does not have sufficient resources to

support additional monetary rewards, managers will not use incentives. The finding regarding

incentives aligns with previous research indicating that the financial aspect of motivation is a

strong determinant of employee productivity and engagement (Løkke, 2014; Sumanen et al.,

2015). Further, Sharma and Magotra (2013) found that employees with higher salaries had a

lower rate of absenteeism, higher productivity, and improved motivation.

Another strategy that ship-repair managers used to diminish stress is to create a safe

working environment. The finding related to the development of a favorable environment is

consistent with previous research. Smith (2014) identified a direct link between employee work-

related stress and a safe working environment. Employee satisfaction is constructed through the

provision of all the necessary tools and resources necessary to complete tasks.

As described in the foregoing paragraphs, this study revealed several concrete strategies

that managers in the ship-repair industry use to reduce occupational stress among their

employees. Existing research supports the importance of understanding managers’ strategies for

occupational stress reduction. Multiple researchers have engaged in determining the effects of

employee development, motivation, and engagement toward the performance of an organization.

Most of the investigations sought to establish how managers can safeguard their workforce
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against the detrimental effects of occupational stress to promote the success of their firms

(Cerasoli et al., 2014). Leon and Halbesleben (2013) claim that the utilized approaches to stress

reduction have a causal connection with the detrimental effects of negative emotional states at

work, such as excessively high absenteeism rates and reduced productivity. The aim of such

approaches is to show the employees that the organization values them and their desire to

succeed. The enterprise needs to realize that every employee has unique needs that can be

unpredictable. It is therefore essential for leaders to perform an assessment that reveals the

requirements of every individual before implementing strategies.

The second finding of this research is that occupational stress is a primary factor

contributing to lower performance and productivity in the ship-repair industry. Managers in the

ship-repair industry view lower performance as one of the major results of stress, extending to

both the way in which-employees complete their tasks and to measurable items that are assessed

by customers. In light of the research question, managers’ views on the consequences of

occupational stress constitute an important finding because such views reveal the extent to which

managers commit to reducing employee stress and provide insight into managers’ motives for

doing so.

Managers attached a high degree of importance to the connection between occupational

stress and performance. The participants used such words as detrimental, degrades, and

decreases dramatically, which have strong emotional connotations. Additionally, findings imply

that managers have a high degree of commitment to organizational goals; they are concerned

about the quality of services and products they provide, as well as the risk of developing a

negative organizational reputation. Managers acknowledge the link between employees’ stress,

their performance, and organizational outcomes.

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The finding that occupational stress has a deleterious effect on employee performance is

similar to findings of earlier investigations that have revealed a relationship between a

heightened level of occupational stress and reduced productivity (e.g., O’Keefe et al., 2014).

Hanaysha (2016) stressed that productivity could significantly decrease if employees felt

stressed. Employees’ engagement and performance, as well as their productivity, correlate with

their job satisfaction and the persistence of work-related stress (Campbell, 2015; Chen et al.,

2014). Hakanen and Schaufeli (2012) examined the correlation between employees’ work-

related stress and productivity. The researchers found that stressed employees were

characterized by decreased performance and productivity, which translated into poor quality of

the produced goods and customer dissatisfaction. The alignment of past research with the

finding of this study implies that managerial priorities and employee performance trends in the

ship-repair industry closely mirror those that researchers have elaborated in other industries.

The findings of this study further imply that unreasonably high levels of occupational

stress may lead to an increase in turnover rates in the ship-repair industry. Turnover has been

shown to be detrimental to the long-term success of business enterprises (Anthony-McMann et

al., 2017). Consequently, high turnover rates could negatively influence the performance of

companies. Moreover, prolonged exposure to stressors is a cause of increased absenteeism.

Stressed-out employees are more likely to engage in voluntary absenteeism, which implies that

occupational stress diminishes self-motivation. Under challenging circumstances, the workers

are more likely to limit their presence at the company, thereby seeking an emotional respite.

Findings of this study indicated that lower performance and productivity levels in ship-

repair employees related to the relationships among various organizational stakeholders and the

way that leaders managed them. The finding that management is relevant to stress aligns closely
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with the theoretical basis of the study’s conceptual framework. Under the transformational

leadership theory, it is a managerial responsibility to foster positive organizational change to

ensure that employees can achieve high performance. The managers in this study expressed

views similar to those of Bakker and Demerouti (2014), who agreed that the lack of efficient

managerial strategies and organizational culture could instigate occupational stress in the

workforce.

One reason occupational stress degrades organizational performance is that occupational

stress affects employees’ and managers’ ability to plan and manage time. Previous research

provides insight into the mechanism of the connection between planning and stress; a stressful

work environment breaks down strategies for enhancing planning and management. Similarly,

in this study, the presence of work stress was found to lower workers’ ability to plan their

activities and meet their deadlines, affecting the performance of the organization. Managers

expressed difficulty planning when they were uncertain, due to high rates of absenteeism,

whether employees would be available. They stressed that employees’ morale and their

psychological state could have an adverse effect on managers’ functions, implying that is

difficult to plan and set goals in an environment of uncertainty and high turnover. Managers

reported experiencing substantial difficulties related to planning and management, which could,

in turn, be associated with high turnover and adverse work conditions. Taken together, the

findings related to planning difficulties imply that adverse work conditions may create a vicious

cycle of occupational stress, employee absenteeism, and reduced productivity due to planning

difficulties.

