Refutation of Nilesh Oak’s Astronomical Dating of Ramayana to 12209 BCE: Part 9 of 10 -- The

Grouping of Seasons and Lunar Months from the Vedic age till Now

Raja Ram Mohan Roy

Research Scientist, Materials Science and Engineering
Email: rajarammohanroy108@gmail.com

Abstract: Vartak proposed that the grouping of seasons and lunar months changes by one month
every 2,160 years due to precession, which was adopted by Oak, who uses a period of 2,000 years
for the change of one lunar month. I have called this hypothesis the “Vartak-Oak hypothesis”.
According to this hypothesis, seasons consist of different pairs of luni-solar months as time
changes. To confirm this hypothesis, the combinations of months and seasons were searched in
the Indian texts going back to the Vedas. The listings of explicit mentions of seasons and months
conform to the standard configuration from the earliest times till now. However, the combination
has changed in East Indian calendars. According to the “Vartak-Oak hypothesis,” the grouping of
seasons and lunar months should have changed by one month every 2,000 years due to precession.
There is no evidence of it in the Indian literature.

1. INTRODUCTION
In the previous eight articles of this series, Oak’s dating of the Rāmāyaṇa to 12209 BCE has been
refuted. There are four Astronomy Poison Pills for the dating of the Rāmāyaṇa according to Oak
[1]. The first Astronomy Poison Pill of “Caitra being in the Śarad season” was refuted in Part 2
[2]. I pointed out that according to the evidence in the Rāmāyaṇa, Caitra was in the Vasanta season.
I refuted the second Astronomy Poison Pill – that of “Āśvina month being part of the Vasanta
season” in Part 4 [3]. I pointed out that Caitra, not Āśvina month, was part of the Vasanta season
based on clear evidence in the Rāmāyaṇa. I refuted the third Astronomy Poison Pill – that of the
“Sun setting near pushya during Hemant season” in Part 3 [4]. I pointed out that Araṇyakāṇḍa
16.12 in the Rāmāyaṇa does not specify the position of the Sun. I refuted the fourth Astronomy
Poison Pill – that of “the description of Brahmarāśi/Vega/Abhijit as pole star” in Part 5 [5]. I
showed that Brahmarāśi cannot be the Abhijit (Vega) star because Mars can never be near Vega.

I refuted the assertion by Oak that a unique event involving a comet took place in 12209 BCE in
Part 6 [6]. I pointed out that a comet’s trajectory and magnitude cannot be predicted for even 100
years and Oak’s date is based on software-generated illusion. I refuted Oak’s claim that Rāvaṇa’s
Laṅkā was located on the Equator in Part 7 [7]. I pointed out that Laṅkā on the Equator was an
astronomical concept and a hypothetical city. I argued that there is only one Rama Setu, and it
connects India with Sri Lanka.
I refuted Oak’s claim of over 575 corroborations for the 12209 BCE date in the Rāmāyaṇa in Part
8 [8]. I showed that Oak does not have even one corroboration by going over each claim that is
described in the book “The Historic Rama”. I should point out that despite repeated requests in the
भारतीयविद्वत्पररषत् mailing group and on Twitter [9], Oak has failed to make public the exact details of
575+ corroborations he claims for 12209 BCE date of the Rāmāyaṇa. In the final two parts of this
series, I will focus on the fundamental basis of Oak’s dating of the Rāmāyaṇa.

2. VARTAK-OAK HYPOTHESIS
As stated in two earlier articles, Vartak proposed that the grouping of seasons and lunar months
changes by one month every 2,160 years due to precession, which was adopted by Oak, who uses
a period of 2,000 years for the change of one lunar month [10-11]. I have called this hypothesis
the “Vartak-Oak hypothesis” [10]. According to this hypothesis, seasons consist of different pairs
of luni-solar months as time changes. Based on the information given by Oak [12], Table 1
summarizes the important configurations according to the Vartak-Oak hypothesis [11].
According to Oak, Āśvina and Kārttika were part of Vasanta season, and Caitra and Vaiśākha were
part of Śarad season during Rāmāyaṇa times. I have shown in Part 2 [2] and Part 4 [3] of this series
that this is not the case. Wherever months and seasons or months or seasons are explicitly stated,
they always conform to the standard configuration. I had discussed the standard configuration of
seasons and months in Part 2 of the series [2].

