7) Rubbish = Solid Waste like building UNIT I PLANNING AND DESIGN OF SEWERAGE SYSTEM 1.1 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS 1) Sanitary Sewage = Waste Water generated from a community (residential, commerciat buildings and industries) = Domestic Sewage + Industrial Sewage, 2) Domestic Sewage = Waste Water discharged from lavatory, ‘esidential and office buildings, 3) Industrial Sewage = establishment. urinals, water closets from Waste Water discharged from industria} and commercial 4) NightSoil= Human and Animal excreta 5) Refuse =Solid, Liquid and Semi-Sohd Waste that subsoil water and storm water. 6) Garbage = Dry refuse-paper, d Putrifying organic matter etc. includes garbages, rubbish sullave, sewage, lecayed vegetables, street Sweepings, organi and untreated material, furniture rags, papers, etc 8) Sullage = Waste Water from Bathroom and Kitchen. x Storm Water = The rain water of a locality. 18) Sewage = Liquid Waste froma ‘community that includes. sullage, discharze fiom urinals. latrines, industrial waste, ground and storm waters. 11) Sewerage = Structures, Devices, Equipments, Appurtenances intended tor collection, transportation, pumping of sewageand liquid waste but excludi 12)Sewer= isan under-ground conduitor discharge or disposal, ing treatment of sewage. Grain through which sewage is carrie!t va potfifor 13) Waste Water = This term is used in place of sewage, It includes both orgie and mineral ‘tatter carried through liquid media, WWWaste Water Engineering 12 7.2 SOURCES OF WASTEWATER GENERATION + Domestic Somrees Human waste from lavatories (feces, urine, flush water); known as black water ‘Washing water (personal, clothes, floors dishes, ec.) known as greywater or sullage Discharge from Septic tank — Cookingcil, Pesticides, Lubricating oil, Paint, Cleaning liquids, etc. eee * Industrial Sources ‘> Industrial process waters (Dyeing industries, Tanneries etc) + Industrial cooling waters (heat) > Organic or biodegradabl2 waste ‘ Organic ornon bio-degradable/difficult-to-treat waste (pharmaceutical or pesticide manufacheing), > Exeme pH waste (from acid/alkali manufacturing, metal plating), > Toxic waste (metal plating. cyanide production, pesticide manufacturing, etc. ); Solids ard emulsions (paper manufacturing, foodstuffs, lubricating and hydraulic oi] manufacturing, etc.): + Waste water from oil & natural ges production Rainfall collected on roofs, yands, roads, carparks, pavements etc; knownas storm runoff Workshops and garages (gasoline’petrol/diesel or rubber residues, soap scum, metals from vehicle exhaas etc.) % Discharge from Sewage Treatrrent Plant (STP) + Groundwater infiltration into sewers % Seawater ingress (salt and microbes) Indeveloping countries, waste ‘ateris ety disposed ito water bodies or nan wth or without proper treatment, which leads to the following issues : 1. Unsightlyzppearince : i ! % Agricultural drainage | : ' 1.3. EFFECTS OF WASTE WATERcc Planning and Design of Sewerage System 2. Odournuisance—Gases released from sewage cause foul smell. 13 3. Nuisance ofmosquito breeding, flies, rodents, insects ete 4. Outbreak of Diseases/Epidemics: Waste water contains numerous pathogens (disease causing microorganisms) and improper disposal may cause serious diseases and illness to urban and rural population. 5. Water Pollution: When waste water is discharged into fresh water bodies (rivers, Jakes etc), merous pollutants are released into it and the oxygen level of water depletes. The water becomes unfit for human use. This water may even become fatal if given to infants (Blue Baby Syndrome). 6. _ Land Pollatiom: Caused due to the harmful and toxic chemicals in waste water. 7. Ground Water Contamination : Waste water discharged on land, percolates through the soil and pollutes underground water sources and renders it unsuitable for use. 8. Contamination ofdrinking water supplies 9. Ecological imbalance : When waste water is discharged into water bodies, the aquatic plants and animals are affected which may alter the ecosystem. Eg: When waste water is discharged into lakes, due to the high concentration ce Nutrients init, algae grows in excess and covers the lake surface, which prevents sunlight penetration into water and thereby depletes the oxygen level of water. This condition is called Eutrophication. The water in the lake becomes septic and unfit for inman use. The aquatic life (fishes, insects, worms etc) cannot survive without oxygen and this leads to imbalance in the lake ecosystem. 1.4 TYPES OF SEWAGE @ Domestic Sewage i) Industrial Sewage G@)Storm Runoff. (i) Domestic Sewage: + Domestic Sewage consists of liquid wastes originating fror wsinals, latrines, bathrooms, kitchen sinks, wash basins etc. from the residential and commercial buildings. This sewage is extremely foul, because of the presence of human excreta init.ey Waste Woter Engineering Gi) Industrial Sewage: a Insta swage consis of iid wast originating fom the indi process of ‘Vatious industries such as dyeing, paper making, brewing, etc. ‘> Thequality of the industrial sewage depend largely upon the type of industry and the chemical used in the process. _- ‘> Sometimes, they may be very foul and may require extreme treatment before being * disposed offin public sewers. S * . Thesum total of domestic and industrial sewage may be termed as sanitary sewage 7 (cx)simply sewage. + (ii) Storm Water rmnoff: Storm Sewage ry ‘ -“Thenmoffresulting from the rain stormsis called drainage. > 1.5 SYSTEMS OF SANITATION @ Old Conservancy System, (@) Water Carriage System. Rtas vincy Spica < Inthissystem, night soil and garbage are collected separately in vessels or deposited inpools/pits. The entire day’s human feces aré collected and disposed once a day in the morning, Inthis type of latrines. pungent smell continues to pollute the surroundings for the catireday. ” The waste is generally buried underground that may cause pollution. — Thesallage and storm nunoffis collected in open or closed cs % — Thissystemisadopted in Villages. (ii) Water Carriage System + Inthis system, water is used to flush and wash away the human excreta as soon as it - is generated: % Itisamore hygienic system and does not generate any bad smell. Sullageand sewage are discharged together.a System * Thissystemis adopted in Cities. 15 ‘© Watercariage systems prefered over the old conservany tem Table 1.1 - Comparison of Sanitation Systems Old Conservancy System ntages (Less water consumption Gi) Initial cost is tess Gil) No technical persons required (iv) End product obtained is manure sadvantages (¥) Unhygienic (vi) Fou! smell (vii) Building design not compact (viii) Large labour force is required (ix) High running cost () Pollution problems (i) Risk of epidemics (xii) Large Jand area required for disposal Advantages (i) Hygienic Gi) No foul smeit ii) Compact building design (iv) Labour required is smait () Low running cost (vi) Pollution problem is rare (Vii) No risk of epidemies (Vili) Small land required for disposal of shud (x) Treated waste water used for irrigation Disadvan-ages (i) High water consumption Gi) High initiatcost (iii) Technical persons required [for and maintenance} iy) Sludge has less manure valve 1.6 TYPES OF SEWERAGE SYSTEMS ‘The different types of sewerage systems are: @ Separate Sewerage Systems Drainage (storm runoff) and Sewage are taken independently in two different sets oF conduits (pipes). Gi) Combined Sewerage System tie ass cn etic even ea (iii) Partially Separate System __ Part of drainage is mixed with sewage (of) taken in sewers.aa Waste Water Engineering “y Fabtors governing choice of different sewerage systems | Awaibtilty of funds for investment. 2.Spacerequirement and development pattern. 3. Rainfall distrBution. 4, Topography and gradient of contributing area. 5. Purfieg Cost- 6. Suizsdmoisre conditions. 7. Outketconditions (availability of water bodies for disposal). Table 1.2 - Comparison of Sewerage Systems Separate System | Combined System | - Partially Combined System Merits: Merits: Merits ) Low instattion cost 1) One set of sewers i) Advantages of both separate i) Less Saat om treatment units| ii) Maintainance is less and combined systems i) Less pamping cost iii) Choking is rare ii) Reasonable size of sewers je) Smal seciorrof sewers | iv}-Dilution of sewage iii) No choking }) Low ficeations in flow | v) Fout smell is reduced iv) Easy cleaning A) Runoff discharged to Demerits: Demerits: j) Constuction cost is more. streams without treatment ’) More load on treatment unit its: i) Dépth of laying sewers ii) Increased cost of pumping is more. ) Difficulty in cleaning i) Drains eseé only in i) Large size of sewers ii) Difficult to ventilate sewers iv) Pollution problems ~ov during heavy rains ¥) Siting occurs during dey weather. iv) High load on treatment rainy season plants ii) Choking of sewers ¥) Pumping cost is more. | |TUTTE TTT CTC IT 8 “aineam Arp Suump sins00 Buntig (4 suyes Kavoy, T sssow si soo Sudwung (A suomas yo Bu you> {uo pasn sumig ( MOLI CL ismsaag Bupnp moysero.— sutajqosd uormnjjod (A! *S1oMos o7P]NUSA 0} 11NDL310 Sujduind go ys09 poseas0Uy sijun juauneen uo peo] 210) ounvan wo peo} UAH (Al {ostas Kuyns uy sromas Jo azjs funy (1 ‘oaoul si siamas Buln] Jo tndag ( 220 §} 1809 OHTONISUoD (J luaunvan noua 8 0) padueyosip youny (1A siuoid 919 Ut} saan paonpai s} [Jauis (nog (A MOY UL SuoNEMONY MO7 (A Jo uonsas jours (ar sssoueg Burueajo Aseq (A! Supyous On ( siomas Jo azis 91quuostay SUPA 00 Surduund ssa it 941 HO Proj ssa] (1 suraisks paujquios pue SI9MAS JO 198 9UO (1 1809 ONE] es) MO7] (1 ayesedas yjoq Jo soBmueapy (I ‘Sue isda, an man ssnaay muorsks porque Anented tuarskg poujqurod tua sks ayuandog | sysfs oBti0Meg jo uosuedwon - ¢4 o1gey Planning and Design of Sewerage SystemE i 1 ie Water eri ~~ 1.7 CHARACTERISTICS AND COMPOSITION OF SEWAGE AND THEIR ~ _ Physical characteristics include: - — Colour, (ii) Odour, (iii) Temperature and (iv) Turbidity, SL Colour” a > Thecolourof sewage can normally be detected by thenaked eye, andit indicates the > 3 : s + ‘colour to sewage and the color depends on the chemical =. eae ‘ ; - } Odour: ar —J © % Fresh sewage is practically odourless. — * becomes stale whenalll the oxygen present in sewage gets ae a. After few! itstarts omitting offensive odours, especially (H,S) hydrogen sulphide wa £225, dve 10 decomposition of sewage. : a FG) Temperatures ao. Affects the biological activi of bacteria present in sewage. When temperature is ugh, the bacteria’ be more active decomposition of waste in sewage. ishigh, the solubility of gasesin sewage reduces. co The dissolved oxygen content (D.O) with high temperature, f Temperature affects the viscosity of sewage, which intum affects the sedimentation process in sewage treatment, i o o »% Solidsi 'sespension cause turbidity. ° Sewageis normally turbid, having floating matter! Breases, vegetable dehris, fruit skins, soaps, etc, > The turbidity increases.as sewage becomes stronger. eee RE, > isan optical lightemitting property, like pieces of paper, match sticks, > The degree of turbidity can be measured and tested by turbidity rods (or) by nurbidity meters (Jackson’s turbidity meters, Nephlometric: turbidity metres etc.) 1.7.2 Chemical Characteristics of Sewage = Sewage: nomally contains very smal] amount of solids (0.05 te-0. 