The connection between work-related stress and managerial planning has received

attention in academia. Truss, Shantz, Soane, Alfes, and Delbridge (2013), for example, studied
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the effects of work-related stress on organizational performance and stated that planning could

be difficult to implement if the level of uncertainty was high. White (2015) mentioned the

negative effects of high turnover and employee stress on organizational costs associated with

staff development. White reported that managers found it difficult to develop programs aimed at

employee development if turnover levels were excessive. Lack of development, in turn, may

lead to low motivation and employee engagement. Absenteeism and high turnover reduce a

firm’s ability to anticipate how it will operate because the skills available in its workforce are

unstable over the long term (Lee, Strohl, Fortenberry, & Cho, 2017). One of the possible

solutions, as managers in the present study stated, is to offer information about organizational

plans to the employees, and to judge from employees’ responses which of them are likely to be a

good long-term fit with those plans. Enhancing time management may reduce the stress that

arises from poor planning in the organization. If the employees have time management skills,

they can decide how and when to adopt various roles and eliminate the uncertainties in the

workplace.

The findings of the study showed that organizational culture and occupational stress have

a mutually influential relationship. The presence of undue occupational stressors can lead to the

development of an undesirable culture. Conversely, the presence of clear cultural perceptions

and controls can eliminate stressful factors from the organization. The finding on organizational

culture harmonizes with the results of a study by Belias and Koustelios (2014), who noted a

bidirectional link between a company’s culture and the level of stress experienced by its

employees.

Some of the effects of occupational stress include confrontational manners among the

staff, frustrations, and weak interactions and communication strategies. The managers paid
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considerable attention to the communication domain; all of them mentioned the risks of

deteriorated communication and, as a result, impaired organizational culture and poor

performance. They noted that positive work climate is the foundation of effective collaboration

among team members. The managers addressed two dimensions of internal communication:

interactions among employees and manager-employee collaboration.

Managers place a substantial value on communication among employees and

acknowledge that interactions among employees can deteriorate under unfavorable conditions.

The high degree of attention that managers gave to communication could be attributable to the

existing issues that the organization was trying to overcome. Employees in the ship-repair

industry have high workloads and need to communicate with many stakeholders, which factors

are associated with work-related stress. The findings of this study imply, therefore, that

managers are keenly aware of the importance of communication in their industry. Indeed, the

managers saw the improvement of internal and external communication as a key factor

contributing to the improvement of employees’ performance and the development of the proper

organizational culture.

The findings of this study regarding organizational culture imply that stress degrades

organizational culture, which, in turn, increases stress. Uncontrolled levels of stress prevent

effective teamwork and collaboration in the workplace because the workers start to resent one

another. Prior research findings have underscored the potentially negative effects of negative

employee interactions. According to Cooper and Quick (2017), without a remedy for negative

interactions, employee frustration can result in a behavioral breakdown in an organization. Al-

Raqadi et al. (2015) emphasized that lack of effective communication is associated with health

risks in the workplace. Meško et al. (2013) and Sharma and Magotra (2013) found that a lack of
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positive social ties in the workplace and ineffective communication patterns contribute to an

increase in absenteeism. Finally, according to Adriaenssens et al. (2015), ineffective

communication and lack of managerial support lead employees to develop a sense of

helplessness and burnout. Such working conditions degrade employees’ performance and lead to

negative consequences for the organization.

The final finding of the study relates to the effects of the work environment on the levels

of occupational stress experienced by the employees of the company. The research findings

showed that the presence of workplace stress is a result of an adverse workplace environment.

Managers viewed the existence of mental strain or lack thereof in the members of their

workforce as dependent on the emotional and social experiences of working at the company. It

is important to consider the work environment finding in light of the research question because it

implies that managers’ strategies to reduce occupational stress arise out of their belief that work

environment is central to creating stress. Managers in the ship-repair industry are therefore

likely to focus on stress-reduction strategies to improve the work environment. Nevertheless, the

single organization under study could have had significant existing problems with the work

environment, potentially explaining managers’ emphasis on the work environment. This study

does not address the relevance of work environment to managers’ view on occupational stress in

other organizations.

The finding that work environment contributes to occupational stress aligns with existing

literature, which indicates that environment-related stressors are not confined to the ship-repair

industry. Dias et al. (2016) found that the need to master new skills within tight time limits, long

working hours, and different shifts, as well as considerable distances from home, created an

unfavorable working environment for employees who felt stressed. In addition, Adriaenssens,
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De Gucht, and Maes (2015) drew conclusions supporting the relevance of issues associated with

increasing job demands. Employees tend to feel stressed and unmotivated when they receive

tasks they cannot fulfill or need considerably more time or effort to complete. Mosadeghrad

(2014) emphasized the relevance of effective communication at different organizational levels.