3. THE VEDIC/HINDU CALENDAR

The division of a year according to the Vedic/Hindu calendar is shown in Table 2. The year is
divided in two, Uttarāyaṇa and Dakṣināyana. Uttarāyaṇa is the period from winter solstice to
summer solstice, and Dakṣināyana is the period from summer solstice to winter solstice. There
were different ways to divide the year into seasons. The common way was to divide the year into
six seasons of two-month durations: Śiśira (late winter), Vasanta (spring), Grīṣma (summer), Varṣā
(rainy season), Śarada (autumn), and Hemanta (early winter). In this division, the first three
seasons were part of Uttarāyaṇa, and the last three seasons were part of Dakṣināyana. Two
alternative lists of months were in use. One list named the months as Tapa, Tapasya, Madhu,
Mādhava, Śukra, Śuchi, Nabha, Nabhasya, Īśa, Urja, Saha, and Sahasya. Another list is that of
Māgha, Phālguna, Caitra, Vaiśākha, Jyeṣṭha, Āṣāḍha, Śrāvaṇa, Bhādrapada (Proshṭhapada),
Āśvina, Kārttika, Mārgaśīrṣa (Agrahāyaṇa), and Pauṣa. Generally, Tapa was used interchangeably
with Māgha, Tapasya with Phālguna, Madhu with Caitra, and so on as shown in Table 2.
 Table 1: Groupings of seasons and months during Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata times according
to Oak [12]

Seasons Standard Mahābhārata Rāmāyaṇa

configuration
1500 BCE to 5500 BCE to 13500 BCE to
500 CE 3500 BCE 11500 BCE
Māgha Caitra Śrāvaṇa
Śiśira (late
winter) Phālguna Vaiśākha Bhādrapada
(Proshṭhapada)
Caitra Jyeṣṭha Āśvina
Vasanta (spring)
Vaiśākha Āṣāḍha Kārttika
Jyeṣṭha Śrāvaṇa Mārgaśīrṣa
Grīṣma (Agrahāyaṇa)
(summer) Āṣāḍha Bhādrapada Pauṣa
(Proshṭhapada)
Śrāvaṇa Āśvina Māgha
Varṣā (rainy
season) Bhādrapada Kārttika Phālguna
(Proshṭhapada)
Āśvina Mārgaśīrṣa Caitra
Śarad (autumn) (Agrahāyaṇa)
Kārttika Pauṣa Vaiśākha
Mārgaśīrṣa Māgha Jyeṣṭha
Hemanta (early (Agrahāyaṇa)
winter)
Pauṣa Phālguna Āṣāḍha

With this information, let us look at the combination of months and seasons that we find in the
Indian texts going back to the Vedas.
 Table 2: The Vedic/Hindu Calendar
6-month 2-month Tropical Synodic
ayana seasons months months
Śiśira Tapa Māgha
(late
Tapasya Phālguna
winter)
Madhu Caitra
Uttarāyaṇa Vasanta
(spring) Mādhava Vaiśākha

Grīṣma Śukra Jyeṣṭha

(summer) Śuchi Āṣāḍha

Varṣā Nabha Śrāvaṇa

(rainy Nabhasya Bhādrapada
season) (Proshṭhapada)

Śarad Īśa Āśvina

Dakṣināyana
(autumn) Urja Kārttika

Hemanta Saha Mārgaśīrṣa

(early (Agrahāyaṇa)
winter) Sahasya Pauṣa

4. EXPLICIT MENTIONS OF SEASONS AND MONTHS IN INDIAN TEXTS

I. Taittirīya Saṃhitā IV.4.11.1

The text is as follows:

madhuśca mādhavaśca vāsantikāvṛtū śukraśca śuciśca graiṣmāvṛtū nabhaśca nabhasyaśca vārṣikāvṛtū

iṣaścorjaśca śāradāvṛtū sahaśca sahasyaśca haimantikāvṛtū tapaśca tapasyaśca śaiśirāvṛtū

Here is the English translation by Keith [13]:

(Ye are) Madhu and Mādhava, the months of spring. (Ye are) Śukra and Śuci, the months of summer. (Ye are)
Nabha and Nabhasya, the months of rain. (Ye are) Iṣa and Ūrja, the months of autumn. (Ye are) Saha and Sahasya,
the months of winter. (Ye are) Tapa and Tapasya, the months of cool season.