1%) in relation to. the huge cuantity of water (99.9%). * — Itonlycontzins about 0.05 to 0.1 percent (i.e, 50010 1000 mg/L) of total solids. * Classification ® — Saspended solids are solids which remains Aloating in sewage. @) _Dissolvedssolids remain dissolved in sewage. Colloidal solids are finely divided solids remaining either insoon (ain ‘Suspension. Ov) Settleable solids are solids which settle out, if sewage is allowed to remain ~ _urdisturbed for a period of 2 hours. 4 ‘The solids cn also be categorised as (@) Organic: (b}Inorganiz Solids,Waste Water Engineering inerals, salts, sand, gravel, debris, chlorides, sulphates, solids in sewage is not harmful and requires simple < 1.10 ° Inorganic matter consists of mi etc. The presence of inorganic: treatment. : ° Organic matter consist of carbohydrate (cellulose, cotton, fibre, starch, sugar et), Fatsandils received from kitchensand Nitrogeneous compounds like protein. Organic matter in sewage requires proper treatment before disposal in water bodies. ‘Suspended (or) _ Non-Filtrable Disolved Solids Colloidal Solids: Solids \.___SueotPatles,mm_y, __y Settleable Removable by Coagulation Fig, 1.1 : Classification of Solids. * Measurements: 2) Total Solids (S, mg/f) ~A known volume of sewage is evaporated and the dry residveis weighed. Dry residue Weighed - S, (me = “Volume of sample b) Suspended Solids (S, mg/!Non-Filterable Solids. % Aknown volume of sewage sample is passed through a glass-fibre filter apparatus of 1 um pore size. The dry residue retained on filter is weighed. s Mass of residue » (8!) = Votume of sample ©) Filterabie Solids = Yotal Solids (S,) ~ Suspended Solids (S,) (Dissolv< ! + Colloidal Solids). d) Total Suspended Solids (S,) may be volatile (or) fixed. TSS = Volatile Solids + Fixed Solids e) Volatile Solids - Non-tiltered residue (of step b) is burnt and ignited at about 550°C inan electric inutile furnace for about 15 t0 20 minutes.| a __ Planning and Design of Sewerage System mw + Lossof weight due to ignition will represent the volatile solids (S, mg/L). f) Fixed Solids S,=S,~-S, ie:, Suspended Solids — Volatile Solids. g) Settlable Solids (S,): + Conical glass vessel called Imhoff cone is used. > Thecapacity of the coneis I litre and itis graduated upto about 50 ml % ” Sewageisallowed to standin hisimhoff cone fora period of2 hours and the quantity of solids settled in the bottom of the cone can be directly read out. - Conical Glass Fig. 1.2: lnhoff Cone Value: @ pH Value: GY pH valveindicates negative logofhydogenion concentration 6 pH =—log H? (or) H* = (1oy-** < pH <7 -acidic range nd pH>7-alkaline range. 4 % The fresh sewage is generally alkaline in nature (pH more than 7). $ — Butastime passes, sewage tums acidic and its pH tends to fall due to production of ‘ acids by bacterial action. i © The pl value can be measured quickly and automatically with the help of potentiometer, which measures the electrical potential exerted by the hydrogen ions. 4 The efficiency of sewage treatment depends on pH. ' "4% IfpHof sewage is low, lime is added to create alkaline condition, ; (iii) Chloride Contents: 2 Chlorides are generally found in domestic sewage, and are derived from the kitchen Wastes, urinary discharges, feces etc. |1 SRes Waste Water + Large ammount of chlorides may enter fom intasties like ice cream pont meat salting | inchstries. ‘Chloride in sewage may also be due o infiltration of sea water (NaC). The nonmal chloride content of domestic sewage is 120 mg/l. ‘> The chloride content can be measured by titrating the waste water with standard, ___ Silver nitrate AgNO, solution using potassium chromate as indicator. (iv) Nitrogen Contents: & The presence of nitrogenin sewage indicates the presence of organic matter, andit may occur in any of the following forms. a) Free ammonia called ammonia nitrogen. byAlbuminoid nitrogen, called organic nitrogen. ©)Nitrites and dyNitrates. NH; T +H,0 = NH; +OH™ If further oxidation occurs as ; NHj +20) — NO; +2H*+H,0 % The sewage treatment is done using microogganisms which decompose the organic waste into stable compound. =~ o The presence of nitrogen in various forms is indicative of the stages of decomposition and level of treatment. % The free ammonia indicates the age of waste water decomposition of organic matter. 7 * Albuminoid nitrogen indicates quantity of ntrogenin sewage before the decompesition of organic matter is started. * ‘The nities indicate the presence of partly decomposed (not fully oxidised)organie ‘matter viz., treatmentis in progress. i and the very first stage ofPlanning and Design of Sewerage System 119 * Indicates very first stage of decompesition of organic materia sewage. ‘+ Measured by distillation process, b)Albuminoid Nitrogen. > Indices nitrogen content in wastewater before decomposition of onic mater hc started. Measure of ‘undecomposed Nitrogen. Mesure by treating sample withalaine sclton of assim pemargange Nitrites Nitrogen Presence of nitrites indicates Presence of partly decomposed organic meter, Indicates treatment is still incomplete and sewage is stale. * Measured by Colourimetric Methot [Colour Matching Method} [Adding Sulphonilic Acid and Naplihamine} 4) Nitrate Nitrogen Presence of nitrate indicates presence of fll oxidised organic matter % Stable form ofnitrogenous mater.” * Indicates oxidised/treated wastewater. Measured by colourimeteric method (colour matching methods) and com are with standard colours. (Addin Phenol i-sulphonic acid and potassium hytiroy ide), * Blue Baby Disease (Methaemoglobinemia) - affects Infants = Ifthe nitrate content is above 45 Ppm in water, itinay cause nitrate peisoningin ‘Thishappens because there exias lower aciityin the intestines ofthe inf, which Permits the growth of ntrate-educing bacteria, wiich converts nitrates to nivites The nitrites prove very harmful becase they have greater aff than oxygen and thus completely redhce ox ‘uming the body of infants to blue colour () Presence of Fats, Oils and Greases: 2 Greases, fats and oils are derivedin sewage from the dischages of animals, vegetable ‘matter from garages, hotels, restaurants and industries ete, > for haemoglobin level in blood causing st ffocasion.Waste Water Engineering 1.14 6 + Theyinterfere with sewage treatment and they form scum onthetop ofsedimentation tanksand clog the voids of the filtering media. ++ Theyarenotdecomposible by bacterial action and therefore should be removed from. sewage. > Measuredby evaporating sewage sample, residual solids let after evaporation are | mixed with ether (hexane) and again evaporated, leaving behind the fats and greases, asaresidve, which can be weighed. (vi) Sulphides, Snlphates and Hydrogen Sulphide Gas: Formed due tothe decomposition of various sulphur containing substancesin sewage. This decomposition also leads to evolution of hydrogen sulphide (HS) gas, causing bad smells odours and corrodes the sewer pipes. Sih On : ——— Suiphides —————>_ Sulphate ions tote {2s sama Ss product) HS gas, Oxidation S +2H- HS Aroentic) —Suiphur _Reducton i Digestion ) Compounds = «Suchides HS Methane CO; SO, + organic matter —Bactena | .- +H,0+C0, * Formation of sulphides hinders the process of sludge digestion. (ii) Dissolved Oxygen (0.0): * DO. isthe oxygen present in di ci i eae yet Present in dissolved stats in waste water, which prevents noxious + D.Otestperformed on sewa; ige before treatment helps in indicati iti n . ps in indicating the condition of sewage and decides selection of treatment methods. Fresh sewage contains some dissolved o: pce en. which is soon depeleted by aerobic Presence of D.O. in treated sewage indicates oxidation. during treatment stages.Planning and Design of Sewerage System > Treated sewage effluent should have atleast 4 the aquatic life when sewage is discharged in > > > > The dissolved oxygen in fresh sewage depend upon temperature, Ifthe temperature of the Sewage is more, the D.O content will be less. ‘The D.Ocontent of sewage is determined Teduction process, wherein iodine libcrat (vill) Oxygen Demand: _ 145 ppmD.0. in it otherwise it wil affedy ito water bodies, by Winkler’s method whichisan oxidation- ed is equivalent to the D.O. Oxygen required for oxidation of both inorganic as well a organic matter, BOD - Biochemical Oxygen Demand. I COD ~ Chemical Oxygen Demand. TOD ~ Total Oxygen Demand. 1 THOD - Theoretical Oxygen Demand. 1 ' ff? r TOC - Total Organic Carbon. 3 (x) Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): eae chloe Measure of Oxygen (O,) required to oxidise organic matter in sewage into CO,, 13,0 i and oxidised species. (Chemicals are used to oxidise both biologically active and inactive organic matter in sewage. % COD test-Oxitation using potassium dichromate. = % Aknown quantity of waste wateris mixed with known quantity of potassium dichromate i and the mixtures heated. The organic matter is oxidised by K,Cr,O, (inthe presence of H,SO,). The resulting solution of K,Cr,0, is titrated with Ferrous Ammonium v@ Sulphate (FAS) and the oxygen used in oxidising the waste wateris determined. This I is called Chemical Oxygen Demand{COD). ® Cyl, 0,+Cr, OF +H* EME, 4.00, +10 \« Organic Matter : « (x) Biological Demand (BOD): ( p Estee Onsen emend 200; | + Measure of oxygen required to oxidise biologically active organiematterinsenage by microorganisms.Waste Water Engineering. ically Active or Degradable (Oxidised by micro-organisms) Organic * Biologically Active > ‘The organic matter which can be oxidised by microorganisms is called biologically active (under aerobic conditions at standard temperature). * Significance of BOD: BOD of waste water decides the following: . ; (1) Quantity of 0, required for biological stabilization. of organic matter in sewage. (2) Size oftreatment facilities. (G) Measure of efficiency of treatment. (4) Ditution required for disposal of waste water\ Aerobic bacteria utilises the organic matter and oxygen in sewage and stants multiplying the bacterial countincreases which causes faster decomposit mn of organic matter in sewage. The oxygen consumed by the bacteria for decomposition of organie matter in sewage is BOD. | Biologically inactive (Not Degradable by micro-organisms). 