HEAT, MOLECULAR MOTION, AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

CHAPTER 26

When a book sliding on a table comes to rest, tum is mv. When it strikes the wall and comes
energy seems to have disappeared, but the book to rest, this momentum is transferred to the wall.
and the warmer. We cannot
table are slightly The wall is given an impulse of size mv.
maintain the idea that energy is conserved unless Now consider a small time interval t during
we can include heat as a form of energy. In this which n such molecules hit the wall. The total
chapter we shall extend our knowledge of energy impulse perpendicular to the wall is mvn. If the
to include heat. We already know something number n of colliding molecules is great enough,
about heat and temperature from ordinary experi- the wall responds as if to a steady force. This
ence and from our study of gases in Chapter 9. force times the time t is just another way of
As we mentioned there, experimental evidence expressing the total impulse. Consequently,
indicates that temperature measures the average
Ft = mvn.
m: : of the gas molecules. As we would say now,
the temperature appears to be proportional to From this equation we see that the average force is
the average kinetic energy of the molecular
motion. We now re-examine the model of
_ mvn
shall ~ ~T
a gas developed in Chapter 9 and use our knowl-
edge of dynamics to get more insight into the We want to relate the force from this stream of
connections between temperature, heat, and molecules bombarding the wall to the force
energy. Later in this chapter, we shall see how to exerted on an area of wall by the molecular
establish measures of thermal energy for all sorts bombardment of a gas. For this purpose we
of bodies, for liquids and solids as well as gases. wish to know how many molecules there must be
in the little region of space near the wall to provide
26-1. Gas Pressure the bombardment we just considered (Fig. 26-1).
When we developed the molecular model of We can find out by finding the volume near the
a gas, we found that the model of moving mole- wall from which the n molecules came.
cules bombarding the walls of a container related Suppose that the molecules land on an area A
the pressure of a gas to the number, speeds, and of the wall. Then all of them must have come
masses of the molecules. We now want to find from a little volume with the base A and altitude
the detailed form of this relation. vt. No molecule which started out at the begin-
Let us start by considering a single molecule ning of time t any farther away can have reached
approaching a wall, moving straight at it with the wall, because vt is the distance the molecules
speed v. If the molecule has mass m, its momen- travel in time /, and if they start farther away they
425
 •

426 HEAT, MOLECULAR MOTION, AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

will fail to arrive in the time t. All the molecules

that started out at any distance less than vt must
have reached the wall because they will go the
shorter distances from their initial positions to
the wall in less than time t. We can conclude,
therefore, that at the beginning of the time
intervalt, the n molecules must have occupied

the volume vtA. The number of molecules per

unit volume that provide this bombardment is,
therefore,

number n
volume 'vtA.'

In a gas at uniform temperature, every identical

volume of reasonable size contains almost the
same number of molecules. If the gas is in a
container, the number of molecules per unit vol-
ume is given by the total number of molecules N
divided by the volume V of the container. In our
model of a gas, therefore,
n
= N
vtA ~ V'

and n = vtA —

This equation relates the number of molecules

n bombarding the wall area A in time t with the
number of molecules per volume in a gas. unit
It provides the connection for which we were
looking. When we put this expression for n into
the equation F = mvn/t for the force on the area
A of the wall, we obtain

The average force per unit area is called the

pressure According to our simplified gas
P.
model, then, the pressure is given by

F
Pp = =mV 2
N
A V
This is the kind of result we want. The last
equation expresses gas pressure in terms of the

26—1. (a) The molecules move toward the wall with speed v.

From what volume do the molecules come that reach the wall
area A in time it (b) The dots show the original positions of the
molecules. The arrow heads show how far they get in time f —
unless they hit the wall. Notice that all the molecules starting
within the distance vt of the wall hit it. All those starting farther

away do not get to the wall in time t. Therefore those molecules

reaching the wall come from a volume of base A and height vt.
 .

HEAT, MOLECULAR MOTION, AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 427

number of molecules per unit volume and the cules per unit volume N/V and to the kinetic
kinetic energy per molecule. energy htw 2
of each molecule. This result agrees
In order to simplify our computations, we have with Boyle's law and with the idea that the
assumed that molecules stop when they hit the Kelvin temperature is proportional to the kinetic
wall. In making a model of the behavior of gases energy. At a given temperature, then, mv 2 has
this assumption is unrealistic. A molecule may the same value for all kinds of molecules. Con-
stick to the wall for a while, but certainly a num- sequently, the model predicts that the pressure is
ber of molecules must move away from the wall proportional to the number of molecules and
just equal to the number that move toward it. inversely proportional to the volume they occupy,
Otherwise the container will soon be emptied of regardless of the nature of the gas. This is just
gas. Indeed not only must an equal number of what we found for real gases as long as the mole-
molecules move away from the wall but they cules are far apart.
must move away from the wall with equal but In establishing the relation
opposite momentum. for example, they
Pp = mv 2^
If,
2 —
went back into the gas moving more slowly, the
energy of molecular motion of the gas would de-
we have introduced all the essential factors in a
crease. This would happen only when energy is
molecular model of gas pressure. However, there
flowing out of the gas, not when the behavior of
are two final improvements we shall make in the
the gas remains the same.
model we shall make the molecules move about
We can now improve our model of a gas by
:

in all directions instead of confining them to

considering the molecules leaving the wall as well
motion perpendicular to the walls and we shall
as those that come toward it. For every molecule
allow them to have different speeds instead of all
that brings momentum mv to the wall, another
moving at the same speed.
molecule leaves with a momentum that is exactly
In a gas it is the random thermal motions of
equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
the molecules that bring them to the walls. The
Consequently the impulse on the wall is twice
molecules go into the wall at all angles, not just
what we have assumed : and therefore, compared
perpendicularly. The net effect (as we show in the
to our first calculation, the pressure is also twice
box on page 428) is to replace mv 2 by j^mv 2 In .

as great. At the same time, however, the number

a manner of speaking, only ^ of the molecular
of molecules per unit volume in the gas must also
be twice what we computed. In a little volume of
motions are perpendicular to the wall — the other §
are parallel to the wall at right angles to each
the gas next to the wall, in addition to the mole-
other. Consequently, the gas pressure is
cules we have considered which are coming toward
the wall, there is an equal number of molecules
P =
now leaving the wall. In all there are twice as
i(mv 2)
y
many molecules per unit volume.
Now since -=- is the kinetic energy EK
Now look back at our equation for the pressure. ,

When we double the pressure and double the

number of molecules per unit volume we need S^K-
make no change in the equation. Consequently, -tffl-
We can, therefore, write our expression for the
pressure as