According to Mosadeghrad, communication skills are central to the successful implementation of

tasks and to employee satisfaction. The findings of the present study strongly supported

Mosadeghrad’s conclusion, given the managers’ strong views on the importance of

communication as a strategy to reduce occupational stress.

External environment and work-life imbalance. Closely related to the importance of the

work environment is the need to reduce emotional exhaustion that results from social situations

that workers experience outside the company. Managers in this study argued in favor of

focusing on the external environment when attempting to address occupational stress. For

example, work-family imbalances are primary antecedents of occupational stress that managers

can and should address. The work-life balance finding is consistent with the JD-R model, which

predicts the potential effect of increased stress levels on employees (Schaufeli & Taris, 2014).

The model suggests that the physical, social, and emotional elements of the organizational

environment affect the overall well-being of the workforce. The implication is that individuals

occupying managerial positions in the ship-repair industry should assess the characteristics of the

environment in their companies to develop and implement transformational strategies to improve

workplace morale and reduce work-related stress. The two elements of the theoretical

framework used for the study, the JD-R model, and transformational theory, coalesce here. The

findings of the present study, therefore, imply the compatibility of the theories.
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Work-life imbalance emerged from the analysis of the data as the causal agent of

unresolved anxieties, which underscores the functional obsolescence of traditional approaches to

managing occupational stress. The work-life imbalance finding is consistent with a study

conducted by Deery and Jago (2015) whose emphasis was on developing work-life balance as a

measure to prevent frustrations and stress in employees. Mosadeghrad (2014) mentioned the

need for proper work-life balance, finding that employees were more vulnerable to stress if the

balance was impaired. Similarly, Lyness and Judiesch (2014) indicated work-life imbalances

could have a detrimental effect on the overall performance of the staff. The present study’s

findings imply support for previous findings; the proper work–life balance is an essential

component for reducing occupational stress in the ship-repair industry. Responsibilities and

frustration from activities outside the workplace affect employees’ ability to focus. Work-life

balance was somewhat less commonly expressed among participants than the other findings

were, implying that managers may not be giving sufficient attention to issues of work-life

balance.

Employment in the ship-repair industry involves frequent travel, which can keep

employees away from their families. Other factors include extended working shifts that consume

family time and eliminate opportunities for undertaking activities outside the workplace. The

implication is that a lack of personal time contributes to an increase in occupational stress for the

workers, potentially leading to burnout. The solutions articulated in this study include allowing

employees to take more time off and providing regular breaks during working shifts.

Additionally, vacations are necessary as a means of lowering stress for employees. The

suggestion about time off aligns with the findings of a study by Lyness and Judiesch (2014); the

researchers found that a failure to balance excessive work with personal life results in adverse
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outcomes at organizational and individual levels. The implication of the study’s findings

concerning work-life balance is that organizations can engage in the development of work-life

program initiatives. The negative outcomes of work-life imbalances provide a strong rationale

for the creation of such programs. Organizations willing to introduce corrective solutions to the

issue of occupational stress can assist employees undergoing stressful events by offering them

additional vacation days. Appropriate counseling is another measure that managers can use to

effectively support their employees, thereby reducing the level of occupational stress in their

organizations.

Recommendations for Practice

The research findings apply to both practice and research, supporting earlier

investigations and contributing new insights regarding the most important strategies for

occupational stress reduction in the ship-repair industry. The ship-repair industry is unique in its

demands on employees, and the company under investigation in this study has a particular

organizational culture that leads managers to pursue particular strategies for stress reduction,

particularly emphasizing communication. In this section, I synthesized the research findings on

stress reduction strategies by providing recommendations for practice that could be important to

both the company investigated in this study and other organizations in the ship-repair and

manufacturing industries. Because the research question of this study focused on strategies to

reduce stress, it is possible to make a large number of recommendations for practice. The

following paragraphs describe my 10 recommendations, listed in order of importance.

The first recommendation for practice is for managers to identify the most stressful

elements of their particular work environments and develop strategies to help manage workplace

stress generated by such environmental factors. Managers should take into account the specific
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features of their organization when crafting the strategies. The findings of this study showed that

the ship-repair company under investigation faced specific issues, particularly regarding

communication. Managers’ strategies, especially those they deemed effective, clearly targeted

existing issues. Managers in other organizations, therefore, should identify the key contributors

to stress and develop strategies accordingly. Cardoso et al. (2014) stated that reducing employee

stress is a key managerial responsibility.

The second recommendation for practice is that managers should devote considerable

attention and resources to reducing occupational stress among employees. This study revealed

that, in the ship-repair industry, prolonged exposure to stress could lead to emotional

breakdowns, which are harmful to employees’ health (White, 2015) and detrimental to company

performance. Managers can therefore not afford to ignore employees’ mental wellbeing. Since

it is not always possible to eliminate all stressors within a workplace, coping strategies can be

used to reduce the impact of the workplace hazards on the employees.