The seasons and months conform to the standard configuration.

II. Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa IV.3.1.14-19

The text is as follows:
 athāto gṛhṇātyeva | upayāmagṛhīto 'si madhave tvetyevādhvaryurgṛhṇātyupayāmagṛhīto 'si mādhavāya tveti
pratiprasthātaitāveva vāsantikau sa yadvasanta oṣadhayo jāyante vanaspatayaḥ pacyante teno haitau
madhuśca mādhavaśca.

upayāmagṛhīto 'si | śukrāya tvetyevādhvaryurgṛhṇātyupayāmagṛhīto 'si śucaye tveti pratiprasthātaitāveva

graiṣmau sa yadetayorbaliṣṭhaṃ tapati teno haitau śukraśca śuciśca.

upayāmagṛhīto 'si nabhase tvetyevādhvaryurgṛhṇātyupayāmagṛhīto 'si nabhasyāya tveti pratiprasthātaitāveva

vārṣikāvamuto vai divo varṣati teno haitau nabhaśca nabhasyaśca.

upayāmagṛhīto 'si | iṣe tvetyevādhvaryurgṛhṇātyupayāmagṛhīto 'syūrje tveti pratiprasthātaitāveva śāradau sa

yacaradyūrgrasa oṣadhayaḥ pacyante teno haitāviṣaścorjaśca.

upayāmagṛhīto 'si sahase tvetyevādhvaryurgṛhṇātyupayāmagṛhīto 'si sahasyāya tveti pratiprasthātaitāveva

haimantikau sa yaddhemanta imāḥ prajāḥ sahaseva svaṃ vaśamupanayate teno haitau sahaśca sahasyaśca.

upayāmagṛhīto 'si tapase tvetyevādhvaryurgṛhṇātyupayāmagṛhīto 'si tapasyāya tveti pratiprasthātaitāveva

śaiśirau sa yadetayorbaliṣṭhaṃ śyāyati teno haitau tapaśca tapasyaśca.

Here is the English translation by Eggeling [14]:

14. Now he draws the cups (for the seasons) therefrom, with 'Thou art taken with a support: thee for Madhu!'
the Adhvaryu takes (the first); with 'Thou art taken with a support: thee for Madhava!' the Pratiprasthātri (the
second). These two are the spring (months): because in spring plants sprout and trees are brought to ripeness,
therefore these two are Madhu (sweet) and Mādhava.

15. With 'Thou art taken with a support: thee for Śukra!' the Adhvaryu draws (the third); with 'Thou art taken
with a support: thee for Suchi!' the Pratiprasthātri (the fourth). These two are the summer (months): because
during them it burns fiercest, therefore these two are Śukra (clear) and Suchi (bright).

16. With 'Thou art taken with a support: thee for Nabhas!' the Adhvaryu draws (the fifth); with 'Thou art
taken with a support: thee for Nabhasya!' the Pratiprasthātri (the sixth). These two are (the months) of the
rainy season: it rains from yonder sky, and hence these two are Nabhas (mist, cloud) and Nabhasya.

17. With 'Thou art taken with a support: thee for Ish (sap)!' the Adhvaryu draws (the seventh); with 'Thou art
taken with a support: thee for Ūrj (food)!' the Pratiprasthātri (the eighth). These two are the autumn (months):
because in autumn food (ūrj) and juice, (namely) plants, ripen, therefore these two are Isha and Ūrja.

18. With 'Thou art taken with a support: thee for Sahas!' the Adhvaryu draws (the ninth); with 'Thou art taken
with a support: thee for Sahasya!' the Pratiprasthātri (the tenth). These two are the winter (months): because
the winter by force (sahas) brings these creatures into his power, therefore these two are Saha and Sahasya.