P-%E«Z.
r — 3-Ck y-
gives the pressure of a gas of molecules bouncing
back and forth between the two walls in a con- This equation says that the pressure is § of the
tainer. It expresses the pressure according to a kinetic energy of a molecule times the number of
rather good model of a gas. molecules per unit volume. This form of the
In a moment we shall make the model even equation emphasizes the role of the molecular
better, but we already find in this model all the kinetic energy in determining the pressure.
features we discussed in Chapter 9. Briefly the Finally in a gas the molecular speeds are not
pressure is proportional to the number of mole- all the same and the molecules may have differ-
 :

428 HEAT, MOLECULAR MOTION, AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Taking Account of the Random

Directions of Molecular Motion
In Section 26-1 we show that a stream of
molecules hitting a wall head-on exerts a
pressure on the wall

PP = mv 22^
—

When the wall is bombarded by molecules

coming at it in all directions, the pressure is

We can account for the extra factor £ in the

case of bombardment in all directions as
follows : components of molecular
First, the

momentum parallel to the wall lead to no

force on the wall. This is true because along 26—2. By Pythagorean
the theorem, in the shaded
every line parallel to the wall equal numbers right triangle v2 = V||
2
+ v 22 . And vi|
2 = » x' + v y2 by
of molecules move in opposite directions. using the same theorem on the right triangle with sides v If

And numbers of molecules

therefore equal v y, and vj[. Therefore, v2 = y z2 -f- y y2 + v, 2 .

hit the wall with parallel components in one

and z, where we have chosen z as the direction
direction and with parallel components in
perpendicular to the wall. As Fig. 26-2 shows,
the opposite direction. Now that we are rid
of the parallel components, we look at the
v
1
= vx 2 + vy 2 + v
2
. Now when v points
equally often in all directions, the average
perpendicular components. In place of the 2
values of vj, vy
2
and v must all be the same
momentum we must now
,
mv, use the compo-
nent mv±; and in place of v for the speed
that is, v x
2
= vy
2
= v
2
,
where the bar means
which brings molecules to the wall, we must "average." Thus
use v± . Therefore in place ofmv 2 we must
2
now v
2
= v^ + ^ + vS = 3vJ-
have mv^ . In other words, the square of
one component of the velocity replaces the And since v ± = vz ,

square of the velocity.

v2 = 3v ± 2 or v±
2
= \v 2
In the gas the velocities of the molecules
must point equally often in all directions. This factor § between v/ and v
2
accounts for
We must therefore find the relation of the the difference between the pressure of a
average of the square of the particular stream of molecules hitting a wall head-on
component v± to the square of the vector v and the pressure of molecules hitting a wall
when the vector points equally often in every from all directions. Since the molecules
direction. This can be done by expressing v
2
in a gas move in all directions, the gas
in terms of the squares of its
along three rectangular directions, say x, y,
components
pressure is P = ynv 1 —

ent masses. Here, however, the last equation cule averaged over all the molecules. The aver-
tells us what to do. It says that on a long enough age times the number is the same as adding
average each molecule contributes to the pres- together the contributions of the individual mole-
sure in proportion to its kinetic energy. The cules.
same equation will therefore tell us the pressure We should be careful to say that the kinetic
if we interpret EK as the kinetic energy per mole- energy involved is the kinetic energy associated
 HEAT, MOLECULAR MOTION, AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 429

with motions of the centers of mass of the mole- pressure they expand in the same proportion (or
cules. It is not the kinetic energy of the motion at constant volume the pressure rises in the same
of the parts of the molecule vibrating or rotating proportion for all of them). In Section 9-4, this
about the center of mass. We can see that only identical behavior of PV/N for all gases as the
the kinetic energ\ of center of mass motion is in temperature rises led us to select gases to define
question by remembering that the m; :
arises from the basic temperature scale. We used
the momentum mo of each molecule times the
speed i bringing the molecules to the wall. It is
PV
the velocity of the molecules toward the wall that
determines how manv get to the wall per second to define the absolute temperature scale. We
and how big an impulse each gives the wall. adjusted the proportionality factor k, so that the
This is the center of mass motion, and the gas value of the temperature of melting ice is 273°
pressure therefore depends on the average kinetic Kelvin. (Then there are 100 degrees between the
enersv in this motion. temperature of melting ice and the temperature

of boiling water as in all common scientific

thermometers.)
26-2. Temperature and Molecular Kinetic Now we can make our most important con-
Energy; Thermal Energy clusion. We know that the proportionality
factor 6 in Boyle's law measures the temperature;
In Chapter 9 we learned that all gases at low
enough density behave just alike. The predic-
and we know that § of the average kinetic
6 is

model of gases energy of a molecule. Consequently (as we

tions of the molecular fit this
anticipated in Chapter 9 and in Section 26-1),
common behavior. Boyle's law
the temperature is a measure of the thermal ki-
netic energy — a measure of energy of the random
molecular motions.

relates the pressure P to the number N of molecules Just how much energy is there on the average

volume N/V of any gas at a particular in the center of mass motion of one molecule at a
per unit
temperature. Experimentally the proportionality
particular temperature? From
factor d depends only on temperature, not on the PV =
6 = kT
nature of the gas. N
The molecular model, as we found in the last
section, predicts that we can calculate k. (For example, you can use
atmospheric pressure 1.01 X 10 5 newtons/m 2
N a mole of any gas, that 6.025
is X 10 23
molecules;
;

(§£k)
and 22.4 liters = 2.24 X 10- 2 m 3
, which is the
where £K =mi 1 /! is the average kinetic energy volume that a mole occupies at 273° K and this
of the center of mass motion of a molecule in the pressure.) The result is

gas. This is exactly the same as Boyle's law, but

1 1.01 X 10' ™*2D5) (2.24 X 10- 2 m 3
it goes further. It tells us that the proportionality
k = v m /
)

factor 6 is § of the average kinetic energy of a gas (6.025 X 10 23

molecules)(273° K)
molecule:
joule
= 1.37 X 10-
molecule — °K

Because 6 is the same for all gases at the same This gives us the numerical relation between the
temperature, we learn that the average kinetic temperature and the average molecular kinetic
energy is the same no matter what the mass of the energy. Since
molecule.
f£K = 6 = kT,
As we change the temperature from melting
ice to boiling water or to any other value, all we find that the average kinetic energy of a mole-
low-density gases still behave alike. At constant cule is \kT. Putting in the value of k we get
430 HEAT, MOLECULAR MOTION, AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