The third recommendation for practice is that managers should ensure the continuous

training and development of staff, which will have numerous positive outcomes, including better

performance, less work-related stress, and an improved working environment. Such

development could encompass activities such as training programs that enhance the skills of

workers. Training programs should be developed so as to enable employees to cope with stress

in the work environment. For the company under investigation in this study, communication was

a primary concern. In organizations with similar problems, I recommend communication

training and development. Communication, however, may not be the primary issue in every

organization. Managers have a responsibility to understand they key stressors affecting their

employees and to provide training to help employees cope with those particular stressors
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(Cardoso et al., 2014; Ford, 2014). Implementing employee development and empowerment

initiatives in the organization could improve employees’ motivation and help reduce turnover.

The fourth recommendation pertains especially to the ship-repair industry: managers in

collaboration with workplace development specialists should develop an effective training

program aimed at improving employees’ skills associated with customer relations management.

In the ship-repair industry, customer relations management is a particularly demanding task.

Stressed employees show substantial reductions in cooperative behaviors, which are essential for

resource deployment and overall performance. Managers should, therefore, review the existing

training programs aimed at improving employees’ communication and customer management

skills to develop an intervention that can be effective in the given working environment (see Siu

et al., 2013). The program should involve the use of knowledge sharing, which is instrumental in

improving employee performance (Miller et al., 2012) and was one of the key strategies

identified in the findings of the present study. Similar training programs should be designed for

both managers and other employees.

Fifth, leaders in the ship-repair industry should involve their workers in decision-making

and communicate relevant activities in advance. Such communication is essential for creating a

work environment in which workers influence the operations in a manner that enables them to

achieve better professional results (Boxall & Macky, 2014). As the findings of the present study

suggested, workers who are able to communicate their needs to managers and who are aware of

the organization’s goals could experience less stress as a result of increased transparency and

empowerment.

Sixth, I recommend that organizations should establish strategies that encourage

interactions between the employees, managers, and customers. It would be difficult to understate
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the importance of communication in the findings of this research. Any policy that encourages

open communication and the development of personal relationships is likely to reduce work-

related stress. Specifically, open-door policies enable leaders and their workers to interact and

resolve any matters that can be stressful (Hejduk & Karwowski, 2016). Managers need to allow

employees to discuss non-work issues in a context that enables employees and managers to work

together to resolve those problems. Such an approach is important in ensuring that external life

factors do not enter into the workplace and affect staff members.

The seventh recommendation for practice is that managers should provide employees

with materials that enhance the work processes, including necessary resources and tools. For

example, mechanizing some of the operations in a workplace reduces the physical demands on

the employees and increases their motivation and engagement. Providing adequate tools and

resources is important because, if employees lack what they need to perform effectively, their

occupational stress could increase. Furthermore, research indicates that employees desire the

workplaces that allow them to achieve their potential and their objectives (Ford, 2014). Work

resources and tools are thus important for reducing both stress and turnover.

The eighth recommendation is that managers should use monetary rewards to reduce and

prevent work stress. Managers need to consider the role of positive monetary incentives when

developing organizational budgets because they have shown to have positive effects on

employee motivation and engagement and to reduce stress (Boxall & Macky, 2014; Ford, 2014).

Monetary rewards have the primary aim of demonstrating to the employees how valuable they

are to the enterprise.

Relatedly, the ninth recommendation is that managers should take measures to ensure

that workloads are adequate and evenly distributed. The review of the literature revealed the role
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of uneven workloads in contributing to work stress (Kula & Sahin, 2015; Obiora & Iwuoha,

2013). In the present study, overly high workloads contributed to a lack of work–life balance

and to role ambiguity, which were both stressors for employers at the ship-repair firm. Specific

managerial attention to workload adequacy is therefore warranted.

Finally, I recommend that leaders in the ship-repair industry allow employees to take

more time off, incorporating sufficient leave and vacation time to enable staff to spend more time

with their families. Managers may believe that frequent time off can disrupt organizational

plans, thereby imposing additional expenses on a firm. This study revealed, however, that

managers have an awareness that occupational stress can be extremely costly for the firm.

Leaders, therefore, need to balance the immediate need for productivity with the long-term need

for organizational stability, recognizing that insufficient work-life balance can be more costly to

the company over the long term than allowing additional leave and vacation time. Deery and

Jago (2015) included work-life balance as an integral component of retention strategies. The

findings of the present research likewise showed the importance of promoting the work-life

balance of employees for the reduction of work stress could be used as the grounds for the

development of retention strategies in the ship-repair industry.

Recommendations for Future Research

The present study focused on strategies managers in the ship-repair industry use to reduce

occupational stress among employees. As a case study, this research focused on managers in a

single organization. The results yielded fruitful insight into the strategies managers use,

particularly focusing on communication, and on their motivations for those strategies, which are

based on their perception of the effects of occupational stress on firm performance. Given the

nature of the case study, however, it is not possible to draw conclusions from this research about
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other contexts in the industry and in the manufacturing sector as a whole. Future qualitative and

quantitative research should thus be conducted into the extent to which the finding of this study

align with strategies used elsewhere. Such research would overcome the limitations of case

study research and enable future researchers to build upon the findings of this study.