1 Practically itis not feasible to determine the ultimate BOD. Hence BOD at 2 during 5 days is taken which is 68% of the total BOD. 0.68 BOD, 5 day BOD BOD, = Ultimate BOD. * BODBOD Test: (Dilution Method) Known volume of sewage sample is diluted with known volume of aerated pure water. Diluted sample isincubated for $ days at 20°C. % The D.Oofihe dtued sample before and after incubation period ismeasured. % Thediffereace between the inital 'D.O value and final D.O value indicates the oxygen consumed by microorganismsin 5 days (causing aerobic decomposition). BOD/BOD,=D.O-consumed by diluted sample x —Nolume of difuted sample Volume of undiluted sample 4 (Dilution factor)Planning and Design Sewerage System [DP= 1% = imbfievas deo mat 10 ers migzgy oo Normally, 300 mt BOD test bottles are used 14 ml of sewage sample is taken — Incubation at 20°C~5 days Dilution Factor = = 300. BOD, =D.0 consumed x oma Y; (L2., BOD. Exerted) a (.e., BOD Remaining) Sy, Time t (Days) L= Organic matter > Present at start (t = 0) Fig. 1.3: First Stage BOD 2 Curve The BOD rate at any time depends on tem Peratureandalso on the amount and nanureof Orzanic matter: Present in sewage at that time. - LELo (t= 0.Siany t=0 Time in days (ty Fig. 14: BOO Curvejet Sos Waste Water Engiveering ‘Atacestain temperature, the rate of deoxygenation is assurned to be directly proportional to the amount of the organic matter present in sewage af that time a, i ee ke we (HY ic, a 7K, 1,=Oxygen equivalent oF carbonaceous oxiisable organic matter present after days (rmg/D, t=time in days =BOD rate constant (per day). i Integrating log, L,=-Kite -@ When = 0, L,=L (L= Organic matter present at start). log, L=K(0) +e C=log. L Substituting in 2) we get, (or) ee He oa log, + =- 0.43. Be uA Key = 0.434 k= De-oxygenation (BOD rate contant). Wehas i L log, Th = -Kpwt & ‘ =. = (oy koe =Planning and Design of Sewerage System ae “Now L is the organic matter present at the start of BOD reaction and L, is the organic ‘matter leftafters days, which means that during days, the quantity of organic matter oxidised =L-L, IFY, represent the total amount of organic matter oxidised in f days, then we have, BOD,,,,=¥,= L-L, Taking Lout of bracket on R.H.S. Substituting equation (3), BOD of t days = Y,= =coy*o"] (4) Y, isthe oxygen absorbed in days. Ubimate BOD (Y,) i.e., When 1= co days. ¥,=L(I-(oy* -2) “2 = Ultimate BOD = Organic matter in sewage. _ The ultimate BOD (Y,)is equal to the oxygen equivalent organic matter present in sewage (L), BOD rate constant (K,) The value of K, determines the speed of the BOD reaction. ‘© BOD rate constant is temperature dependent. 5 #K, ishigher at higher temperature and rate of oxidation willbe faster. —— B00 «ng ——— Tine 1 (075) Fig. 1.5 : Effect of K on BOD1.20 Waste Water Engineering A(T) =4, QO} or" A(T) =A, (20°) [1,047)"-™, 4, (20°)= De-oxygenation constant at 20°C. (0.05 ~0:2/day) 4, (= De-oxygenation constant at temperature T°C. 800 ¥, (mg) ——— Time (Days) Fig. 1.6 : Combined Carbonaceous and Nittification Demand ‘Theoxygen demand during the first 20 daysis due to oxidation of organic matter in sewage amdiscalled Carbonaccous BOD or first stage demand (CBOD). The latter oxygen demand scours due to biological oxidation of ammonia and is called as second stage BOD or nitrogenous BOD (NBOD). OAB - 1" stage (or) Carbonaceous Stage (CBOD). AC- 2% stage (or) Nitrogenous Demand (NBOD). OAC- Combined Demand: (or) Combined BOD Curve. % Why COD values are higher than BOD values? InCOD test, the oxygen required by chemicals for oxidation of both biologically ‘active and biologically inactive organic matters measured, ie + > But in BOD, the oxygen required by microorganisms for oxidation of biologically ‘active organic matter only is measured, Microorganisms cannot acton biol logically inactive oreanic matter and hence COD>Dereent Dain Serereye ee jan annie * BOD to.COD ratio BOD, = BOD= Measure of Biodegradable organics. (COD = Measure ofboth Biodegradable + Non- Biodegradable organics BOD, Since COD> BOD => COD ratio always < | Iyatio=0:92 to 1.0= Waste water is fully biodegradable, . a =0163100:68 —» Indicates that Wastewatercante biolosically reared ~ Indicates minimum quantity ‘of non-biodegradable ‘Organic matter. -: BOD,=0.68 BOD, Gi Total Organic Carbon (TOC) and Theoretical Oxygen Demand (Th.OD) > Cartonis the primary constituent of organic mater. TOC therefore gives a measure of organic matter in sewage. % Organic matteris expressed as carbon content Siete remits (C,H, 0, N,) and concentration of compounds present in ‘wastewater enables us to calculate theoretically the carbon content in Titre of solution. (CHLO.N) — Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen Wastewater per For example: Ghucose — C\H,0,+60, + 60,+61,0 oF (125641 12+166)+(6x2¥16) (641246 x2 16+ (6 x 2x 146 « 16) f 180 in 264 108 {wat | o-tel 180 mgof sicose requires 192 me of O,, ' ' t i i 1 ‘1m Waste Water Engineering 192 mg z. Theoretical O, demand ofglucose= 755 ng =1.07 mg of Gfmg of glucose. Glucose has 6 molcules of carbon. * 12x6 Hence, carbon content of glucose = —35- =0.4mg Cimg. 1f200 mg/l of glucose is present in waste water, then Th.OD= 1.07 mg/mg x 200 mg/l =214 mgil. (TOC) C_,,_, =0.4 mg Clmg x 200 mg/l =80 me Cil. cn COD aa me aTOCE : CH,,0,+60, > 6CO,+6H,0 COD _6mol.ofO, _6x16x2 TOC 6molofC 6x12 2.66 Ratio changes with biological oxidation. 1.7.3 Biological Characteristics of Wastewater/Sewage I) Aquatic Plants Spermophyia - Wale weeds. Bryophyta ~ Moses. Preridophsia = == Ferns, Thalloptyts = Algae, 0 os come into water bodies should not encourage growth of 2) Aquatic Animals Venebrtc = = Fish Mollines = SmailsPlanning and Design of Sewerage System inf ‘Arthopoda = Insects Worms Aquatic earthworms Metazoa. E Hydra a — __ Entameba Histolytica (cause Amoebic Dysentry). ‘> Protozoans are bacteria eaters, destroy pathogens, utilize soluble organics for food, and maintains natural balence among groups ofmicfo-organisms. ‘> Essential in operation of biological treatment process/purification of streams. (3) Aquatic Molds, Bacteria, Viruses: (a)Fungi —> Unicelhular, non-photosynthetic, grow in low temperature/pH environment, modify pH by producing organic acidsand ammonia. (b) Viruses — Infectious agents, parasites, and this will damage host cells. —» These are small size (10 to 500 millimicrons). Bacteriophage Vins - Infectious agents of bacteria. Adeno Viruses = Cause Upper respiatory infections. Entero Viruses = Affects Gastero-intestinal tract. Enteric Viruses - ‘Cause hepatitis. polio etc. (©) Bacteria “> Single-celled, converts food into new cells. Saprophytic — Takes organic matter in solution froma dead/decaying ‘tissues. Parasitic = Live on other organism. Pathogenic - Disease causing. Non-Pathogenic - © Harmless. > Beneficial and are useful in bringing oxidation and decomposition of sewage. Classification Based on O, requirement ® Acrobicbacteria - Need, tolive @® Anaerobic bacteria - Survives in absence of 0, (ii) Facukativebacteria — With (or) Without O,.85 Cae af eRe daa Waste Water Engineering Classification Based on Temperature © Psychrophilic — Survive at 10°-20°C. @ — Mesophitic = Survive at 20°-40°C. Gi)” Themophilic = Survive at 40°-65°C. > Atlower temperature, bacterial action will be dormant. > Forbacterial action, the optimum pH range is 6.510 7.5. Excretal Bacteria: (All are intestinal boctrias 8)Coli-Acrogenes group bacteria. »)Closteridium Welchino -Non harm, found in cultivated soils sewageete. ©}Faecal Streptococci - Grows at high temperature. Coli-Aerogeneous Group: Harmless intestinal bacteria, * Aerobic and facultativerod shaped bacteria. Approximately 10" to 108. are Present in human feces per capita daily. * These bacteria (pathogens) are large in numbers and difficult to test. Hence, the tests ze done to identify whether Ecol Escherichia Coli) is present. E.coliisthe indicator of sewage (contamination) in water Itisnot harmifl but its presence in water indicates the presence of other pathogenic microorganisms. (i) Presumptive Test, coliforms ii) Confirmed Test. i) Completed Test. Methods to find number of coliforms. (Coliform index. (i) Most Probable Number (MPN). MPNis the bacterial density which; ifactually present in sample would more frequently would have given the observed results, i * Biological Treatment of, Sewage Organic matter in sewage is decomposed bacteria (biological acti i aapiboeen by’ (biological action) and converted into ‘The process involved iscategorised as:Planning and Design of Sewerage System (i) Actobic decomposition, called aerobic oxidation, ——= GiAnaerobic decomposition, called putrefication, @ Aerobie Process: Oxidation of organic matteris done by acrobic bacterin % End product formed are CO,, HO, SO, 1» NO,, NH, More cell synthesis (New bac cl) Final effventis stable. © These bacteria will utilise the fice oxygen as an electron acceptor, thereby oxidising the organic matter (OM) to stable and unobjectionable end Products, cS Oxidation ‘by aerobic 9) Nitrogencous OM "Eat, NO} +NH, 1 Energy a - Oxidation by aerobic ii) Carbone ous OM —ten byarebic co, 1+H,0+ Energy -Q) - Onidation by aerobic iii) Sulphurous OM % > SOs” + Energy 8) Dead Organic Matier Decompositon i | sre af = Prant Proteins Cnn =0,] Anmais ner Ee Sona a re cee tes No, er | thr |. | Pricey Fig. 1.7 : Nitrogen Bi eens Oxidation i | t ! ! Oxdston ss } ee Nites (NO, ) nent rates at End1,26 Excretions of Animas | Animal Fats and Proteins | Plants Carbohydrates: Fat and Proteins- Final End Products Fig. 1.9: Sulphur Cycle under Aerobic OxidationPlanning and Design of Sewerage System ‘ iar ree (@) Anaerobic Decompasition + IffiveD.0. isnotavalable in sewage, anaerobic decomposition (putreficaion) occurs | Under theaction ofanaerobie and facultative bacteria, complex organic matter (OM) | is converted to compounds of N, C, 8. | | ‘> Bacteria consumes molecular O, present in compounds [NO,,SO,}. aig Anaerobic Decomposition Putrefaction Liquefaction Putrefaction — Decomposition of organic matter by aneorobic bacteria. Liquefaction — ~ _Processin which solid organic matter is dissolved by enzymes. % End productsare CO, H,O, H,S, CH,, NH,.N, but new cell