£K = f(1.37 X 10- 23 ) T= 2.05 X 10"- 3 r,

where £"K is measured in joules per molecule and

T is measured in ° K. At room temperature, for
-21
example, a molecule has about 6 xlO joules
of kinetic energy on the average in its center-of-
mass motion.
The temperature is a measure of the average
kinetic energy of an individual molecule, the ki-
netic energy of its center-of-mass motion. In any
gas the molecules have this energy, and perhaps
other forms of energy in addition. So one mole of
any gas should have

6.025 X 10 23 X 2.05 X 10~ 23 = 12.4

joules of energy in this form for each Kelvin

degree of temperature.
We can put energy into a gas in many ways —
beating it with an egg beater, rubbing the con-
tainer, letting heat flow into it are a few of the
possibilities. (Here we do not mean throwing
a bottlefull of gas across the room that gives —
energy to moving the whole bulk, while we are
now interested in feeding the energy into the in- 26-3. All the energy fed into a gas of monatomic moleculej
side of the gas withoutmoving the whole works.) goes into center-of-mass motion of the molecules, as indicated in

When we feed energy into some gases, it all appears (a). Complex molecules, like those in (b), can also rotate and
to go into the energy of the motions of the centers vibrate. Therefore, part of the incoming energy goes into rota-

of mass of the molecules. If we feed 12.4 joules tion and vibration, and not all of it raises the temperature.

into amole of helium or any other noble gas the

temperature rises by 1° K. We can put in the The energy of the motions of the centers of mass
energy in many ways; all give the same result. of the molecules and the energy of rotation and vi-
The energy we put in is completely accounted for bration of the atoms in a molecule are often called
by the increased motion of the centers of mass of thermal energy. Actually not all thermal energy
the molecules. is necessarily kinetic energy; it may include the
The molecules of the noble gases are especially mutual potential energy of the atoms as they
simple. They are single atoms (He, A, Ne, etc). change their separations inside the molecules.
More complicated molecules like 2
—
N 2 CH 4 Briefly, thermal energy is any energy that is fed
—
, ,

which are made of two or more atoms do not into a sample when we raise its temperature and
behave the same way. To raise their tempera- comes out when the temperature falls.
ture one degree Kelvin may require more than When thermal energy is fed into a gas, some of
12.4 joules per mole. Raising their temperature it may go into internal potential energy — inside

takes more energy because the atoms in a com- the molecules. When the molecules are closer
plicated molecule vibrate and rotate around the together, as in a liquid or solid, they continually
center of mass (Fig. 26-3). And when we feed exert appreciable forces on each other. Then, in
in energy, only part of it ends up increasing addition to their kinetic energy, there is an average
the energy of center-of-mass motion; the rest mutual potential energy of the interactions be-
goes to increase the energy of rotation and vibra- tween the molecules; and when we feed energy
tion. Since the temperature measures only the in from the outside some of it goes into changing
part of the energy in the center-of-mass motion, the average potential energy of the interacting
more energy must be fed into the gas to produce molecules. The thermal energy then includes
a given rise in the temperature. potential energy of molecular interaction.
 Ill \l. MOLECULAR MOTION, AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 431

The distinction between temperature and move back and forth inside with speed v relative
thermal energy (or heat) should now he clear. The to the box. The apparent kinetic energy %MV 2
temperature measures only the average energy of is only a part of the total kinetic energy. The
the center-of-mass motion. It gives the center- total kinetic energy £ K is made up of the kinetic
of-mass energy per molecule. The thermal energy energy of the box M u moving at speed V, plus the
also includes the energy in all the other internal kinetic energy of the balls. If the box were trans-
motions and even the potential energy which parent, you would see one ball m moving at speed
changes when the molecules move farther apart V + v and the other going at speed V — v. The
or closer together with changing temperature. total kinetic energy EK is therefore
The thermal energy per molecule can therefore be
different in two samples even though the temper-
EK = |Mb F 2 + |m(K + v)
2
+ \m{V v)
2

ature is the same. For example, while water is

= \MV + 2
2(±mv 2
),

boiling, its temperature stays constant, but we where the total mass is = M M + 2m. h As the
must supply a large amount of energy to pull the last term on the right shows, in addition to the
molecules apart. When water vapor condenses, kinetic energy \MV 2
of bulk motion, the total
the molecules cluster together without appreciable energy may contain any amount of energy of
change in kinetic energy, but a large amount of internal motion. That energy cannot normally
"latent heat" is released and must be taken away be seen from outside.
while the average separation of the molecules and On the other hand, the apparent momentum of
the average intermolecular potential energy de- the bulk motion momentum.
is the total By
crease. The latent heat is usually classed as adding the momentum of each mass, we get
thermal energy; it is

mass motion of the molecules, as we

not the energy of center-of-
see, because
M V+ m(V+
h v) + m(V - v)

the temperature stays the same.

= (Mb + 2m) V = MV,
which is exactly the momentum of the total mass
26-3. Mechanical Energy of Bulk Motion in its visible motion.
and Internal Energy This simple example illustrates a very common
When bodies isolated from the rest of the world situation. Energy is often locked up in forms that
interact with each other, their total momentum do not appear as the kinetic energy of the motion
does not change. Momentum, as we saw in of visible bulk masses, while momentum is less
Chapter 23, is conserved. Mechanical energy, frequently hidden from our view. Consider, for
however, is conserved only if no dissipa-
there are example, the experiment of Section 23-6, in which
tive forces such as friction. When there are a projectile is fired into a bag of sand. When the
frictional forces that depend on something besides bullet buries itself in the bag, the bag moves off
the separations of the visible masses, the visible with the total momentum. If the bullet of mass m
mechanical energy decreases, as in the example of moved with speed v, the bag of mass now moves M
a book sliding on a table. Is the law of conserva- with speed V such that (M + m) V = mv, and
tion of energy really limited, unlike the law of
V=
conservation of momentum,
only changed form or location, so that
or has the energy
its pre-
M -f- m
sence is no longer obvious? Before the bullet strikes the bag, the kinetic
Consider for a moment a closed box with two energy is EK = \mv 2 , while afterwards the kinetic
balls of equal mass m moving back and forth in- energy of the visible bulk motion is only
ball goes north at speed v
side. Suppose that one EK = ±{M+m)V
' 2
.

when same speed, and

the other goes south at the
This is far less than the original kinetic energy, as
they pass each other at the midpoint. The system
has no total momentum at any time, and from we by substituting V=
outside we see no motion. No kinetic energy is
find
M + m in the expres-
apparent unless we can look inside.
sion for £K '.
The result is