Survey-based research would be well suited to answering the question of whether

managers in other companies use the same stress-reduction strategies; the findings of the present

study could be used as a guide to design a survey with questions about the use of particular

strategies identified herein. The use of quantitative methods like survey research would equip

researchers with descriptive statistics (O’Sullivan et al., 2008), generating an as-yet lacking

understanding of how common stress reduction strategies are. Quantitative results could, unlike

the present study’s results, be generalizable to other settings (Lund, 2012). Furthermore, I

recommend additional case study research in other organizations located in other geographical

areas, which could potentially lead to the revelation of additional effective strategies for

occupational stress reduction in the ship-repair industry.

The present study provides important insight into the strategies that managers value for

reducing occupational stress, but the managers’ opinions do not reveal anything about the

objective effectiveness of the strategies they use, or about the number of resources they devote to

those strategies. I, therefore, recommend quantitative research correlating managers’ use of

stress-reduction strategies with measurable outcomes like employee performance, company

revenue, and customer satisfaction. Such findings would be instrumental in evaluating the

usability and the effectiveness of different strategies, which is not yet understood in the ship-

repair industry (Kim et al., 2017). With knowledge of the resources devoted to stress-reduction

strategies and the return on those resources in terms of individual and organizational
 153

performance outcomes, leaders in the industry could more efficiently address occupational stress

concerns.

Another area that needs further exploration is the perspectives of different stakeholders

regarding workplace stress. The present investigation addressed the views of managerial staff,

but one limitation is that it is not possible to draw conclusions regarding employees’ perceptions

of organizational stress. There is a possibility that the causes and solutions to stress that the

managers in this study identified are different from those the employees would identify (see

Lund, 2012). I, therefore, recommend that researchers conduct case studies similar to this one

among employees. Such research would make it possible to compare the expectations of

managers with employees’ needs and expectations, which would be instrumental in identifying

the most effective strategies to reduce occupational stress and in minimizing wasted resources.

If managers implement strategies that are not aligned with employees needs, there could be a gap

between the cost of stress-reduction strategies and a lack of resulting change.

Conclusions

Work-related stress is a cost to businesses and damaging to employees, and stress is an

issue of special concern in the ship-repair industry. In conducting this study, therefore, I

intended to answer the research question: What techniques do production managers and project

managers at a ship-repair company use to reduce work-related stress? The study showed that

managers at the ship-repair company under study actively develop and use strategies to address

occupational stress among their employees. The strategies focus heavily on communication.

Not only is communication as such an important strategy in the industry, but communication is

related to other effective strategies managers use: role clarity, developing communication skills

among employees, and developing personal relationships. Additionally, incentives and a safe
 154

working environment are essential to reducing occupational stress, according to the managers

who participated in this study.

In addition to revealing important strategies for stress reduction, this study shed light on

managers’ perceptions of the consequences of occupational stress and their motivations for

employing a strategy to reduce stress. Managers in the ship-repair industry have an acute

awareness that occupational stress leads to damaging effects for the organization, both in terms

of individual performance and in terms of the success of the company as a whole. Finally, this

study revealed that negative aspects of the work environment contribute to occupational stress in

the ship-repair industry.

The results of this investigation were consistent with the previous findings of previous

studies. Additionally, this study contributed discoveries by highlighting industry-specific factors

that influence occupational stress in the ship-repair sector. The ship-repair industry is unique in

that it requires employees to work long hours, to interact with often dissatisfied customers, and

to spend long periods of time away from home. Long periods away from home is a specific

challenge faced by the ship-repair industry, and the managers in this study aligned their

strategies to reduce occupational stress with the unique aspects of their industry. The company

under investigation in this study especially suffered from issues with poor communication, which

could partly explain managers’ emphasis on that area. Taken together, then, the findings of this

study strongly support an individualized approach to reducing occupational stress.

Each industry is different, and each company within the industry faces its own unique set

of challenges. This study strongly supports the major conclusion that managers must maintain a

keen awareness of their own industry and their own work environment to tailor occupational

stress reduction strategies to the workers’ needs. Additional research is needed to determine the
 155

extent to which the strategies revealed in this study are in use in the industry. Further, it is

essential to determine whether managers’ strategies for reducing occupational stress align with

employees’ actual expectations and needs.

A second major conclusion of this study is that managers must meet their employees’

needs in their efforts to reduce occupational stress and improve employee performance. Without

taking into consideration employee needs, efforts to improve performance may not be effective.

Furthermore, managers who are focused on the potential costs of strategies like increased time

off must weight those considerations against the damaging effects of occupational stress over the

long term. Increased turnover and absenteeism rates could be more costly to an organization

than implementing training and development and providing employees with time off to ensure

adequate work-life balance. Managers must, therefore, focus on the development of an

employee-friendly workplace that encourages the development and empowerment of employees.

The most significant contribution of this investigation is the insights that it offers into

strategies for addressing the issue of occupational stress in the workplace. This study further

provides a basis for further research on managing occupational stress in industry-specific

contexts. It is crucial to develop industry-specific and organization-specific understandings of

the antecedents of occupational stress to ensure that there is a return on resources used to reduce

stress. By following the recommendations in this study, managers in the ship-repair industry can

improve the success of their organizations while simultaneously safeguarding the well-being of

their employees.
 156

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Appendices
 171

Appendix A: Invitation to Participate Email

Date:

Dear Invited Participant:

My name is Douglas S. Smith. I am a doctoral student at Northcentral University in San Diego,

CA. I will be conducting a research study titled:

Workplace Stress and Absenteeism, Turnover, and Employee Performance in the Ship-Repair
Industry: A Case Study.