synthesis is low. The effluent is unstable and end products are odourerss. | Example: Septic tanks, Imboff tanks, Sludge dice-tion tank. Reduction by Anaerobic Bocteria i} Nitrogenous OM N,? +NH, T+ Organic Acids + Heat Energy Re om Reduction by Anaerobic s ii) Carbonaceous OM "=~ > CO, f + Heat (energy) | i) Sulphurous OM nS > 1 54 + Heat energy Gases evolvedin the process, N, +, H,S , CH, ? produce noxious odours. iv) Organic Acids _seesbetuars CH, t+CO, ? + Heat (energy). ” Knowledge of Nitrogen, Carbon and Sulphur cycles (both aerobic oxidation and anerobic reduction) are useflin determining the Stage of Decomposition of Sewage” | by testing for products of decay, Example: | Well Oxidised Sewage Indicated by the presence of nitrates and sulphates and very litte ainmoniaand H.S. Less Oxidised Sewage 5 Presence of nitrites and sulphur. DP DD DOL LAL PO DP IPM O DDH Ob bb128 TN et rt ocr oy B 1f2.5 ml of raw sewage was diluted to 250 ml, and D.O. concentration of dilated sample at beginning of BOD test was 8 mg/L, and 5 mg/L. after 5 day ineubation at 20°C. Find BOD of raw sewage? Solution: Volume of sample=2.5 ml. ‘Volume of diluted sample =250 ml. een Dilution Ratio => =100, Loss of Dissolved oxygen =D.Oat beginning — D.O after testing =8-5=3 mg/L. B.O.D of sewage =Loss of D.O. x Dilution factor =3mg/L x 100=300 mg/L. 2. A2% solution of sewage sample was incubated for 5 days @ 20°C. The depletion of O, was 4 ppm. Determine BOD of sewage. Solution: Dilution factor x 50. BOD =Depletion of O, x Dilution factor =4 ppm x 50=200 ppm. = 200 mg/l. {1 ppm=1 mg} 3. The average sewage flow from a city is 80 x 10* /d. If the average 5 day B.O.Dis 285 mg/L, compute the total day O, demand in kg and the popukstien equivalent of sewage. Assume per capita BOD of sewage per day = 75g. Solution: Quantity of sewage flow per day = 80 x 10° litres. Average 5 day BOD = 285 mg/l . + Total 5 day oxyeen demand = 285 mg/l x (80 x 10°) d= 22,800k: Me. Strength of BOD- _ 228004g Speitoncepivaten Standard BODs per day perperson 25g = 3,04,000,4. Ifthe periodof incubati calculate the percentage of relative Stability, Solution: Relative Stability = t=10days , $=1 of Sewerage System 129 ion is 10 days at 20°C in the relative stal teston sewage, S= 100 (1 (0.794y2p 00 [1 - (0:794)P) ss S= 90.04%. 5. The 5 day 30°C BODo f sewage sample is 110 mg/l. Calculate its 5 day 20°C BOD, Assume the deoxygenation constant at 20°C, #, (20°-)= 0.1. Solution: Kp e9)=Kp ao) (1.0472 Ay = 0.1[1.047p°-» 0.1f1.047)" = 0.158. D Y,=L[}-(10)-'}, Ysa @30°C=-110 = uf no = L[1-aoy*”] 1-00] -rfieqgy%se1 1 = 131.29 mg/L = Ultimate BOD (Measure of organic matter Present in sewage) ii) Yat S day @ 20°C. Yagat20C = f1-1orber] = 13129 [}-aoy"s] Y, = 89:3 mp/L. 6 Caleulate 1 day 37°C Assume K, 20°C = 0.1 Solution: BOD of sewage sample whose 5 day 20°C BOD is 100 mg/l.Waste Water Engineering 1 0X X= K, (1.047 ( pore =o.1pi.oa7y” = 0218. (iy = gaecsa= U1-cor*”*] \ 100 = 1fi-0or™] pe: L= 146.2 mg/L. : y@rret aay ~ {coy *"] =uft-oor""] = 146.2 f-ao™] Y¥, one day @ 37°C =57.69 mg/L. 1. The BOD of sewage incubated for one day at 30°C has been found to 110 mg/l What will be the 5 day 20°C BOD. Assume #,=0.1 at 20°C. f Solution: ae Y,at30C = 110 me/l. Y, at 20 =? K,20"=01 Kopp = Kozo [1.047}"- = Ko (1.0477? =0.1{1.047)" 201. 1.583 K, = 01583 Moe Hl -t0*0' hay pe 3 art ONS NoeL jl i Le 6068 mL.oS BWUV TUE ciciod i. Waste Water Engineering 1.8 POPULATION EQUIVALENT (STRENGTH OF INDUSTRIAL SEWAGEY Re Fepulation equivalents used to caleulate the quanftyofndustial sewage Asitisa tedious process, the industrial sewage (0) waste water is compared with the rate of generation of domestic waste water. > ‘Thisparameteris used to charge the industries for causing pollution (or) discharging ‘waste water against the discharge norms and also to choose appropriate treatment methods. : ‘Strength of Industrial Sewage (BOD, days}= [Standard BOD, days of domestic sewage per person per day} x [Population equivalent} BOD, of domestic sewage = 0.08 kg/day/person. €.g: IEBOD, of industrial sewage = 300 kg/day, then ation equivalent = = = 3750, Population equivalent = <7, = 3750. 1.9 SANITARY SEWAGE FLOW ESTIMATION Sanitary Sewage is the spent water of a community that drains into sewers. Sanitary Sewage = Domestic Sewage + Industrial Sewage Theoretically speaking, the quantity of sewage (i.e., domestic sewage + industrial sewage) thatis likely toenter the municipal main sewers should be equal tothe quantity of water supplied to the contributing area. ic, Quantity of Sewage = Quantity of water supplied. But certain additions and subtractions do take place @ Additions due to unaccounted private water supply. @ Addition due to ground water infiltration. Gi) Subtractions due to water losses (leakage, seepage in ground). (i) _Sobtractions dve to water lost in evaporation, [Net Quanity ofsewage produced = Quantity of water supplied +@+ Gi)- (ii) iv’ * Usually 80% of water supply may be expected to reach the sewers. [ Quantity of Sewage=Per capita sewage contributed per day x Population. | |Planning and Design of Sewerage System d33 % Factors affecting Dry Weather Flow (DW) Day Weather Flow (DWF) is the ow of sanitary sewage sng in the absence of water (during dry season). ‘storm © Rate of water supply. @ Population growth, ©) Type ofarea served (Residential CommerciaVindusrly * (Infiltration of sub soil water (leaky joint in sewers and high water table level), 1.10 SEWER MATERIALS 1. Important Factors Considered for Selecting Material for. Sewer Following factors should be considered before selecting material formanufacturing Sewer pi a Resistance to Corrosion: Sewer carries Wastewater that rel cn of sewer pipe. Hence, selec on ofcomsion resistance material is must for long life of pipe. b Resistance to Abrasion: Sevace contain considerable amount of suspended solids Part of which are inoreanic solids such as sand or grit These particles mox ingat high “Yelocity can cause wear and tear o ver pipe internally: This abrasion can teduce : i hydrauli ficiency ofthe sewer by mating the interoe © Strengthand Durability: The sewer Pipe should have sufficient sreneth to withstand all the forces that are likely to come on them. Sewers are subjected to considerable extemal loads of backtill material and traffic 4oad, ifany. They are not subjected to intemal pressure of water. To ‘wid'stand extemal load safely without Faihure. sufficient Wall thickness of pipe or reinforcement is ssential. Inaddition, the material selected Should be durable and should have Sufficient resistance against natural Weathering ‘action to provide longer life to the Pipe. a Weight of the Material: The meteril selected for sewer shoukd have less specific weight, which will make Pipe lightin weight. The Tighiweéght pipesare easy for handling aad transport. © Imperviousness: Toeliminate chances, of sewage seepace from sewer to. surrounding, the material selected for Pipe shoul be impervious, £ Economy and Cost: Sewer should be less Costly to make the sewerage scheme economical, & Hydraulically etficiens "he Sewer shalthave smooth interior surface tol ave Wess$$ $$ i 1.34 Waste Water Engineering | 1.10.1 Materials for Sewers Asbestos Cement Sewers ‘These are manufactured from a mixture of asbestos fibers, silica and cement. Asbestos fibers are thoroughly mixed with cement to act as reinforcement. ‘These pipes are available in size 1010 100 cm intemal diameter and length upto 4.0m. These pipes can be easily assembled without skilled labour with the help of special counling, called ‘Ring Tie Coupling’ or Simplex joint. The pipe and joints are resistantto corrosior. and the joints are flexible to permit 12> deflection for curved laying. ‘These pipes are used for vertical transport of water. For example, transport of rainwater- from roofs in multistoried buildings, for transport of sewage to grounds, and for transport of less foul sullage i.e., wastewater from kitchen and bathroom. Advantages ‘These pipes are light in weight and hence, easy to carry and transport. © Easytocut and assemble without skilled labour. * Interiors smooth (Manning's n=0.611) hence, can make excellent hydraulically efficient sewer Disadvantages © These pipes are structurally not very strong. ‘These are susceptible to corrosion by sulpheric acid. When bacte presence of water, H,SO, can be formed leading to corrosion of, Plain Cement Concrete or Reinforced Cement Concrete Plain Cement Conerete(1: 15:3) pipesare available up to 0.45 m diameter and reinforcement ‘cement pipes are available up to | 8 m diameter. These pipes can be cast in situ or precast pipes. Precast pipes are better in quality than the cast in situ pipes. The reinforcementin these Pipes canbe different suchas single cage reinforced pipes, used for internal pressure less than used for both internal and external pressure greater than 0.8m; elliptical cage reinforced pipes used forlarger diameter sewers subjected to external Prssoure; and Hume pipes with stcel shells coated with concrete from inside and outside: Nominal Tergitudinal reinforcement of 0.25%is provided these pipes. Advantages of Concrete Pipes ria produce HLS, in pipe material. 