Now think of this whole system of box and balls

moving north past us at speed V while the balls
Ek = '

\whnj E *
 432 HEAT, MOLECULAR MOTION, AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

The final kinetic energy EK '

is down by the factor atmosphere, it gets so hot that it usually vaporizes
m completely. Where energy disappears from the
M + m from the original kinetic energy EK . The
visible motions and from the potential energy of

fraction — of the original energy has disap-

the separation of visible bodies,
notice a rise in temperature.
we frequently

peared from view. For example, if a 5-kg pro- The temperature of a gas is a measure of the
jectile is fired into a 50-kg sandbag (and stays in average nu 2 of its molecules. At least in the case

the bag!), 50/55 or 91 per cent of its original ki- of simple gases, the number of molecules affected
netic energybecomes invisible. times the change in temperature measures the
What has happened to this energy? We think energy which is fed into or out of the random
that when the bullet knocks into the sand, it sets thermal motions. For other substances (for which
the molecules in the sand and in itself into more we do not have such a simple model), the energy
rapid motion, with accompanying changes of po- fed in may also go into changing internal potential
tential energies. It has thus transferred a great energy, increasing the separations of atoms, for
deal of its kinetic energy into the energy of the random mc : 's of the
instance, as well as into the
random motions of the atoms and molecules in its thermal dance. Nevertheless, as long as we keep
surface and along its path through the sand. Be- the bulk volume of any substance the same, we
cause these internal motions of the atoms inside might expect that the increase of internal energy
the bag are little motions that go in all directions, would be reflected in a temperature change. Heat,
we do not see them ; and we lose track of this part we may guess, is a form of energy and ; a hotter
of the energy while seeing only the small amount body contains more internal motion than a colder
of energy that goes into the bulk motion of the one.
bag. Now we can look back on the history of the idea
We would like to believe that no energy has that heat is energy. had early been recognized
It

really been lost; but if we can see only a very that heat phenomena might be explained in me-
small part of the total energy, how can we know chanical terms. Bacon, Galileo, Boyle, Hooke,
that all the energy is still around? We must find Newton, and others conceived that the tempera-
a way measure the energy that has gone into
to ture of a body might be related to the "degree of
internal motions or changes of atomic separations. motion" of the particles of which it was made.
In principle perhaps we could look at the position Boyle gave an illustration in the motion of a nail
and motion of every microscopic or submicro- driven into a board. When the head prevents
scopic particle of matter but in practical life we
; further motion of the nail, repeated blows of the
need some way of evaluating the energy stored in hammer then serve to heat the nail the motion of :

large chunks of matter without resorting to micro- the hammer can no longer be imparted to the nail
scopic examination. as a whole, Boyle said, and so is transferred to the
Here we are at the threshold of a great extension "corpuscles" in the nail, making them move more
of the idea of conservation of energy. What we quickly, and so producing a hot nail.
need is a measure of internal energy changes that There are many claimants to the full proof that
depends on a few common measurements like heat is energy. Count Rumford heated cannon by
temperature and volume. This will allow us to boring them, using mechanical energy supplied by
extend the conservation of energy to a whole new horses. The energy became heat. Soon after-
domain. With such a measure we can evaluate wards, the use of steam engines made it clear that
energy changes without seeing the actual position heat could also be turned into mechanical energy.
and motion of every microscopic particle of the The idea that heat is energy was clearly formulated
object with which we deal. by the German physicist Julius Robert Maver
We already have clues to the evaluation of the (1814-1878) and the British physicist James Pres-
energy stored in internal motions and positions. cott Joule (1818-1898).* By the time of Mayer
When the bullet stops in the sand, they both heat * Mayer was a physician whose animal heat led
interest in
up.When a car is stopped suddenly, its apparent him to the study of heat in general. owner of
Joule, the
a successful brewery, was a pupil of Dalton. Joule made
kinetic energy is lost; but the brakes heat up. many distinguished contributions to science, especially
When a meteor is slowed down in the earth's in the fields of electricity and heat.
 HEAT, MOIECULAR MOTION, AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 433

and Joule, there were available main processes placed in an insulated container, for example
of energy conversion: heat to mechanical energy, in a large vacuum bottle. In the water there is a
electricity to heat, electricity to mechanical paddle wheel which can be turned by a falling mass
energy, etc. Joule made measurements of many m as shown in Fig. 26-4. When the bearings of
such conversions. In each experiment, he ex- the paddle wheel are well lubricated, the work
pressed his results in terms of heat, measured by done by the gravitational forces on the mass m
warming up some water, and mechanical energy, measures the energy transferred from gravitational
measured bv raising a load against gravity. He potential energy of m and used to churn up
used the constancy of the conversion factor be- the water. When the mass is stopped, the paddle
tween those two measures to show that heat is wheels stop, and the water quiets down. Finally
a form of energy. This is our next job. it is at rest ; but we find that the temperature of the
water has increased. From beginning to end only
26-4. The Equivalence of Mechanical and two things have changed. The mass has fallen
Thermal Energy slowly through the distance h, so that mgh gravita-
We have just asserted that when gross mechani- tional energy has disappeared, and the water has

cal energy is lost it often turns up as thermal become hotter.

energy — the energy of random molecular motion. mechanical energy and "heat" are equivalent,
If

But such an assertion must be backed by more we snail always obtain the same temperature rise
than the qualitative observation that heat is found
when mechanical energy is lost. 26—4. The apparatus for a Joule experiment, to observe the
conversion of mechanical energy into heat. As the masses go
The British physicist Joule showed that the
same amount of heating occurs —
the same ther-
down, the paddle wheels turn, churning up the water. When the

mal energy appears —

whenever a given amount
masses have fallen the distance
mgh
h, gravitational potential energy
has disappeared and the water has been heated, (m = the
of mechanical energy is lost. Suppose that water is total mass that goes down.) Note that the masses go down with-
out attaining much speed, and their kinetic energy is small.
434 HEAT, MOLECULAR MOTION, AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

when amount of work is done in heating

a given the container of oil in contact with the container
a givenamount of water. In fact, a lot of different holding the water. We
keep the whole system
experiments have been done. They show that the insulated. The temperature of the oil rises and
temperature rise depends only on the energy trans- that of the water drops. Finallv equilibrium is

ferred and not on the force or distance or the reached : the temperature of both liquids
becomes
design of the paddle wheels. For example, if we the same and remains constant. We measure the
double the mass of the falling body and allow it final temperature of the water and oil. and we find

to fall only half the original vertical distance, the that each is one degree higher than it was at the
work done by the gravitational forces is the same start.