I am completing this research as part of my doctoral degree in business. I invite you to

participate.

I am selecting current managers who have a minimum of five years’ experience as a project
manager or production manager. Your name will not be included in my study. I will only
include your responses to the interview questions.

Do not sign the attached Informed Consent Form, it is for your review only. The attached
Informed Consent Form is an explanation of my study. If you choose to participate, please
respond to this email and indicate your desire to take part in my study along with an available
time and date to meet, and bring a copy of your company training record. We will meet privately
at a coffee shop to review the attached informed consent form, upon completion, if you decide to
sign the consent form and participate, the following will follow:

1. Participate in audio recorded, one-on-one 20-40 minute confidential interview at a

coffee shop.
2. If participant has a company training record, he or she will bring a copy to the
interview listed above. The Participant will use a black sharpie or equal to remove
any identifying information, i.e. (Name, first and/or last, I.D. numbers, personal
phone numbers, or any other traceable information) before turning over the copy.
This will not be a separate interview; it will be part of the original interview listed in
item 1 above. I will use the copy to review later for relevant training courses
(Absenteeism, Turnover, Employee Performance, or Workplace Stress) as related to
the research study.
3. Within 48 hours of the interview, the participant will meet me at the coffee shop to
review a typed transcript of the interview. The participant will take approximately 15-
30 minutes to check for accuracy and deliver feedback if necessary.

If you have any questions about this study or consent form, please contact me at
D.Smith0938@email.ncu.edu or call me at (757)-438-7897.

Sincerely,
Douglas S. Smith, Ph.D. Candidate
 172

Appendix B: The Informed Consent Form

Workplace Stress and Absenteeism, Turnover, and Employee Performance in the Ship-Repair
Industry: A Case Study

Introduction:

My name is Douglas Smith. I am a doctoral student at Northcentral University in San Diego,

CA. I am conducting a research study at a ship-repair company to gain an in-depth
understanding of the techniques production managers and project managers use to
successfully minimize work-related stress and its effect on absenteeism, turnover rates, and
poor employee performance. I am completing this research as part of my doctoral degree. I
invite you to participate.

Activities:

If you participate in this research, you will be asked to:

1. Participate in audio recorded, one-on-one 20-40 minute confidential interview at a
coffee shop.

2. If a participant has a company training record, he or she will bring a copy to the
interview listed above. The Participant will use a black sharpie or equal to remove
any identifying information, i.e. (Name, first and/or last, I.D. numbers, personal
phone numbers, or any other traceable information) before turning over the copy.
This will not be a separate interview; it will be part of the original interview listed in
item 1 above. I will use the copy to review later for relevant training courses
(Absenteeism, Turnover, Employee Performance, or Workplace Stress) as related to
the research study.

3. Within 48 hours of the interview, the participant will meet me at the coffee shop to
review a typed transcript of the interview. The participant will take approximately 15-
30 minutes to check for accuracy and deliver feedback if necessary.

Eligibility:

You are eligible to participate in this research if you:

1. Are a current production manager or project manager.
2. Have five or more years as a manager within the same department.

You are not eligible to participate in this research if you:

1. Are not a current production or project manager working at the approved site.
2. Have less than 5 years as a project manager or production manager.

I hope to include 12 people in this research.

 173

Audiotaping:

I would like to use a voice recorder to record your responses. You can still participate if you
do not wish to be recorded.
Please sign here if I can record you: _____________________________

Additional Costs:

There are no anticipated financial costs to you.

Risks:
There are minimal risks in this study. A possible risk includes an uncomfortable question or
moment.

To decrease the impact of this risk, you can stop the participating or refuse to answer any
question(s).

Benefits:

If you decide to participate, there are no direct benefits to you.

The potential benefits to others would be adding knowledge to the research field of
minimizing work-place stress successful techniques.

Confidentiality:

The information you provide will be kept confidential to the extent allowable by law. Some
steps I will take to keep your identity confidential are: I will not use your real name or
identifying number(s) traceable to you, and your name will not be on any recorded
conversation during the interview, nor on any notes, paperwork, transcripts, or codes that
could be traceable to you.

The people who will have access to your information are me and my dissertation chair.

The Institutional Review Board may also review my research and view your information.

I will secure your information with these steps: Locking it in a filing cabinet inside a fire safe
box and locking my computer file with a password.

I will keep your data for 7 years. Then, I will delete electronic data and destroy paper data.

Contact Information:

If you have questions for me, you can contact me at (757) 438-7897 or via email at
D.Smith0938@email.ncu.edu.
 174

My dissertation chair’s name is Dr. Gergana Velkova, Ph.D. She works at Northcentral
University and is supervising me in the research. You can contact her at (419) 575-2809 or
via email at gvelkova@ncu.edu.

If you have questions about your rights in the research, or if a problem has occurred, or if you
are injured during your participation, please contact the Institutional Review Board at
irb@ncu.edu or 1-888-327-2877 ext 8014.