9.8 m; double cage reinforced pipes © Strong in tensions well as compression, © Res stantto erosion and abrasion. |——— ring end Design of Severene See _—___—_____ 1 They can be made of any’ desired strength. Easily molded, and can be insitu or precast pipes. Beonomical for medium and large sizes. ‘These pipes are available in wide range of size and the trench can be opened and backfilled rapidly during maintenance of sewers. Disadvantages. ‘These pipes can get corroded and pitted by the action of H,SO,. © Thecarrying capacity of the pipe reduces with time because of corrosion. “. Thepipesare susceptible to erosion by sewage containing silt and grit The concrete sewers can be protected internally by vitrified clay linings. With protection Fining they are used for almost all the branch and main sewers. Only high alumina cement concrete should be used when pipes are exposed to corrosive liquid like sewage. Vitrified Clay or Stoneware Sewers These pipes are used for house connections as well as lateral sewers. The size of the pipe available is S cm to 30 cm internal diameter with length 0.9 to 1.2 m. These pipes are rarely manufactured for diameter greater than 99 em. These are joined by bell and spigot flexible compressionjoints. | ~ Advantages = Resistant to corrosion, hence fit for carrying polluted water such as sewage. ¢ Interior surface is smooth andis hydraulically efficient. © Thepipesare highly impervious. © Strong in compression. © These pipes are durable and economical for small diameters. * The pipe material does not absorb water more than 5% of their own weight, when immersed in water for 24h. Disadvantages * Heavy, bulky and brittle and hence, difficult to transport, * These pipes cannot be used as pressure pipes, because they are weak in tension, a pies equi large her of ins asthe indvidal pe lengths smal abetted Cae large size combined sewer or particularly forstorm through brick joints. These. peed fos wee: toavoid entry of ree rootsand eu smooth and hy Kaitou cficser bom with stone: Were OF CENTS block: tomake .ining also makes the pipe resistant to corrosion.MEE UUE EEE LL ebb eb Waste Water Engineering Cast Iron Sewers These pipes are stronger and capable to withstand greater tensile, compressive, as well as bending stresses. However, these are costly. Cas iron pipes are used for outfall sewers, rising ‘mains of pumping stations, and inverted siphons, where pipes are running under pressure. These arealso suitable for sewers under heavy traffic load, suchas sewers below railways and highways. ‘They are used for carried over piers in case of low lying areas. They form 100% leak proof sewer line toavoid groundwater contamination. They are less resistant to corrosion; hence, generally lined from inside with cement concrete, coal tar paint, epoxy, etc. These are joined together by bell and spigot joint. 1S:1536-1989 and IS:1537-1976 provides the specifications for spun and vertically cast pipes, respectively. . Steel Pipes ‘These are used under the situations such as pressure main sewers, under water crossing, bridge crossing, necessary connections for pumping stations, laying pipes over self supporting. spans, railway crossings, etc. They can withstand intemal pressure, impact load and vibrations much better than CI pipes. They are more ductile and can withstand water hammer pressure better. These pipes cannot withstand high external load and these pipes may collapse when negative pressure is developed in pipes. They are susceptible to corrosion and are not generally used for partially flowing sewers. They are protected internally and externally against the action of corrosion. Ductile Iron Pipes Ductile iron pipes can also be used for conveying the sewers. They demonstrate higher capacity to withstand water hammer. The specifications for DI pipes is provided in IS:12288- 1987. The predominant wall material is ductile iron, a spheroidized graphite cast iron. Internally these pipes are coated with cement mortar lining or any other polyethylene or poly wrap or plastic bagging/sdeeve lining to inhibit corrosion from the wastewater being conveyed, and various types of extemal coating are used to inhibit corrosion from the environment. Ductile iron has provento be abetter pipe material than cast iron but they are costly. Ductile iron is still believed tobe strongerand more fracture resistant material. However, like most ferrous materials itis susceptible tocorrosion. A typical life expectancy of thicker walled pipe could be up to 75 years, however with the current thinner walled ductile pipe the life could be about 20 years in highly corrosive soils without a corrosion control program like cathodic protection. Plastic Sewers (PVC pipes) Plastic isrecent material used for sewer pipes. These are used for intemal drainaze works inhouse. These are available in sizes 7510315 mm external diameter and used in drainage works. They offersmooth internal surface. The additional advantages they offer are resistant to. corrosion. lightweight of pipe, economical in laying, jointing and maintenance, the pipe istoug!> and rigid, and ease in fabrication and transport of ese pipes. |a Use of these pipes for sewers is recent development. They are not brittle knee arenes ha fll during lading unloading and handling dono damag tothe pipes. They can be joined by welding or can be jointed With detachable joints upto 639 mami Ee ORD Teseae commoner convey oir pipes very lite Nexibitty TkeAC pipes and cause any damage ‘bey combine the advantage of corrosion mpared with the steel Pipes. Typical Properties that result in advantages in GRP Pipes application can be summarized as follows © Light weight of Pipes that allows for the use of light laying and transport means. * Possibility ofnesting of differen iarceters of pipe thus allowing additional saving in transport ‘cost. * _ Lengthofpipe is larger than other Pipe materials. . installation ‘Procedures due ‘othekind of mechenical bell and spigot joint, . eee TAAL hans peUcionsuhscting ae or cathodic are then necessary, * Smoothness of the intersal yall that minimizes the heed toss and avoids the formation of deposits, * High mechanical Tesistance due to the glass reinfo-cement . (solute impemeabilityof pipes a Jemtsboth from extemal to intemal and viceversa. e Very long life ofthe sateria). Lead Sewers * They are smooth, so * This pipe hasan abi 7* However, these pi . are Used in house connection, ft and can take Odd shapes. lity to resist sulphide corrosionied Wpste Water Engineering 1.11 HYDRAULICS OF FLOW IN SEWERS ‘+ Ractors thatinfinence flow of sewage in sewers. % Slope ofsewer. > Geometry of sewer. “> Roughness of interior surface of sewer, +> Bends, transitions, obstructions etc. “> Flow conditions. > Characteristics ofsewage. Hydraulic Formulae: () Chezy’s Formals: V =Velocity of low (ans) S=Hydranlie grafieatof sewer R=Hydraulie mean radius (ri) (C=Chezy’sconstart A= Area ofeross-section (7) P= Wetted perimeter (mm) Chezy’sconstant Cis found sing Bazin’s formula: Q=AV Q=Discharge in m'Vs. (ii) Kutter’s Form: Chezy’s efficient, C = R=Hydraulicmean radius S= Slope N= Rugosity co-efficient (depends oa nature of inner surface of sewer) When N decreases, diameter increases Example: For Cement concrete se-ver of 600 mm, N =0.013.fe 7 i | planning and Design of Sewerage Syren, 139 i @ Bazin’s Formula: 157.6 Chezy’sconstant, K 1.814 VR K--Bazin’s constant (Depends on nature of inner surface of sewers). (iv) Manning’s Formals: : Velocity of flow, si, where N, R, S have same meaning as given by Kutter’s formula. (v) Crimp and Burge’s Formuk: V=83.5 RS? (Similar to Manning’s formula where —=83.5 oF N=0.012). Example: Foracircular pipe, ped also? P aD V=83.5(D/4y". Si? ~ 213 o-arv-(3 o }s(2) Esti 4, Q=26.02 DY S'? (05) William-Hazen’s Formula: For flow under pressure for designing water pipes. 'V=0.85 C RS CC value depends on the type of pipe material. .1.40 1.12 SEWER DESIGN 1.12.1 Hydroulic Elements of Circular Sewers i * Advantages of Circular Sewer Sections: () Easytomanufacture, ? (i) Efficient Section: Acircular section ‘gives the highest H.M.D. (Hydraulic Mean Depth ‘when running fall (or)half full. When depth is more, velocity’and discharge will be high. Waste Water Engineering | “ t i) "sthemost economical section since it uilises minimum quantitiesofmaterial (iv) Circular section have uniform curvature all around andit offers less opportunites for deposits. i Sewers should nmatleast half full. Circular section manning full: ==) E Wetted perimeter, P= xD- Hydraulic Mean Depth, R = A_ a/4D?_ Dp Bay f b) Gircular Sewer running partially full: ORIG Gy F j oo SRE er aPlanning and Design of Sewerage System Planning. and Design of Sewerage System $$ Lede te dei pt owe eee anh nena Let a= Area of cross section. p= Wetted perimeters r= Hydraulic mean depth. V= Velocity of flow. (Depth at partial flow: tS Bal al Sts os oe eth D (Comparing partial flow with fll low) G) Area of cross-section running partially full: A 360° 2a +. Proportionate Area =2. +3-] (ii) Wetteg Perimeter: p=nD.—2_ 360° Proportionate perimeter1A (a) ndaute Mean Depth (MD): so'{_0_ snd a4 (360 2" tt eT 360 _D psa] Pea\: 28 rf, 360sin0 Protons MD=7"|'" 959 (v) Yelocity of Flow: n J 2p v2 fi pl Sl 3 ; Preportionate velocity, swhenmunning full. Ifravchness co-efficient does not vary with depth n=N 213 Proportionate velocity, 2-(2] pi esas 2/3 2x0 (>i) Discharge running full: Discharge, patil fll0 sind ][,_360sin0 2x0 2s : 7) [For variable values of N, n}. 213 i" ee : ae > WhenN/naoesnot vary with depth of flow and when sewers flow more than half full, velocity in partially filled circular sewer exceeds those in full section. > Maximum velocity achieved when depth of flow is 0.81 times full depth. (12.5% ‘greater than when running full). + Maximum discharge obtained NOT when sewer is running fall but when depth is 0.95 times fall depth (7% greater than when running full). (vii) Partial Depth Self Cleansing Flow: Sewers flowing 0.5 to 0.8 times full need not be placed on steeper gradients to achi@ve _ self-cleansing velocity, hala Q LaAhKaAer 4g, = discharge when sewer are partially full. Q= discharge when sewers are running full. * Ventilation of Sewers: ‘Sewers are not designed to run full. Sewers are always designed to flow halfor three-fourth for the purpose of ventilation of foul gases. % Small sewers (< 0.4 m 4) - designed for flow at ; depth. % Sewers (0.4 m1o 0.9 m)— designed for flow at 2 depth. * Large sewers (ultimate peak discharge) - designed for flowat ; depth. ray| CEbeELEe é, d a Od é G. BS TESTE Go | ey Waste Water Engineering | 1.12.2 Egg-Shaped Sewers (Ovoid Sewers) | * Advantages: © Usedincombined sewerage system where discharge (low)highly varies. There will bebeavy flows during rainy season and only 510 10% flow (dry weather flow) during summer. Epg-shaped sewers provide greater depth (than circular) during low flow conditions, @®- Gives higher velocity for low flows than circu sewers of equal capacity + Disadvantages: i © Uasiablesection, Small end (ov) has o support broader upper sections weight. © Morediffcultto construct, expensive, material rere ismore. G@ _Selfclensing velocity requires suitable gradient. Two Forms: 3) Standard (or) Metropolitan section. ii) Newshaped section. a care Fig. 1M 2) :Standard Metropolitan Section Fig. 1.11 ():Mew egg shaped section Table 1.3 : Geometrical Parameters of Ovoid Section Standard Section . 36 2b b 056 © Parameter New Section 3b 26 b 0.25Planning and Design of Sewerage System * Hydraulic Elements of Standard Form: | | a) Sewer ranning full: Areaofcrown portion =1578 6-02 | Areaofcentral portion = 2.802 Areaofinvert portion =0.23h | Total Area =46R- Similarly Total Perimeter=7.825 R=HMD.