as before. And we find that the temperature rise We conclude the following: of the (x -+-
y)
of the water is exactly the same, even though the joules of work done on
the water, y joules have
process has been carried out considerably faster. been transferred to the oil by heat flow. We
make this conclusion because we know that
26-5. Heat Flow exactly y joules of work are necessary to produce
The dissipation of mechanical energy through a temperature rise of one degree in the oil. The
frictional forces is not the only method of increas- remaining x joules have produced the one-degree
ing the temperature of an object. You can warm temperature rise of the water. Thus we have
your hands either by rubbing them together or by shown that the work necessary to produce a
dipping them into hot water. When they are in definite temperature rise in a given liquid is the
hot water, there is a transfer of energy from the same whether the energy is transferred to the
more lively random molecular motions of the hot liquidby heat flow or whether the mechanical
water to the more sluggish random molecular energy is dissipated directly in the liquid.
motions of your cold skin. When such a transfer
of thermal energy from a hotter to a colder body 26-6. Quantitative Relation of Energy
occurs, we say that heat flows from the first to the Dissipation and Temperature Rise
second body. Let us be specific about the energy that must be
We can trace a given amount of energy from dissipated to raise the temperature of a gram of
C
gross mechanical energy into internal thermal water by 1 C. If we dissipate mechanical energy,
energy of a given sample through either of two we find that we must transfer 4.2 joules. Alter-
routes. The energy may be converted from natively, we can put the energy in by heat flow
mechanical to thermal energy in the sample or it from hot oil. We can calibrate the hot oil by a
may be converted to thermal energy elsewhere Joule experiment. Then we find that the oil

and reach the sample by heat flow. By experi- must lose 4.2 joulesby heat flow to warm the
ment we can show that the method of transfer water. Whichever way they are received, 4.2
does not matter. The same amount of thermal joules of energy will raise the temperature of the
energy winds up in the sample either way. water just the same amount.
Suppose that we have two containers, one We can combine the two ways of heating up a
containing a certain amount of water, as in the mass of material. Suppose we have a gram of
Joule experiment, and the other a different amount water surrounded by a bath of hot oil, all insu-
of another liquid, such as oil. We perform the lated from the rest of the world, and with a little

Joule experiment described in the last section insulating shaft leading to paddles in the water.
separatelyon each liquid and we find that it takes
; Now we dissipate 1 joule of mechanical energy
x joules of work to raise the temperature of the in the gram of water by whirling the paddles:
water one degree and that it takes y joules of work we also allow 3.2 joules to flow into the water
to raise the temperature of the oil one degree. from the oil as indicated by the fall in tempera-
Now we start again with the water and oil at their ture of the surrounding oil bath. We then find
original common temperature. We churn the that the total transfer into increased internal
water alone until we have dissipated (x + y) joules energy of the gram of water is 4.2 joules. This is

of mechanical work. The temperature of the indicated by a l

r
C rise in temperature, the same
water rises more than one degree. Then we place rise in temperature that occurs if we let 4.2 joules
 HEAT, MOLECULAR MOTION, AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 435

flow into a cram of water purely bv heat flow or Joule experiments and heat-flow experiments fail

dissipate it by mechanical means alone. In toanswer all the questions we can ask about heat
general, the transfer into internal energy is given and mechanical energy. Can we turn heat into
mechanical energy at the same rate of exchange at

AM-+ AG?. which the mechanical energy turns into heat?

Can we get 4.2 joules of gross mechanical energy
the sum of the transfer AH' bv mechanical energy from the heat that comes out of a gram of water
dissipation and the transfer AG? by heat flow. when its temperature falls 1° C? Our earlier
This total transfer has the same effect no matter experiments suggest that we should get 4.2 joules,
what fraction of it is AH'and what fraction is At?. but we need direct evidence. Lots of things —
We can dissipate energy in water in innumerable
— even door latches — act one way when going in
ways even dropping stones into it will do. The
one direction and when reversed.
differently
result is always the same. Whenever 4.2 joules are
The simple way to check up on the change from
dissipated in a gram of water, its temperature rises
heat to mechanical energy would be to pour a
IX. To raise the temperature of 2 grams takes
known amount of heat AC? into a heat engine and
just twice the energy. Similarly, whenever measure the work A W
the engine does. We must
12.4 joules are dissipated in a mole of helium
C
be sure, however, to leave the heat engine at the
(4 grams), its temperature rises 1 C. The rise
end with the same energy it had at the beginning;
in temperature is different for different substances
otherwise we must know how much extra energy
as the examples show, but in any one substance, the engine has retained or how much it has given
we always get the same results over the same
us from its original stock.
temperature range.
The usual way to make sure that the engine is
Precise measurements show that 4.185 joules
not contributing energy is to get the engineback
are necessary to raise the temperature of gram1
at the end into exactly the same condition it
of water 1° from 14.5
C
C to 15.5° C. This amount was in at the beginning. We then find, however,
of energy is called a calorie.* The calorie is just
that the engine does not simply take in the heat
another unit of energy. We could measure the
AC? and produce work. It takes in the heat
kinetic energy of the bulk motion of an object in
AG?, produces some work, and pours out some
calories just as well as in joules; for instance,
heat. (It is to get rid of that rejected heat which
a 3-kg mass moving 2 m/sec has ^(3)(2) 2 = 6 joules
must be poured out that cars and all other heat
or . . ~ 1 .45 calories of kinetic energy ; how- engines have radiators.) If we wish to see whether
RJ
thermal energy can be turned into gross mechan-
ever, the joule connects directly with our units of ical energy joule for joule, we must use the net
force and distance so that the joule is usually flow of heat — that going in minus that coming
more convenient. We shall stick to joules. One out — to compare with the work. Consequently,
unit is enough. we must measure all the heat taken in and all the
heat coming out by observing the temperature
26-7. Conservation of Energy changes of the surroundings. Then we can com-
When changed into
gross mechanical energy is
pare the net flow of heat into the engine with the
heat, the same number of joules of mechanical
net work measured by forces times distances.
energy gives the same heating. If we put the heat Such experiments have been carried out. The
into a standard amount of water, for instance, Frenchman Hirn even chased all the heat and all
we always get the same temperature rise. But the work in and out of the steam engine of a textile
•Units like the calorie came into use for measuring heat mill. The result is that the heat does turn into
even before heat was agreed to be a form of energy.
They are used because it is so easy to estimate a quantity
mechanical work at par. When we can change
of heat by giving it to a known mass of water and measur- 4.2 joules of heat into mechanical energy, we get
ing the temr>erature rise. Note that there is a larger unit, 4.2 joules of mechanical energy.
the "kilocalorie" or Calorie with a capital C, which is
Although the energy equivalence of heat and
1000 times as big as the small-c calorie. The Calorie is
the unit commonly used today in specifying energy yields mechanical energy is complete —
the same when
from food. the transfer is in either direction there is an —
436 HEAT, MOLECULAR MOTION, AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