Voluntary Participation:

Your participation is voluntary. If you decide not to participate, or if you stop participation
after you start, there will be no penalty to you.

Signature:

A signature indicates your understanding of this consent form. You will be given a copy of
the form for your information.

Participant Signature Printed Name Date

____________________ _____________________ ____________

Researcher Signature Printed Name Date

___________________ ______________________ ____________
 175

Appendix C: University IRB Approval

Date: 9/20/17
PI Name: Douglas Smith
Chair Name (if applicable): Dr. Gergana Velkova
Application Type (Initial, Continuing, Pilot): Initial
Review Level (Exempt, Expedited, Full Board): Expedited, Category # 7
Study Title: Workplace Stress and Absenteeism, Turnover, and Employee
Performance in the Ship-Repair Industry: A Case Study

Approval Date: 9/20/17

Continuing Review Due Date: 9/20/18
Expiration Date: 9/20/18

Dear Douglas:

Congratulations! The purpose of this letter is to inform you that your IRB
application has been approved. Your responsibilities include the following:

1. Follow the protocol as approved. If you need to make changes, please

submit a modification form requesting approval of any proposed
changes before you make them.
2. If there is a consent process in your research, you must use the consent
form approved with your final application. Please make sure all
participants receive a copy of the consent form.
3. Continuing review is required as long as you are in data collection or if
data have not been de-identified. Failure to receive approval of the
continuing review before the expiration date means the research must
stop immediately.
4. If there are any injuries, problems, or complaints from participants,
you must notify the IRB at IRB@ncu.edu within 24 hours.
5. IRB audit of procedures may occur. The IRB will notify you if your
study will be audited.
6. When data are collected and de-identified, please submit a study
closure form to the IRB.
7. You must maintain current CITI certification until you have submitted
a study closure form.
8. If you are a student, please be aware that you must be enrolled in an
active dissertation course with NCU in order to collect data.

Congratulations from the NCU IRB. Best wishes as you conduct your
research!

Respectfully,
Northcentral University Institutional Review Board
Email: irb@ncu.edu
 176

Appendix D: Interview Guide

Date & Time of Interview: __________________________

Are you currently a project or production manager? _____________

How many years’ of experience do you have as a manager? _______

Do you have a minimum of five years’ experience as a project or production manager? _______

Do you have a company training record?__________, if yes, do you have any courses relating to
Absenteeism, Turnover, Employee Performance, or Workplace Stress? __________, if yes,
please list course title(s) and date(s) taken:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

The Research Question: What techniques do production managers and project managers at a
ship-repair company use to reduce work-related stress?

1. What aspects of the work or tasks, if any, are stressful for an employee?

2. How does employee work-related stress affect employees?

3. What are the effects of employee work-related stress to the organization?

4. What strategies have you implemented to help reduce or eliminate stress on the job?

5. What strategies have been most effective in reducing employee absenteeism and

turnover?

6. What strategies, if any, have been effective to increase employee performance?

7. What additional information can you provide to help me understand successful

approaches to minimizing work-place stress?
 177

Appendix E: CITI Human Subjects Research Certificate

Completion Date 12-Jun-2017

Expiration Date 12-Jun-2019
Record ID 23524466

This is to certify that:

Douglas Smith
Has completed the following CITI Program course:

Human Research (Curriculum Group)

IRB Required Modules for NCU (Course Learner Group)
1 – Basic Course (Stage)

Under requirements set by:

Northcentral University

Verify at www.citiprogram.org/verify/?w8711bed5-0968-4a3f-9b84-36730c05f6e2-23524466
 178

COLLABORATIVE INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING INITIATIVE (CITI PROGRAM)

COMPLETION REPORT - PART 1 OF 2
COURSEWORK REQUIREMENTS*

* NOTE: Scores on this Requirements Report reflect quiz completions at the time all requirements for the course were met. See
list below for details. See separate Transcript Report for more recent quiz scores, including those on optional (supplemental)
course elements.
• Name: Douglas Smith (ID: 6394329)
• Institution Affiliation: Northcentral University (ID: 786)
• Institution Email: D.Smith0938@email.ncu.edu
• Institution Unit: Engineering
• Phone: 757-438-7897

• Curriculum Group: Human Research

• Course Learner Group: IRB Required Modules for NCU
• Stage: Stage 1 - Basic Course

• Record ID: 23524466

• Completion Date: 12-Jun-2017
• Expiration Date: 12-Jun-2019
• Minimum Passing: 85
• Reported Score*: 100