=0.585 b)Sewer running2/3" full: Total area = 3.038? Area of central portion’ 2.808? } =3.9352 Areaofiivert portion 0.2382 Total perimeter = 4.685 HMD= R=0.645. ©) Sewer running half-full and one-third full: Atrunmning half full, R=0.54b, -- Atrumning one-third full, R=0.415. * Hydraulic elements of the New Form: a) Sewer running full: Areaofavwnportion = 1.57 5? Arcaofcentralportion =2.86 52 Areaofinvestportion = 0.03 5? Total area = 4.46 b Perimeter =7,89 5 HMD, R=0,575, Sever runing ru Ateaofcentral portion = 2.652 f | __ Ateaofinvert portion = 0.038 FolatArea = 2.899 pie earane1.46 Waste Water Engineering Perimeter = 4.68b H.M.D, R =0.62b. ¢)Section running one-third full = % Hydraulically equivalent Circular Sewers: +: Thedesign of egg-shaped sewers is complicated. " + The computations of various hydraulic elements (suchias area, wetted perimeter, a hydraulic mean depth, etc.) ofegg-shaped sewers involves complicated mathematical calculations. | 4 Therefore while designing egg-shaped sewers, approximate diameter of hydraulically { equivalent circular sewer is calculated frst, wi:h the same discharge (running fall) 4 and Jaid at same gradient, and then converted into dimensions of egg-shaped section. j Let D = Diameter of hydraulically equivalent circular section. D, = Top horizontal diameter: ‘of egg shaped section. D= 1.209 D,, | for O1dStandard/ Metropolitan Section ae D=1.191 D,, | forNew Section : . Rouen. ; D=12D, Table 1:4: Comparison of in circularand ovoid sewers ap x uM v Vv Circular Sewer Standard Ovoid Sewer 025 0701 1698 0.20 0.615 0.627 015 0.517 0.544 0.10 0.401 0.440 0.257 0.295. 7 haw Planning and Design a a7 1.12.3 Other Sewer Sections Insoftsoits with difficulty of providing foundations for circular/ovoid sections, following shapes are used. © Semi-clliptical © Horse-shoe © Parabolic Rectangular © U-shaped. Shapes of Sewer Pipes ‘Sewers are generally circular pipes laid below ground level, sloping continuously towards the outfall. These are designed to flow under gravity. ‘Shapes other than circular are also used, ‘Other shapes used for sewers are: a. Standard Egg-shaped sewer b. New egg-shaped sewer ¢. Horse shoe shaped sewer d. Parabolic shaped sewer ¢ Semi-clliptical section £ Rectangular shape section g U-shaped section h. Semi-circular shaped sewer i Basket handled shape sewer ‘Standard egg-shaped sewers, also called as ovoid shaped sewer, and new or modified egg-shaped sewers are used in combined sewers. These sewers can generate self cleansing velocity during dry weather flow. Horse shoe shaped sewers and semi-circular sections are used forlarge sewers with heavy discharge such as trunk ancl outfall sewers. Rectangular or trapezoidal section is used for conveying storm water. U-shaped section is used for larger sewers and especially in open cuts. Other sections of the sewers have become absolute due to difficulty in Fig, 1.2 a, (d)Waste Water Engineering I (c}Horse shoe sewer section . (d) Parabolic section (e}Semi-elliptical section {g) U-shaped section ()) Semé-crcalar Secon (i) Basket Handle Section Fig. 1.12 : Different shapes used for construction of sewer other than circularPlanning and Design of Sewerage System Shape of sewer depends on: Hydraulic (flow) conditions, (Construction Ease, (ji) Foundation conditions, (i) Availability ofspace, (a) Horse Shoe (b) Rectangular ° (©) Parabolic (©) Semi-ENiptic (A) Horse Skoe | with underdrain with underdrain Figs. 1.13 Other Sewer Sections.Waste Waser Engineering 1. Calculate the velocity of flow and discharge in circular sewer of diameter 1 maid at gradient of 1 in 500. Use Mannings formula, N = 0.012. Assume seweris running half full? Solution: Manning's Formula: 1 é ia RISE. R—-Hydraulic mean depth Half full, Given D= 1 (diameter) 2 1 {2 237) 2 0.012 (4) (s00. 1 ny, a ve (1) (1) <1s79ms. 0.012 (4 En) ae / 2 OE zo xV= pea. 479 = 0.581 m/s. = 0.581 cumecs. 2. Asewer of 0.6 m 4, laid at gradient 1 in 400 runs full. Use Crimp and Burge’s forshula, calculate the velocity of flow and discharge. z Solution V=835 RYxD? Red S015 v2 V=83.5 (0.15)” (as) V=1.178 mis. 6)?x1.178 Q=0.333 mis (or) 3336. 3. Astone ware sewer 30m is aid at gradient 1 in 100. Using N=0.013in Mannings formula, calculate velocity, discharge and chezy’s co-efficient when sewer runs full? Solution: Sewernurs full. A_x/4D?_D_30 a aaa =75em Po osD) 4 4- “aone) be) atray1.52 : Waste Water Engineering Chezy’s Formula: [e=50] 4. Amain combined sewer is designed to serve an area of 12.sq.km. with population, density of 250 persons/hectares. Average rate of sewage flow is 250-/eapitalgay. Maximum flow is 100% in excess of average together with rainfall equivalent of ~ 15mm in 24 hours, all which are runoff. Determine capacity of sewer. Taking maximum velocity of flow as 3 m/s. Determine size of circular sewer? Solution: Total population= 12 x 10 ha x 250-persons/ha 10000 m?— 1 ha = 30,0000 persons. 12 sq.km. = 12 x10 Average Flow = 300000 x 250 Iped =75 x 10°Vd 75x10° ~~ (24x60x60x10°) Maximum flow = 100% in excess of average + Storm flow. = 0.868 m/s 2 1 1 x 0.868 +12 x 10° x (5) * 34x60x60 [1 day (or)24 hours} Q= 1.736 + 2.083 = 3.82 m/s (or) Cumec. Q=3.82 m's. Sewercapacity, Q=AV_, Q= hx Vee x 3.8: gx x3 Provide 130-cm diameter,Planning and Design of Seweroge System 5. Deter os 20" oar) SB D* = 4.8128 <6 A town has population of 1,00,000 persons with per capita water supply of 200 litres day, Design a sewer running 0.7 times full at maximum discharge. Take a constant value of N = 0.013 atall depths of flow. The sewers laid at slope of 1 in 500. Take Peaking factor of 3. Solution: Water supplied = Per capita demand x Population = 200 lid x ;,00,090 = 20 x 10° I/d 20x10" ee eae ~ OP x2txepngg-— 02315 ms Average discharge in sewers = 0.8 x 0:2315= 1852 mis [80% of water supplied tums into sewage} Peaking factor =3, : | | / Maximum discharge y= Peak factor y Average discharge | = 3x 0.1852 = 0.5556 m/s. |Apphing formula ar acne oe [3 2 |=0.5872D? 0[ 15 a 15). $a 180-6.n-=113578 0=227.15= 0.2962 x 0.835 = 0.2474 m. . 12, 1 213} ‘) oy (02474)? | v= gs Ot) ie y=1:356m/s> 60 m/s [for diameter> 60 cm, SCV > 60cmis] (refer Table 2.2) Hence OK. Determine the diameter of separate sewer section running 0.7 times full atmaximum discharge for a population of 50,000 persons. Water is supplied at a rate of 140 litres per capita per day. Assume 80% of water supplied turns as sewage. Take 2.25 as peak factor and Manning’s constant, N = 0.013 at all depths of flow. The permissible flow is 1 in 700. Solution: Water supplied = Per capita demand x Population = 140 Iped x 50,000 =7x 10d =7 x 10 mi/d. = 0.081 m’/s. Average discharge in sewers = 80% of water supplied = 0.8x 0.08] = 0.0648 m/s Peak factor = 2.25 Maximum discharge in sewers = Peak factor x Average Discharge =2.25 x 0.0648SL ePiinng ‘and Design of Sewerage System 1.57 (Check for self cleansing velocity. 1 ves pag ” 7=0.296D 7 =0.296 x 0.538 = 0.159 ’ “pyr, Tors Assy (3) =0.85 m/s =85 cm/s > 75 emis. Hence OK. From table, for sewer diameter between 30 to 60cm, self-cleansing velocity should be more than 75 cm/s, (Refer Table 2.2) 8 Design an equivalent e, is 36000, the per capit: turns into. Sewage, of flow in circular: 88-shaped sewer section for the following data. Population en SuPPIY is 150 Iped, assume 82% of water supplied slope lin 625, 1= 0.012. Peak factor=4. Also find the velocity Soverwhen running full and during dry weather hiv DWF. ~Given: Population =36000 aa, Water supply =150 Iped 82% — Sewage 1 - =—.n=0912 Slope > =.= 0012 Peak factor = 4. Water supply = Percapita demand Population = 150 Iped x 36006 =54 x 10°Vd = 5410 md S.4x10> aoe 2 246060 = 0.0625 m a Average discharge in sewers = 82% of y, ater suppl = 0.82 0.6625 m ut 0.051 m/s. Waste Water Engineering ‘Maximum discharge in sewers = Peak Factor x Average Discharge (DWF) =4 x 0,051 =0.204 ms. [Note: Firstdesigna circular section, then convert the dimensions into an equivalent egg-shaped section) (1) Circular Section: 158 (@)Velocity when running full. 2 RB 9!2 = 14)23 4 0.0 oon . 625, 2137) \We Ree De 8) a 4 “oo (4) (es ~0.012\ 4 \ 625. Vv mci (0.136) x 0. Y = 0.875 mis. (b) Velocity @ Dry Weather Flow (DWF). Average flow Q= 0.051 mvs Q=A-v1.60 1.13 STORM DRAINAGE * Disadvantages of Combined Sewers: Sewage +Drainage). @ Larger size of sewer section is required. (Gi) Hydraulic performance is unsatisfactory during Dry Weather Flow (DWF): Hence, itis frequently preferred to carry the storm water through storm water drain. * Surface Drains /Storm Water Drains: @ Surface drains are used to carry sullage (kitchen waste water)and rain waters. Gis Surface drains are less hygienic since they are open and exposed to atmosphere. Gi) Surface drains are normally laid along either sides of the street facing boundary walls of housesand buildings. @)y In surface drain, itis difficult to maintain self cleansing velocity and they require frequent cleaning. (¥) Surface drains flow under gravity. % Requirements for efficient surface drains: (The inner surface of the drain should be smooth. (i) _Itshould have sufficient carrying capacity and should have reasonable free board. (i) _Itshould be laid at sufficient gradient to achieve self-cleansing velocity during dry weather flow. () All the joints should be properly and neatly finished. (vy) Itshould be structurally safe and stable. (i) Itshould be constructed with non-corrosive material and should be resistant to erosion. * Shapes of Surface Drains: Following shapes are commonly used: (i) Rectangular Section (ii) Trapezoidal Section Gi) Semi-Circular Section Gxy — U-section (vy) V-section.(©) V-shaped Figs. 1.14: Shapes of Surface Drains * Design of Drainage System (Contour maps of the area is collected = GY Inthe map, position of major/lirk drains and disposal source is marked to achieve Bravity flow. Providing flat gradientis economical over the cost of pamping Gi} Alignment of. rains-laterals, brarches, mainsis Cone. (i) Catchment area of each drain is marked (*) Based on population of catchment aren, the peak discharge expected in each drain is calculated. (4) Information on underground structures (water lines, existing sewer lines, electricand telephone cables. gas lines. etc. -) location of streets, subsoil conditions. strata type. ground water level, fluctuations of the drain are assessed. (iy Longitudinal sectin ofthe entire dri ines drawn fixing ESE The NSL Netwrai Surface Level}ofcetchment area is checked with FSL of drain. NSL. should te hy than FSE to prevent water loggine sedtased on following criteric:@ Bedeof drain should be higher than bed of discharge source at outfall point. — (b) Depth should be less than Man’s height to prevent drowning. (©) Depth depends on the land area available for providing sufficient dain width IF spaces limited, width is reduced and alternatively depth is increased to accommodate the desired flow discharge. @ Beda tule comma ection ante eyo should be non-silting/nen-scouring. + Yimpricial Formula - WidthDepth of Drains: @ Drains upto 15 cumecs Y=05 Jp B-widthof drain Y- depthof drain. Gi Drains with discharge between 15 to 30 Cumecs. Table 1.5. Discharge (Comecs) Depth ¥(m) (iii) CWC’s recommendations (Central Water Commission). 