essential difference between transfers in the two this energy of radiation in the same wav that we
directions. We can easily change all of a supply had to include the momentum of radiation to
of gross mechanical energy into heat; but we can explain the behavior of bodies which emit or
normally change only a fraction of the heat absorb light.
available into gross mechanical energy. We pour Experiment and theory combine to assure us
the heat into an engine at a high temperature; that energy is indeed conserved when radiation
some of must be poured out again at a lower
it is included. But, whereas the transfer of thermal
temperature; and the remainder turns into energy by ordinary heat flow can be viewed as a
mechanical energy at full value. The fact that microscopic version of the transfer of energ\
whatever energy is changed in form is converted through work, the transfer through radiation
at full value is a version of the first law of thermo- is different. We cannot be satisfiedthat we
dynamics. The question of how large a fraction understand that mechanism until we have studied
can be converted is the subject of the second law radiation. Here we shall not try to go through
of thermodynamics. the details. Even without studying the mechan-
We now believe that heat and mechanical ism, however, we can extend the conservation of
energy are just two different forms of energy, and energy to include radiation by performing
no energy is lost or gained in turning one into the experiments like those with which we extended
other. Energy, like momentum, is conserved; the conservation of energy to include heat flow.
but to see that it does not change amount we have We can use a measured amount of energy to run
had to find measures of heat and keep track of the a light for a while and absorb the emitted radia-
amount that is locked up in internal energies as tion on a black surface. The surface gets hot and
well as the energy of bulk motions and raised we can measure the energy which goes into heating
weights. No single experiment leads all by itself the black surface and the energy left as heat in
to our that energy is conserved.
conviction the source of light. We find the sum is equal to
But we assume conservation in thinking about the energy we fed in. Part of the energy has gone
all kinds of physical and chemical processes. from the light source to the absorber. And it has
Innumerable such processes go on daily: chem- gone without loss or gain.
icals react, heat is released, engines run. And
energy bookkeeping balances out time after
totally reflecting walls
time. If any substantial amount of energy were
disappearing, we should have felt the loss long
since. If there were mysterious sources from
which energy entered, the gain should have become
apparent. It is on this overall check of conserva-
tion as well as on innumerable detailed checks
of all sorts of transformations that our belief in
energy conservation really rests.

By adding heat flow to mechanical work, we

have extended the conservation of energy beyond
simple mechanical systems. The extension was
made by including a new transfer mechanism.
Heat flow was the first new mechanism to be
added to work, but we have since discovered that 26—5. A hot object and a cold object are placed in a container
with reflecting walls. There a good vacuum in the container,
other mechanisms have to be included. For is

so that energy is not transferred by the air molecules. Even so,

example, the energy reaching us from the sun does
the warm body cools off and the cold body warms up as energy
not arrive here either through mechanical work is transferred by radiation.
or through the kind of heat flow that occurs
between a hot and a cold body in contact. Radi- The radiation need not be visible. For ex-
ation — and invisible light
visible carries the — ample, we can put a hot body and a cold body
energy. If we want the conservation of energy inside of a very good reflector of radiation
to span our universe, we must take account of (Fig. 26-5). We make such a good vacuum
 HEAT, MOLECULAR MOTION, AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 437

inside the reflector that ordinary heat flow cannot of our knowledge, the total energy in a region
take place. Nevertheless, the hot body loses changes only when an exchange of energy occurs
energy and the cold one gains energy. The energy between the region and its surroundings. Then,
flows from one to the other as radiation. We if our region is the whole universe, we can expect
find the total energy is conserved. no change of the total energy — because, by
Like the transfer of momentum the transfer of definition, there is nothing outside the universe.
energ\ by radiation takes time. The light from This assumption, that the total energy of the
the sun transfers its energy and momentum to us universe is constant, is the basis of most cosmo-
here 8.3 minutes after it leases the sun. As far as logical theories. But that is a daring generaliza-
we know, nothing ever moves faster. Energy tion from our limited experience. We live in a
transfer by other mechanisms is slower, but small corner of the universe, and we have tested
usually the distances are so short that we may fail the validity of our physical laws over a very
to detect the time lag. limited period of time. It is conceivable that
For many ordinary mechanical systems — these laws, including the law of conservation of
such as billiard balls colliding or the earth going energy, are not rigorously correct. In our limited
around the sun or even the operation of a steam view, energy is conserved with great precision;
engine —
the part played by radiation in energy but a tiny rate of destruction or creation may have
transfer is so small that we can usually ignore it. escaped our notice — if, for example, the total
But radiation must be considered not only when energy of the universe had doubled in the course
we look into the energy transfer from stars but of several billion years, we probably should not
also whenever we consider atoms emitting or be aware of this change. Indeed, some cosmo-
absorbing light. logical theories assume a continuous creation
All physical happenings, from the evolution of energy.
of a star to the life of a firefly, are in essence trans- Here is one of the live scientific questions of
formations of energy from one form to the other. today. Cosmologists are working hard to find
Even on a cosmic scale, we can trace its flow. out whether energy is completely conserved over
Phvsicists have now learned about the nuclear the whole universe. And just now, for the first

energy that supplies the radiant energy of the time, there is a possibility of actual experiments
stars. Our physical knowledge is consistent with to decide between the rival theories.
a universal conservation of energy. To the best

FOR HOME, DESK, AND LAB

1. A machine gun fires a stream of 10-gram bullets (b) If the sticky region is cut out, leaving a hole,
400 rounds per minute. The bullets,
at the rate of what is the pressure on the hole?
moving at velocity 300 m/sec, hit a wall of solid Be prepared to discuss your answers in class.
rock and stop dead. Calculate:
(a) the force on the wall. 3. In a certain gas § of the energy of the molecules
energy of the bullets arriving at
(b) the kinetic is tied up in motion of the atoms around each

the wall in one minute. other and f in motion of the centers of mass.
(c) the kinetic energy of the bullets in 1 meter (a) On the average, what is the kinetic energy
length of the stream as they approach the wall. of the center of mass motion of one such molecule
Compare twice this answer with your answer to (a). when the temperature is 300° K?
(b) If the temperature is raised 1° C, what
energy must be supplied to a mole (0.6025 X 10
2<
2. Suppose there is a tiny sticky area on the wall of

a container of gas. Molecules hitting this area molecules) of the gas?