REQUIRED AND ELECTIVE MODULES ONLY DATE COMPLETED SCORE

Belmont Report and CITI Course Introduction (ID: 1127) 11-Jun-2017 3/3 (100%)
History and Ethical Principles - SBE (ID: 490) 11-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Defining Research with Human Subjects - SBE (ID: 491) 11-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
The Federal Regulations - SBE (ID: 502) 11-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Assessing Risk - SBE (ID: 503) 11-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Informed Consent - SBE (ID: 504) 11-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Privacy and Confidentiality - SBE (ID: 505) 11-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Research with Prisoners - SBE (ID: 506) 11-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Research with Children - SBE (ID: 507) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Research in Public Elementary and Secondary Schools - SBE (ID: 508) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
International Research - SBE (ID: 509) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Internet-Based Research - SBE (ID: 510) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Unanticipated Problems and Reporting Requirements in Social and Behavioral Research (ID: 14928) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Cultural Competence in Research (ID: 15166) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Conflicts of Interest in Research Involving Human Subjects (ID: 488) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Consent and Subject Recruitment Challenges: Remuneration (ID: 16881) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Vulnerable Subjects - Research Involving Workers/Employees (ID: 483) 12-Jun-2017 4/4 (100%)
Gender and Sexuality Diversity (GSD) in Human Research (ID: 16556) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Research with Persons who are Socially or Economically Disadvantaged (ID: 16539) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Research with Subjects with Physical Disabilities & Impairments (ID: 16657) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Basic Institutional Review Board (IRB) Regulations and Review Process (ID: 2) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Records-Based Research (ID: 5) 12-Jun-2017 3/3 (100%)
Avoiding Group Harms - U.S. Research Perspectives (ID: 14080) 12-Jun-2017 3/3 (100%)
Research and HIPAA Privacy Protections (ID: 14) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Data Management (RCR-Basic) (ID: 16600) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Research Misconduct (RCR-Basic) (ID: 16604) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Research, Ethics, and Society (RCR) (ID: 15198) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
For this Report to be valid, the learner identified above must have had a valid affiliation with the CITI Program
subscribing institution identified above or have been a paid Independent Learner.

Verify at: www.citiprogram.org/verify/?ka9d0969c-3233-442d-add9-01c511bdad9c-23524466

Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI Program)
Email: support@citiprogram.org
Phone: 888-529-5929
Web: https://www.citiprogram.org
 179

COLLABORATIVE INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING INITIATIVE (CITI PROGRAM)

COMPLETION REPORT - PART 2 OF 2
COURSEWORK TRANSCRIPT**

** NOTE: Scores on this Transcript Report reflect the most current quiz completions, including quizzes on optional
(supplemental) elements of the course. See list below for details. See separate Requirements Report for the reported scores at
the time all requirements for the course were met.

• Name: Douglas Smith (ID: 6394329)

• Institution Affiliation: Northcentral University (ID: 786)
• Institution Email: D.Smith0938@email.ncu.edu
• Institution Unit: Engineering
• Phone: 757-438-7897

• Curriculum Group: Human Research

• Course Learner Group: IRB Required Modules for NCU
• Stage: Stage 1 - Basic Course

• Record ID: 23524466

• Report Date: 12-Jun-2017
• Current Score**: 100

REQUIRED, ELECTIVE, AND SUPPLEMENTAL MODULES MOST RECENT SCORE

Research, Ethics, and Society (RCR) (ID: 15198) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
History and Ethical Principles - SBE (ID: 490) 11-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Defining Research with Human Subjects - SBE (ID: 491) 11-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Belmont Report and CITI Course Introduction (ID: 1127) 11-Jun-2017 3/3 (100%)
Records-Based Research (ID: 5) 12-Jun-2017 3/3 (100%)
The Federal Regulations - SBE (ID: 502) 11-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Data Management (RCR-Basic) (ID: 16600) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Assessing Risk - SBE (ID: 503) 11-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Informed Consent - SBE (ID: 504) 11-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Privacy and Confidentiality - SBE (ID: 505) 11-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Research with Prisoners - SBE (ID: 506) 11-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Research Misconduct (RCR-Basic) (ID: 16604) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Research with Children - SBE (ID: 507) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Research in Public Elementary and Secondary Schools - SBE (ID: 508) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
International Research - SBE (ID: 509) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Internet-Based Research - SBE (ID: 510) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Research and HIPAA Privacy Protections (ID: 14) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Vulnerable Subjects - Research Involving Workers/Employees (ID: 483) 12-Jun-2017 4/4 (100%)
Unanticipated Problems and Reporting Requirements in Social and Behavioral Research (ID: 14928) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Conflicts of Interest in Research Involving Human Subjects (ID: 488) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Avoiding Group Harms - U.S. Research Perspectives (ID: 14080) 12-Jun-2017 3/3 (100%)
Cultural Competence in Research (ID: 15166) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Basic Institutional Review Board (IRB) Regulations and Review Process (ID: 2) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Research with Persons who are Socially or Economically Disadvantaged (ID: 16539) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Gender and Sexuality Diversity (GSD) in Human Research (ID: 16556) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Research with Subjects with Physical Disabilities & Impairments (ID: 16657) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
Consent and Subject Recruitment Challenges: Remuneration (ID: 16881) 12-Jun-2017 5/5 (100%)
For this Report to be valid, the learner identified above must have had a valid affiliation with the CITI Program
subscribing institution identified above or have been a paid Independent Learner.

Verify at: www.citiprogram.org/verify/?ka9d0969c-3233-442d-add9-01c511bdad9c-23524466

Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI Program)
Email: support@citiprogram.org
Phone: 888-529-5929
Web: https://www.citiprogram.org