19. With 'Thou art taken with a support: thee for Tapas!' the Adhvaryu draws (the eleventh); with 'Thou art
taken with a support: thee for Tapasya!' the Pratiprasthātri (the twelfth). These two are (the months) of the
dewy season: because during them it freezes most severely, therefore these two are Tapas and Tapasya.

The seasons and months conform to the standard configuration.

III. Rāmāyaṇa 4.26.14
Sarga 26, Śloka 14 of the Kiṣkindhākāṇḍa of the Rāmāyaṇa mentions that Varṣā season started
with the month of Śrāvaṇa as shown below:

This is as listed in Table 2 and under standard configuration in Table 1. Please note that this verse
refers to the four-month long Varṣā season also known as Cāturmāsya.

IV. Mahābhārata, 3.182.16 Gītā Press

The text and Gītā Press translation are as follows:

Translation by Kisari Mohan Ganguli is as follows [15] (Please note that it is in 3.181):
“And, O Janamejaya, the holiest night, that of the full moon in the month of Kartika in the season
of autumn, was spent by them while dwelling there!”

The season Śarad and month Kārttika conform to the standard configuration.

V. Brahmāṇḍa Purāṇa 21.151

The text is as follows:

tapastapasyau madumādhavau ca śukraḥśuciścāyanamuttaraṃ syāt /
nabhonabhasyāviṣaūrjasaṃjñau sahaḥsahasyāviti dakṣiṇaṃ syāt //

Here is the English translation by Tagare [16]:

The months of Māgha, Phālguna, Caitra, Vaiśākha, Jyeṣṭha and Āṣāḍha constitute Uttarāyaṇa (Northern transit).
The months of Śrāvaṇa, Bhādrapada, Āśvina, Kārttika,Mārgaśīrṣa and Pauṣa constitute Dakṣiṇāyaṇa.
The seasons and months conform to the standard configuration.

VI. Vayu Purana 50.201

The text is as follows:

tapastapasyau madumādhavau ca śukraḥ śuciścāyanamuttaraṃ syāt /

nabho nabhasyo’tha iṣuḥ sahaurjaḥ sahaḥ sahasyāviti dakṣiṇaṃ syāt //

Here is the English translation by Tagare [17]:

The six months, viz. Māgha, Phālguna, Caitra, Vaiśākha, Jyeṣṭha and Āṣāḍha are the months of Uttarāyaṇa
(northern transit of the sun). The six months, viz. Śrāvaṇa, Bhādrapada, Āśvina, Kārttika, Mārgaśīrṣa and Pauṣa
are the months of Dakṣiṇāyaṇa (southern transit of the sun).

The seasons and months conform to the standard configuration.

VII. Manu Smṛti 9.304

The text is given below:

The translation of Manu Smṛti 9.304 by Bühler is shown below [18]:

“As Indra sends copious rain during the four months of the rainy season, even so let the king,
taking upon himself the office of Indra, shower benefits on his kingdom.”

It mentions the four months of the rainy season. The commentary by Kullūka on Manu Smṛti 9.304
says that four-month seasons start with Śrāvaṇa.

The seasons and months conform to the standard configuration.

VIII. Suśruta Saṃhitā 1.6.6-7

The text is given below:
tatra māghādayo dvadaśa māsāḥ dvimāsikamṛtuṃ kṛtvā ṣaḍṛtavo bhavanti te
śiśiravasantagrīṣmavarṣāśaradhemantāḥ teṣāṃ tapastapasyau śiśiraḥ madhumādhavau vasantaḥ śuciśukrau
grīṣmaḥ nabhonabhasyau varṣāḥ iṣorjau śarat sahaḥsahasyau hemanta iti
ta ete śitoṣṇavarṣalakṣaṇāścandrādityayoḥ kālavibhāgakaratvādayane dve bhavato dakṣiṇamuttaraṃ ca
tayordakṣiṇaṃ varṣāśaradhemantāḥ teṣu bhagavānāpyāyate somaḥ amlalavaṇamadhurāśca rasā balavanto
bhavanti uttarottaraṃ ca sarvaprāṇināṃ balamabhivardhate | uttaraṃ ca śiśiravasantagrīṣmāḥ teṣu
 bhagavānāpyāyate’rkaḥ tiktakaṣāyakaṭukāśca rasā balavanto bhavanti uttarottaraṃ ca sarvaprāṇināṃ
balamapahīyate