stick there permanently.
(a) Is the pressure there greater or less than on 4. A gas in a cylinder pushes a piston out, increasing
the ordinary areas of the wall? its volume by AK
The gas exerts a pressure P
 :

438 HEAT, MOLECULAR MOTION, AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

on the face of the piston, which has an area A. (e) What is the velocity of oxygen molecules at
The force exerted by the gas moves the piston a room temperature and two atmospheres pressure?
distance Ax, transferring energy FAx to some
outside machinery. Show that the work FAx is 9. A large bag of sand is hung from a tree by a long
equal to PAV. rope. A boy shoots a bullet into the sand bag
Note: This is a very useful expression for work and the bullet stays in the bag.
whenever we deal with a gas or a liquid pushing a (a) Describe the energy changes.
piston: work equals the pressure times the change (b) Suppose a 10-gram bullet is moving at
in volume. 300 m sec when it hits the bag, and the bag is a
1990-gram bag of sand. Calculate the amount of
5. One mole of an ideal monatomic gas (in practice,
kinetic energy
helium or argon) is placed in a cylinder at tem- (i) the bullet had originally.
perature 273 ° K. The gas is at atmospheric pres- (ii) the bullet and bag have after collision.
1.02 X 10 newtons/m 2
5
sure, At this pressure
.
(iii) that disappears.
and temperature the gas occupies 2.24 X 10 -2 m 3 .
(c)What fraction of the original kinetic energy
A piston in the cylinder is then pushed in to of the bullet goes into heat?
decrease the volume by 2.45 X 10
-4
m3 .

(a) How much mechanical work must be done

to push the piston in? (Neglect the change in
pressure.)
(b) What is the final temperature of the gas if
the container is completely insulated? (Remem-
ber 12.4 joules of energy raise its temperature one
degree.)
6. In Problem 5, by what fraction of its original value
does the pressure change?
7. Suppose we take 1 8 grams of water (one mole) at
boiling point and turn it into vapor in a cylinder.
The cylinder is closed by a frictionless piston,
which is so light that the gas remains at atmos-
10. A machine gun fires lead bullets at a wall and thev
stop dead. Describe the changes of energy from
the stage when it is in the explosive to the stage
when the bullets have been lying on the ground at
the bottom of the wall for several hours.
11. In one of his most famous experiments, Joule
churned water with a paddle wheel driven bv two
loads, each of mass 14 kg, each falling vertically
about 2 meters. He had about 7 kg of water to be
heated. After each churning he hauled his loads
up and let them fall again. What temperature
rise would vou expect him to find after twenty
falls?

pheric pressure at all times. Note: this is a reversal of the logic of Joule's
(a) What volume water vapor occupy if
will the great experiment. You know that 4.2 joules will
it behaves as an ideal gas? (Water vapor is not always raise the temperature of a gram of water
an ideal gas, but the error due to the assumption 1° C; Joule was trying to find this out.
will be less than 10 percent.)
(b) What work must be done in pushing the 12. * A project: (a) Make or obtain a small spring of
piston out against atmospheric pressure as the steel wire. Stretch it and let it go many times.
whole of the water vaporizes? Hold it to your cheek to feel whether it grows

(c) Given that each gram of water takes 540 warmer.

calories to tear its molecules apart into vapor, how (b) Make a similar spring of soft copper wire
much heat is needed to convert the water to vapor and repeat the trial.
and push the piston out? Note: If you overstretch the spring, just push
(d) What fraction of the total heat needed is it back into close coiling.

converted to work in pushing the piston out?

13. * A project: Swing a hammer fast and give several
8. (a) Estimate the speed of oxygen molecules at violent blows to a small block of lead on a firm
room temperature from the following data: anvil of stone or iron. Feel the lead before and
32 grams of oxygen at room temperature (20C) after. Make rough estimates of the kinetic energy-
at one atmosphere pressure, 1.02 X 10 5 new- lostby the hammer and of the thermal energy
tons 'm 2 occupy 2.4 X 10 m 3
_2
, . gained bv the lead. (Assume that 1 kg of lead
(b) The same volume of hydrogen at the same needs about 130 joules to raise its temperature
temperature and pressure weighs only 2 grams. 1-C.)
Estimate the average velocity of hydrogen
molecules at room temperature. 14. * A project: (a)Obtain an electric egg beater and
(c) From your answer to (a), estimate the run it at full rate for 5 minutes in a measured mass
average velocity of nitrogen molecules at room of water. (If vou put the water in an aluminum
temperature, within 10 percent. pan, you may allow for the heating of the pan
(d) What is the average velocity of air mole- also. 1000 grams of aluminum take as much heat
cules at room temperature correct within 10 per- as 200 grams of water. An ingenious way to
cent? avoid having a container that takes heat is to
 HEAT, MOLECULAR MOTION, AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 439

hold the water in a thin plastic bag like the ones (d) If the climber walks down the mountain
used in a deep-freeze —
but this makes a good every afternoon, he loses the potential energy he
deal of mess if the egg beater touches the bag.) gained. Why does that not help him to reduce
fb) Repeat the experiment for twice the time; his diet?
and again with half or twice the mass of water.
20. Suppose you have two large boxes of negligible
In each case, estimate the heat delivered by the
egg beater per minute.
mass. Box A
contains one mole of hot helium
at 60° C, the other box, B, contains one mole of

15. * A Estimate the energy delivered in 5

project: cool argon (also a noble gas) at 10° C.
minutes b\ of known wattage.
a small electric light (a) The two boxes are placed side by side in

(a) Do this experimentally by running the contact with all their outer surfaces insulated.
lamp in ink (why ink'?). (You can use an auto- After some time, both gases are at the same
mobile headlight bulb connected to a 6-volt bat- temperature. What is the temperature and why?
ten. Do not use a bulb of higher voltage, (b) Instead of being placed side by side, the

because of danger of shock !)
(b) Do this by calculation from other knowl-
edge: note that one kilowatt hour, which is
likelv to cost you 3 or 4 cents, is worth 3.6 X 10
6
two boxes are joined together to make one large
box, without change of volume, so that the gases
mix. What will be the final temperature of the
mixture?

joules. (c) Now suppose that box B contains one mole

of cold nitrogen at 10° C instead of the argon.
16. A high-speed swimmer uses 120,000 joules of The hot helium and cold nitrogen are allowed to
energy in a half-minute race. Three quarters of mix as in (b) above. Will the final temperature
the energy is released as waste heat; the rest is be the same as in (b) or higher or lower?
dissipated by his hands and legs, by mechanical (d) Give a clear reason for your answer to (c).
work.
(a) In 30 seconds he swims 50 meters. Esti- 21. A new small airplane is to be tested. To main-
mate the average force opposing his motion. tain secrecy, the test is conducted in a large,