20) — ° 1 . ay ® ical T pt Ratio L ee | EB pes rs a 3 5 10 iP) 20 30 109 200 Discharge iCumecs) Fig, 1.15: Central Water Commission Recommendation1.63 Planning ond Design of Severge Stem ey 5: 4 Type of Soil/Type of Surface Maximum Permissible Velocity (m/s) - (@) Unlined Drains Be (1) Rock and gravel 15 = (2)Murram, hard soilete. L0to 1. > {G) Sandy loam, black cotton soil 0600.9 (4 Very light loose sand to average sandy soil 031006 - e (5) Ordinary soil 0.610 0.9 (b) Lined Drains (1) Stone pitched he (2 Bumtclay tile lined 18 G) Cement concrete lined 2102.5 1.14 STORM RUNOFF ESTIMATION 5] * Peak run-off rate depends on. “> Type of precipitation. % Intensity and duration of rainfall. “> Rainfall distribution. + Soil moisture. | + Direction of storm/duration/storm frequency. * Climatic conditions. * Shape, size, type of catchment basin. * Impermeability factor. (a) Rational Formula: Assuming that if rain falls on an impervious surface at a constant rate, the resultant runoff from the surface would be ‘equal to the rainfall. Runoff rate = Rate of rainfall.Average Impermeability Factor (1) (i): Lea Time of Conca ig Time of Concentration: z ” Period after which he entre catchment area starts contributing tothe rol dram. Critical Rainfall Duration: : Maximum runoffobtained from rain having duration equal to the time of the concentration. Basedon the basic principles, the rational formula was evolved by Frubling, Kuichlingand Davis. . | Q, > Peak rate of runoffin cumecs K Co-efficientofrunoff A — Catchmentarea in hectares P_ — Critical rainfall intensity (crV/hr). Co-efficient of Runoff (Impervious Factor) The co-efficient of runoff (#) is the impervious factor of runoff, representing the ratio of precipitationto nnoff. + The value of kincreasesas the impreviousness of the area increases. A= Ratio of precipitation to runoff + Value of k varies with the type of surface. k=1 > Perfectly impervious surface. [For parks, lawns, gardens, k = 0.05 — 0.25 Wooden lands, k= 0.01 - 0.20} A, A.A, > Areaol different surfaces of catchment. |,,1,. 1, —» Corresponding impermeability factors for different surfaces,‘The value ofintensi haineistheranflat the rain SAN8e Station ani calledag Point rainfall intensity. > Intensity at any point on catchment area = Point rainfalh intensity “Sl DStibuton Factor (eperian bey : Time °& Concentration: 5) The Inlet Time (or) Overland Flow Time (or) Time of Equilibrium 4 time taken by waterio fw overand om the rial poin upto the poin whee the drain mouth, 370385 . Te [os ti) re \(m) from critica} po mtomouh of dain,eee i) Channel Flow Time/Gutter Flow Time ‘Time of flow from drain channel mouth to considered point. Length of drain T= Velocity in drain «. Timeof concentration, T,=T,+T, -® ~O) Intensity of rainfall during T, can be easily obtained from standard intensity duration curves. a es {) Pce=Po THT, T, =Time of concentration (hours) Po = Value from charts, a > Inthe absence of standard intensity — duration curves, following formulae is used. p —~ Rainintensity in cave. f) P=T T — Time of concentration in minutes a. b > Constants. 5 P* F510 (T between 5 to 20 min) 100 : Pp T+20 (T between 20 to 100 min) 2) Localities with frequent rainfall (5 year frequency) P b) Rains with frequency of 10 years v Sl 33 ~ T4+18 3 7267 = 720 (Storms of 10 year frequency) — — (Storms of 15 year frequency). o By set, the peak discharge for larger catchment area» (@ Burkli-Ziegler Formula: aa ee y= agg | Q, > Peakninoff'in cumecs. Runoffco-effiient (Surface permeability) =07. Pp > — Maximumrainfall intensity =25107,5 cm/hr. A ~>* Drainage area is hectares. S, —>- Slope of ground surface in metres per thousand metres. ii) Dicken’s Formats: (North Indian Catchments): [asa] M ~ — Catchmentareain sq.km. 7 CC ~> Constant depends cn runoff factors (11.5 generally) (Increases for hilly terrains). me s Formula: (South Indian Catchments):ate rer Engineering ee eel Cani Danhers G,variesbetween 48 10.60 M'-> Catchment area in acres. vi) Dredge (or) Burge’s Formula: Q=19.6 L ~> Length of drainage basin in Kilometers. em a) :1 83) ee 1. The surface on which the rain fall occurs in a district is given below. Area (%) Surface Runoff Ratio 20% Roof 5 050 20% Pavements 0.85 % Paved yards 0.80 15% Macadam roads 0.40 DB Lawn, gardens 0.10 % Wooden 0.05 The total area of the district is 36 hectares and the maximum rain intensity is Sem/nr, Determine i) Co-efficient of runoff. ii) Total runoff for district. guage aon neWaste Water Engineering © 1.70 2. Inthesame problem, ifthe time of concentration forthe areais30 refi it maximum runoff (if maximum rain intensity is not given). Also use formul R=900i(t460). Solution: Time of concentration is given as 30 min. R= ami (using given formula) Rain intensity 0 900 ~ Pee 30460 p.=lom/hr Rational formula for peak discharge, =10mm/br= | crv/br. = x0.4875%1x36 Maximum runoff=Q, =0.4875 cumecs 3. Thesurface water from airport road is drained to the longitudinal side drain from across one half ofa bituminous pavement suface of total width 7.0m, shoulder and adjoining land of width 8.0m on one side of the drain. On the other side of the drain, Water lowsacross from reserve land with average turf and 2% cross slope towards the side drain, the width of this strip of land being 25 m. The inlet time is 10 min. ‘The runoff coefficients of the pavement, shoulder and reserve land (turf) are 0.8. 0.25 and 035 respectively. The length of the land parallel to road from where water is expected to flow to side drain is 400 m. Estimate the quantity of runoff flowing in the drain assuming 10 year frequency. ‘Theside drain will pass through clayey soil with allowable velocity of flow as 1.33 ms. Intensity Duration Chart-10 Year Frequency Duration (mins) Intensity (mam/hr) 5 > 160© Planing amd Design of Sewerage Sytem i S~ Cross slope 2% of side drain 4, Inlet time= 10 min, A= Coefficient of runoff = 0.8, 0.25, 0.35. 25m k= 0.35 Width of the stretch of land = 400 m. DA=Ay +A +A3=400%7+400 x8+400x25 = 2800 + 3200+ 10000 =16000m? = 16000 6 na, (1ha =10000m7) 10000 Kea MAH AD HKGAS DKA A, +A) +Ay ZA — 2800*0,8+3200%0.25+ 10000035 16000 T,= 10min (given) Length Velocity of flow T= 3 m/s =300s=5 min. T.=10+5=15 min, For T,=15 min P,= 125 mmvhr. (from Table) : =12.5 em/hr. K-p-A 0 =Ex0.40875« 12.5x1.6 cael Q= 0.227 mis=e Waste Water Engineering 4 Inproblem 1.1, if the density of population is 250 per hectare and the rate of water supplied per day is 225 Iped. Calculate the quantity of: a) Sewage flow for which the Sewers of a separate system, should be designed? b)Storm water for which the sewersofa Partially separate system are designed? Solution: ) Sewage Flow- Separate system. Population Density = 250 persons ‘per hectare. 7 +: Total population = 250/ectare x 36 hectare = 9000. Water supply = 225 Iped Rate of water supply = Per capita water demand x Population = 225 Iped x 9000 [m= 10007} = 202500-Vd es ¢ 2025 = 2025 md = Zax60x60 ™'s 34 m/s. + Assuming the sewage discharge is 0.8 times the water supplied. Rate of sewage produced (Average Flow)= 0.8 x rate of water supplied =0.8 x 0.0234 m/s. = 0.0187 m/s. Now assuming the peak flow as three time the average flow Peak rate of sewage flow =3 x Average flow =3 x 0.0187 = 0.056 mys. = 0.056 cumecs. ) ii} Partially Separate System Incase of pantially separate system, the storm water from roofs and paved yards of houses ’ will be allowed to enter the sewers. Roof | 20% | 0.90 Paved Yards | 5% | 0.80 TT wwe eS SSCCEOE p.=Scmbr can 16 teas} (reter problem 1.1)aa pb hsgeenn cree Plas and Design Af Sewerage System 0 A= Roof Area 5 =7.2 ha 7 A= Paved Area = =1.8ha the design rain is 30 min. combined sewerage system, Solntion: Assuming average per capita water demand as 1 20Iitres: ‘ater supply will bereaching the sewers 2s sanitary se wage, perso and that 80% of the = 80% of water supplied x Population : F . 80} E ©. Quantity of Sanitary sewage produced per day = 100. ena «30,000 = 2880109 I/d Average flow = 2880 mid 2880 Quantity of sewage produced per second = 2ax60%6 = 0.033 mis Assuming thersaximum sewage discharge a }time ofave Maximum Sewage Discharge =3 « Average Flow =3 x 0.033 | } | Storm water discharge QaaK pd !174 Waste Water Engineering 100 __ 100 =2cr/hr. (= T between 20 to 100 min.) Pe F420 30420 :, Total Peak discharge in sewers = Maximum Sewaze Discharge + Maximum Storm runoff. =0.14+2=2.1 mis. =2.1 cumecs - 1,15 SEWER APPURTENANCES is Sewer appurtenances are those structures which are coastructed at suitable intervalsalong | asewerage system, which helps in efficient operation and maintenance. These inchude: (1) Manholes (2)-Drop Manholes @) Lempholes (4) Clean-outs (6) Street inlets (Gullies) (©) Catch Basins (7) Flushing Tanks (8) Grease and Oil Traps (9) Inverted Siphons (10) Storm Regulators. (1) Manboles: Manholes are Masonry.(or) R.C.C chambers. e a Purpose — Providesacoessinto sewers for inspection, ceaningand maintenance works. § Location ~ Provided at every bend, junction, change of gradient (or) change of sewer diameter at suitable intervals along sewer line. Spacing - Depends onsewer sizes (Larger diameter - greater spacing). Table 1.7 : Manhole Spacing (IS 1742-1960) Spacing in Straight Stretches Sewer Size dia < 0.3m “06m «0.9m 90m «12m 120m «13m 250m 215mPlanning and Design of Sewerage System ‘Table 1.8; Minimum Internal Dimensions (IS 1742-1960) 0.75 1m x 0.75 m 12m x 0.9m Circular chamber diameter 1.4m Rectangular 1.2m x 0.9m 0.8m (or) less 0.8 mand 2.] m >2.1m Wall thickness 20-30m a) 1.5 mdepth b)> 1.5m depths 20cm 30cm * CLASSIFICATION OF MANHOLES: (BASED ON DEPTH) @) Shallow Manhole: * Usedas inspection chambers. % Depth=0.7mto0.9m. oa Constreted at start franc sewer and at places of minimum traf. + Light cover is provided at top. 7) Perea Medium Manhole: Depth'= 1.5m. Square (1 11 x, m)/Rectangular (1.2m x 1 m) shape. Heavy cover is provided at the top. Unlike shallow manholes, the section does not change with depth. (ii) Deep Manhole: Depth >J.5m. ‘ i Section normally varies, the upper portionis reduced. Steps are provided to enable workers entry to bottom. $y Heavy cover is provided at the top. * Component Parts of Manhole: () Access Shaft: % _Itis the upper portion of €eep manhole. For rectangular manhole - size of access shaft is 0.75 m x 0.6m. For circular manhole - size is 0.6 m1o 0.7 m. Depth ofaccess shaft depends on manhole depth,& GG fay OOO b806. 