Instrumentation and Control

Student Notes

Note
This document contains the important points discussed in the pre-recorded courseware. It will help in revising the
important concepts related to Instrumentation and Control course.

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 Instrumentation and Control

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MODULE 8 DISCRETE STATE PROCESS CONTROL

This module provide an understanding of process-control operations for which the
process variables can take on only discrete values
Focus Topic
 Discrete State Process Control
 Ladder Diagram
 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
1. Introduction- A discrete-state process is one for which the process variables can
take on only two states.
A discrete-state process-control system is one that causes the process to pass
through a sequence of events. Each event is described by a unique specification of
the process variables.
2. Discrete State Process Control
i. Discrete state process control is a particular sequence of events through
which the process accomplishes some objective.
ii. An event in the system is defined by a particular state of the system—that is,
particular assignment of all output values and a particular set of the input
variables

Figure 1 is a symbolic representation of a manufacturing process and the controller

for the process.
3. Characteristics of the System
 Discrete state variables- Consider an example of a liquid level control
Continuous Control- The controller will operate according to some mode of
control to maintain the level against variations induced from external influences
the variables. (Figure3)

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Discrete state Control- The level and valve settings, are discrete because they can
take on only two values. There is no continuous measurement or output over a range.
(Figure4)
Composite Discrete/Continuous Control- The continuous control system will be
turned on or off just as would a valve or motor or other discrete device. (Figure5)
 Process Specifications- has two parts
Process Objective- Simply statements of what the process is supposed to
accomplish. A global objective is defined as the end result of the plant which is
broken into independent secondary objectives to which the actual control is
applied.
Process Hardware-Design of hardware to implement the objectives, it is tied
to nature of the industry.
 Event Sequence Description-A sequence of events must be described that
will direct the system through the operations to provide the desired end result.
The sequence of events can be described in narrative fashion, as a flowchart,
or in terms of Boolean equations.
Narrative statements-What events must occur to achieve the objective of the
system? This can be further classified as a start-up, or initialization phase and a
running phase in continuous system
Flowcharts of the Event Sequence- Pictorially present the flow of events. Basic
flowchart symbols are shown in figure 9

Binary-State Variable Descriptions- Describe the sequence of events in terms of the

sequence of discrete states of the system.

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Boolean Equations- Binary numbers are used to represent the two states/values
variables. Boolean algebra technique can be used to deduce the output states from
input states.
4. Ladder Diagram-A ladder diagram is a schematic way of describing the sequence
of events of a discrete state control system. It is called a ladder diagram because the
various circuit devices connected in parallel across the ac line form something that
looks like a ladder, with each parallel connection a “rung” on the ladder. Special
symbols are used to represent the various circuit elements in a ladder diagram.
Relays A relay coil is represented by a circle identified as CR and an associated
identifying number. The contacts for that relay will be either normally open (NO) or
normally closed (NC) and can be identified by the same number. A NO contact is one
that is open when the relay coil is not energized and becomes closed when the relay
is energized and NC contact is closed when the relay coil is not energized and opens
when the relay is energized. (Figure15a)

A time-delay relay as one for which the contacts do not activate until a specified time
delay has occurred. The coil is still indicated by a circle, but with the designation of TR
to indicate timer relay (Figure 15b)
Motors and Solenoids

Lights-A light symbol, such as that shown in Figure 16c, is used to give operators
information about the state of the system.
Switches One of the primary input elements in a discrete-state control system is a
switch. The switch may be normally open (NO) or normally closed (NC) and may be
activated from many sources.

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Ladder Diagram Examples

5. Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)- A programmable controller is a

computer-based device that implements the required sequence of events of a discrete-
state process.
i. When an entire control system is implemented using relays, the system is called
a relay sequencer
ii. Special Functions are certain kinds of special functions not normally
associated with relays and are often provided using analog and digital electronic
techniques.E.g-as time-delay relays, up/down counters, and real time clocks.
iii. A programmed relay needs to rewired if we want to change the sequence of
event which is cumbersome. To avoid this some methods like patch panels are
used which act like memory, which store programs.
 PLC Design- Basic Structure of PLC is in figure 25

i. The processor is a computer that executes a program to perform the

operations specified in a ladder diagram or a set of Boolean equations. The
processor performs arithmetic and logic operations on input variable data
and determines the proper state of the output variables.
ii. The input modules examine the state of physical switches and other input
devices and put their state into a form suitable for the processor. The PLC
is able to accommodate a number of inputs, called channels.

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iii. The output module supplies power to an external device such as a motor,
light, solenoid, and so on, as required by the ladder diagram.
 PLC Operation- Operation of the programmable controller can be considered
in two modes, the I/O scan mode and the execution mode
i. During the I/O scan mode, the processor updates all outputs and inputs the
state of all inputs one channel at a time
ii. In execution mode, the processor evaluates each rung of the ladder
diagram program that is being executed sequentially, starting from the first
rung and proceeding to the last rung.
iii. The length of time for one scan consists of three parts: (1) input time, (2)
execution time, and (3) output time. Most of the scan time comes from
the execution phase.
PLC Programming-
i. The programming unit is an external electronic package that is connected
to the programmable controller when programming occurs. The unit usually
allows input of a program in ladder diagram symbols. The unit then transmits
that program into the memory of the programmable controller.
ii. PLC programs are typically written in a special application on a personal
computer, then downloaded by a direct-connection cable or over a network
to the PLC.
iii. IEC 61131-3 currently defines five programming languages for
programmable control systems: function block diagram (FBD), ladder
diagram (LD), structured text (ST), instruction list (IL), and sequential
function chart (SFC).
iv. Special software allows the pc to program the PLC and then download the
program into the PLC unit
 PLC Software Functions
i. Addressing- The programmable controller uses a method of identifying
both the physical and software devices, referred to as the device address
or channel.
1. Physical input devices—ON or OFF
2. Physical output devices—energized (ON) or de-energized (OFF)
3. Programmed control relay coils and contacts
4. Programmed time-delay relay coils and contacts
5. Programmed counters and contacts
6. Special functions
ii. Programmed Diagram Interpretation
In a programmed diagram rung, the ON or OFF state of the output of the
rung is determined by testing the elements of the rung for a TRUE or FALSE
condition.

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Contact Open Closed

NO FALSE TRUE

NC TRUE FALSE

The software control relay is denoted by a circle with an identification number.

It can have any number of NO or NC contacts, which are identified by the same
number as the relay.
A counter (Figure35) is a programmed function that counts every time the input
changes from False to true.

The programmed timer(Figure37) function plays an important role in PLC

applications to provide for needed delays in some manufacturing sequence and to
specify the period of time that some operation is to last.
Care must be taken not to design timer functions with reactions less than a scan time.
Special Functions available in PLC are one shots and Shift registers.
The one-shot is an output that will go true for only one scan when its input path is
true. This device is used for initialization and other instances when an event is to occur
only once, even though the conditions that make it True may occur again.
A shift-register is used to remember a certain number of previous states of a rung.

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