(b) Describe the changes of form of energy in

closed hangar whose walls are completely insu-
the swimming. lated from the outside world. The airplane is
filled up with 10 kg of gasoline, flies around and
(c) Where and in what form is the energy that
has been released when he has finished the race? around the hangar for half an hour, and then
lands with its gas tanks empty again.
17. (a) With what velocity must a 2-kg block of ice (a) In what form was the energy that the air-
at C be thrown against a stone wall so that the plane uses in flying supplied to it originally?
entire mass of ice melts upon contact? (1 kg of (b) Discuss the changes of energy during the
ice takes 3.36 X 10 5 joules to melt.) flight.
(b) What effect does changing the mass have (c) Where is the energy and in what form, half
on the velocity? an hour after the flight?
(c) What makes this problem unrealistic?
22. A rocket is equipped with insulated containers
18. One mole of helium at 24° C is placed in contact fullof very hot gas instead of combustible fuel.
with water at 26 ~C insulated from the rest of the The hot gas rushing out of a nozzle drives the
world. The final temperature of both is measured rocket forward.
to be 25 C. How much water was there? (a) Where does the momentum that the rocket
=

acquires come from?

19. A mountain climber can climb about 1500 feet (b) Where does the rocket's kinetic energy
or 500 meters vertical rise per hour. come from?
(a) How much energy does such a climber gain
(c) If the gas is box standing on
ejected into a
as gravitational potential energy in a five-hour and the tem-
the ground as the rocket starts out,
climb up a mountain? perature of the gas collected in the box is meas-
(b) The human body is an inefficient chemical-
ured after the rocket has left, do you expect that
mechanical machine. At best its muscles deliver temperature to be higher, lower, or the same as
only 25 percent of the chemical energy used as the original temperature of the store of gas in the
useful mechanical energy. The other 75 percent
rocket?
or more is dissipated as waste heat. Assuming
this efficiency, how much chemical energy does 23. Imagine you have a light bulb in a perfectly re-
the climber use in 5 hours? flecting box which is otherwise empty a perfect —
(c) Assume that, aside fr6m mountain climb- vacuum.
ing, he needs 2.2 X 10 6 small calories per 24 (a) By running the light bulb do you produce
hours. How much total energy should he take (i) kinetic energy of bulk motion?
in in his daily diet if he makes that climb every (ii) potential energy of the bulk matter of
morning? the box?

440 HEAT, MOLECULAR MOTION, AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
(iii) thermal energy of internal
motion?
(iv) thermal energy in the form of inter-
molecular potential energy?
(v) internal energy in some form?
(vi) no additional energy in the box?
(b) By running a light bulb, do you produce
(i) momentum of bulk motion?
(iii) momentum of thermal motion of atoms?
(vi) no momentum in the box?
Be prepared to discuss your answer in class.
24. (a) A cylinder containing helium gas is closed
with a movable piston which has negligible fric-
tion. A man pushes on the piston and drives it
in quickly, compressing the helium. The helium
heats up. Why does the helium heat up? Discuss
the mechanism of the heating up in terms of
molecular behavior.
(b) A cylinder with a movable piston contains
compressed helium. The piston is released and
the helium pushes it out and cools. Explain in
terms of molecular behavior how the helium cools.
(c) A large box with a good vacuum in it con-
tains a small bottle of compressed helium. A
trigger is arranged to remove the stopper of the
helium bottle. When the helium is let out of the
bottle no change of temperature is observed after
the release is all over. Explain, from the point of
view of molecular behavior, why the helium does
not change temperature when it expands into the
big box.
(d) Although compressed helium shows no final
change of temperature, some other gases show a
noticeable cooling after they have expanded into
vacuum from high compression. What does that
tell you about these other compressed gases?
25. A rocket of mass 2 X 10 kg has been fired in an
3
attempt to "escape" from the earth. However,
when it is several thousand kilometers from the
earth, its speed is only 30 m/sec, so it is evident
that the rocket will fall back into the atmosphere.
The control center on the surface therefore sends
a radio impulse which fires off a small explosive
charge (several kilograms) in the rocket. It
explodes into two parts —
one of them, with
mass 0.5 X 10 3 kg, continues forward at
330 m sec.
Calculate the velocity of the other fragment.
(a)
(b) Calculate the kinetic energy of the original
rocket, and of each piece after the separation.
:
atomic (c) Why is there more kinetic energy after-
wards than before?
26. * A project: Experiment with the radiation from
a glowing electric heating element. Place a sheet
of asbestos tile (or a piece of damp cardboard
will serve temporarily) between the heater and
you. Make a small hole about 1 in. in diameter
to let radiation through to you. Hold the back
of your hand near the hole and feel the effect of
radiation on your skin. Then trv the following
changes
(a) Place a sheet of cardboard between the hole
and your hand, and remove it quickly.
(b) Place a sheet of window glass between the
hole and your hand and remove it quickly.
(c) Cover your hand with aluminum leaf (most
easily done by clenching your fist, licking the
back of your hand to make it wet with saliva, and
placing a sheet of very thin aluminum leaf gently
on it). Try the metal-coated skin near the hole.
(d) Keep the aluminum leaf on your hand but
paint a little black paint or India ink on top of it.
Again try that near the hole.
27. * A project:Use the skin of the back of your hand
or, better, your cheek to detect the radiation from
a hot surface. For the source, use either a bright
metal can of boiling water or, better, a bright
sheet of copper which has just been made very
hot with a gas flame. In each case, paint one side
of the source black (a mixture of soot and alcohol
serves well). Then make your estimate near each
surface, bright and black, in turn.
FURTHER READING
Dyson, F. J., "What Is Heat?" Scientific American,
September, 1954. A description of our modern
and a brief history of their development.
ideas
Gamow, George, "The Evolutionary Universe."
Also in The Universe, cited above.
Hart, Ivor B., James Watt and the History of Steam
Power. Henry Schuman Co., 1949.
Holton, Gerald, Introduction to Concepts and Theo-
ries in Physical Science. Addison-Wesley, 1952.
Heat, molecular motion, and the conservation of
energy are dealt with in Chapters 17, 18, and 20.
Hoyle, Fred, "The Steady-State Universe." The
Universe, A Scientific American Book, Simon &
Schuster, 1957.