4, bb ht ps. Figs. 1.17 : Deep Manhole (i) Working Chamber: * Itisthe lower portion ofmanbole. Provides working space for inspection and cleaning operations. For rectangular manhole - size of working chamber is 12m x 0.9m. For circular manhole- size of working chamber is 1.2 m diameter. The height of this chamber must not be less than 1.8m. (ii) Benching/Bottom/Invert Portion of Manhole: * The bottom Portion of the manhole is constructed in cement concrete. % A semicircular (or) U-shaped channels, 'generaliy constructed and the sides are made to slope towards it. The concreting is known as ‘benching and facilitate the entry of sewage from branch ‘sewers into the main sewer, (i) Side Walls: ise oot 2 The side walls are made of brick/stone masonry/R.C.C. % The minimum thickness ofthe brick walls should be 22.5 cm (9°). * The approximate thickness may be computed by using emperical thumb-rale 1=10+44 (for brick walls), 4= Thickness ofwallinem, d=Depthofexcavation in m. ws ‘The thickness of R.C.C walls will however be much less.as compared to that of brick wall. but RCC wallsare costly than brick.Planning and Design of Sewerage System Ww (¥) Steps (or) Ladders: Stepsare generally provided fer descending into deep manholes. %Stepsare made of cast i iron andare placed ata horizontal distance of about 20cm and a verticak distance of about 30.cm. Steps are embedded in walls. vi) Cover and Frame: ° Cover is generally made of castiron material and are fixed at the top of the manhole embedded in-pavements, The thickness of the faine isabout 20025 em and is about 10 err wide. Circular or rectangular shape cover is provided of size 0.5 to 0.6m or0.6mx 0.45 m respectively where dis the diameter of the ‘cover. The top surface of the cover also. of sewage. ‘The weight of the cover and frame vari traffic volume. @) Drop Manhole: + carries an arrow mark to mark the direction of flow ies between 90 to 270 kg Which depends on Branch line is provided 0.5 to 0.6 m above main sewers ‘The sewage from branch sewers isnotall brought into it through down. manbole. lowed to fall directly into the manhole, butis pipe taken from the branch sewer to the bottom of the Either vertical down pipes (rop marhole) or inclined pip vertical pipe is economical. Amanhole in which a vertical down pipeis provided called A plug and inspection arm are provided atthe point where Tamp)a provided. The adrop manhole, the straight stretch of branch sewer intersects the wall ‘oi the manhole. Sewage from the branch sewer ips through vertical pipe and trickles over the main sewer. eS, Advantages: @ Steep gradients of branch sewers is avoided by providing vertical drop manholes. The cost of excavation is reduced. \ pee =e Sewage entering the manhole directly from branch sewers that are provided at certain height is likely to fall on the working personnel, whichis. reverted. Fig. 1.18 . Drop Manholede Waste Water Engineering EE 3) Lamp Holes (now become obsolete): ‘> Openings or hole extending from ground to sewer line through junction. > Purpose: (i) Forinspection (obstructions) (ii) Forffashing sewers (ii) Forventilation of foul gases. ‘> Thesehoks permit insertion of lamps into sewers. The lamp lightis viewed at upstream and downstreem ends to find any obstructions. * _ Lampbole consists ofa vertical pipe (20 to 20'cm 4) made of cast iron or stone-ware, where $is the diameter of the vertical pipe. The vertical pipe is surrounded by concrete. Amanhole cover is provided at the top. Location: (W Atbends, chenge in directicn or gradient of sewers. (@) Where manhole construction is difficult. (ii) Where mankole spacing is more. Fig. 1.19 : Lampheie (4) Clean-Outs % _Aninclined pipe extending from the ground tothe underground sewer A clean out is used for: cleaning sewer pipes - flushing sewers (laterals)to remove obstacles. A clean out is provided at the upper ends of ateral sewers in place of manholes. The functioning of «clean outis very simple. Removing the top coverand forcing water through the clean out pipe to lateral sewers to Temove obstacles in the sewer line. Ifthe obstr:ctions are large, a flexible rod may be inserted and pushed forward and backward to remove -he obstacles,Fig, 4.20 : Clean-Outs (8) Street Inlets (Gullies): / Openings on road provided at lowest point which drains rain water into storm/combined sewers. ; Provided at spacing of 30 m to 60 m. Gullies are connected to manholes by pipe lines. oe~ A Stee inlet is asimy b a i borizontl inlets, (©}Catch Basins (or) Catch Pits » % Catch basins are street inlets provided with small settling basins. = Grit, snd, debris et, do settle in these basins and their entry into the sewer is | Prevented. r Aboodis provided which prevents the escape of foul gases. e Catch basins need periodical cleaning. i. Catch basins are provided only in old combined sewerage system. ° Catch basins are not required in modem separate sewerage system as the streets are Paved and not much debris enters the sewers. Further the foul gases in storm water drainsisalso less. Fig. 4.22: Catch Basins (7) Flashing Tanks: Device that stores water temporarily and then throws it into the sewer for flushing and cleaning Itcanbe operated either manually or automatically. % Sewers that are laid on flat gradient or dead ends may not produce self,cl-ansing velocityand may be frequently blocked. This can be cleaned with the help of ishing tanks. <% Quantity of water addedin one flush isabout 1600+itres. iS ple concrete box with gratings (or) openings in vertical (or). r 3 Teint hing veal openings is vertical inlet andinket having horizontal openingsis:endisplacedin the manhole to achieve flushing action. ; = Theoutlet and inlet ends are closed by shice or gate valve and the manholes filled ie ce ncnsiees end aeiyn ban i oe ; and flushing is achieved. (or) SS See een eee ah chiccor tcvlve-1i2 ee collects in manhole and when sufficient head builts up. vate valve is suddenly ‘opened to achieve flushing. ~ (b) Automatic Flushing Tanks: ‘ Flushingactionis achieved automatically at regular intervals. + Entry of waters so regulated that the tank is filled in a period equal to the flushing - interval. 7 + Anoverflow pipe is aiso provided to drain away excess iwater in case the tank: overflows before the flushing action starts. ve SEWER 6146Waste Water Engineering 1 Oe te ee ‘The bell cap has a sniffhole. When water level is below the sniff hole, water levelin the U-tube is at level [Y,~¥,} (long arm, short arm). Asthe water level in the tank rises above the snffhol, the air caught up in the bell (compressed air) exerts pressure on water surface Y, and the water level in the long armis depressed. As water level rises in tank (upto discharge level) Y, level in long arm of U-tube depresses more and more and the compressed air caught in bell is released through shorter arm. The siphonic action starts releasing water from the tank into the sewer till wate: level falls below sniffhole. When water level in tank falls down, ar enters the bell cap and breaks the siphonic action, (8) Grease and Oil Traps: + Trap chambers are used to remove oil/grease from sewage, before entering sewer Tne. > These are located near sources which generate grease and oil (automobile repair workshops, garages, kitchens of hotels, oil/grease indusstries etc.) * Necessity: u) fii) Grease/oil stick to sewer sides and causes obstruction or reduce sewer capacity. Ircreases the possibilities of explosion in sewer lines. fii) Presence of oil and grease causes difficulties in treatment. (iv) Presence of oil and grease on surface of waste water prevents oxygen penetration and cause bad odours. Principle: The erease and oil traps consists of two chambers interconnected through a pipe. The Inict is provided with a grating on the top. The vi! and grease float on surface. The outlet is provided submerged to exclude oil and grease Pombivied sand. grease and oil trap is also available.Fig. 1.24: Oil and Grease Trap COVER | IMLET WITH Grating Fig.1.25: Combined Sand, Grease and O0 Trap ~ (9) Inverted Siphons: (Depressed Sewer) (Sag Pipe) % Inverted siphons are sewer sections that are provided lower than the adjacent sewers_ (01) that drops below the hydraulic gradient line (HGL). ; " & — Theyare provided under the obstructions such as roadway, railway, stream, valley, ie : _ Inverted siphons should be provided only in areas where other means of passing the obstructions are not feasibie. % — Theyare siphon tubes or pipes made of cast iron or concrete. ASelfcleansing velocity of 0.9 us is achieved at minimum discharge. : ~ — Inthecombined flow system, three charinels or pipesare provided: (a) Pipe 1 : carry minimum sanitary sewage (Channel 1) (b) Pipe 2: carry maximum sanitary sewage (Channel 2) Pipe 3: carries combined flow during monsoons (Channel 3). ae BaF Ad) aie Y‘ouarovel (e) SECTION €D temaRGeD) Fig.1.26 : Inverted Siphons : When pipe/channe! 1 overflows, the sewage enters channel 2 and 3. % Fora separate sewerage system, two champelsare provided, (2)Channel 1: For carrying minimum dry weaiher flow. (b) Channel 2: For carrying maximum dry weather low. * Designing Siphon - Important Points () The construction should be simple. (i) Direction change should be easy and gradual Gil) Self cleansing velocity should be atleast Lvs during minimum flow. (iv) Two or three parallel pipes are provided. and any excess discharge how) goes tothe second and third such that average flow happens in first pipe Pipes. (0) Selection of pipe size depends on both average and maximum flows.- (aly Possibility of sitting should be avoided by provid, igscreens and grit (detritus) pits, @& Minimum diameter of siphon should be 15 to20 Masonary chamber with overflow weiris the commen: type. % Overflow weirs are located where ‘sewer approaches a water course. > Single acting (single side} (or) double acting (double side) overflow werrs can be ey - Openings are provided at suitable height of combined sewer and joine | 10 ste drains. Excess sewage flows to drains that are discharged to water course1.86 Fig. 1.28: Another Type cf Overflow Weir (ii) Leaping Weir: “Opening is provided: invertof storm drain (combined sewer). Normal storm water flows in intercepting sewer. ‘Excess flows are diverted to nearby stream by the Jeap over combined sewers. Fig, 1.29: Leaping Wier