The English translation of the text is as follows [19]:

The twelve months such as, Māgha, etc. are divided into six seasons such as, Winter, Spring, Summer, Rains,
Autumn and Hemanta, each consisting of two months. The two months known as Tapas and Tapasya (Māgha
and Phālguna) constitute the season of winter. Spring consists of two months called Madhu and Mādhava
(Chaitra and Vaishāka). Summer is marked by two months known as Shuchi and Shukra (Jaistha and
Āshādha). The rains or the rainy season is marked by two months called Nabhas and Nabhasya (Shrāvana
and Bhādra). The two months known as Isha and Urja (Āshvina and Kārtika) constitute what is called the
season of Autumn. Hemanta is marked by two months called Sahas and Sahasya (Agrahāyana and Pousha).
These six seasons are respectively characterised by cold, heat, rains etc.
The two Ayanas are ushered in by the sun and the moon changing their respective courses in the heavens
(passing over the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn) as the measures of time. The rains, autumn and Hemanta
follow one another in succession when the sun is over the Tropic of Capricorn or is in the Winter Solstice
(Dakshināyanam) and the moon gains in strength in this part of the year. Rasas (Serum or sap) possessed of
acid, saline and sweet tastes, grow strong and become dominant when the sun is over the Tropic of Capricorn
(Dakshināyanam) and all beings gain in strength and energy more and more. Winter, spring and summer
mark the passing of the sun over the Summer Solstice (Uttarāyanam). The sun grows stronger in heat and
light, and saps (rasas) of bitter, pungent and sour tastes increase in intensity, and all animals gradually begin
to lose strength and energy.

The seasons and months conform to the standard configuration.

IX. Jain text Sūrya Prajñapti 10.10

The Jain text Sūrya Prajñapti 10.10 divides the year in seasons and months as shown in the two
left columns in Table 3. The two right columns show the division of the year in seasons of two-
months’ duration. The seasons and months conform to the standard configuration.

X. Arthasastra 2.20.62-72
The text is as follows:
dvau māsāvṛtuḥ ||62|| śrāvaṇaḥ proṣṭhapadaśca varṣāḥ ||63|| āśvayujaḥ kārtikaśca śarat ||64|| mārgaśīrṣaḥ
pauṣaaśca hemantaḥ ||65|| māghaḥ phālgunaśca śiśiraḥ ||66|| caitro vaiśākhaśca vasantaḥ ||67|| jyeṣṭhāmūlīya
āṣāḍhaśca grīṣmaḥ ||68|| śiśirādyuttarāyaṇaṃ ||69|| varṣādi dakṣiṇāyanaṃ ||70|| dvyayanaḥ saṃvatsaraḥ ||71||

The English translation of the text is as follows [20]:

Two months make one ritu (season). Srāvana and proshthapada make the rainy season (varshā). Asvayuja and
Kārthíka make the autumn (sarad). Mārgasīrsha and Pausha make the winter (hemanta). Māgha and Phalguna
make the dewy season (sisira). Chaitra and Vaisākha make the spring (vasanta). Jyeshthāmūlīya and Ashādha
make the summer (grishma). Seasons from sisira and upwards are the summer-solstice (uttarāyana), and (those)
from varshā and upwards are the winter solstice (dakshināyana). Two solstices (ayanas) make one year
(samvatsara).

The seasons and months conform to the standard configuration.

 Table 3: Months and seasons

4-month Season Month 2-month Season Month

1. Śrāvaṇa 1. Śrāvaṇa
Varṣā (rainy season)
2. Bhādrapada 2. Bhādrapada
Varṣā (Rainy)
3. Āśvina 1. Āśvina
Śarad (autumn)
4. Kārttika 2. Kārttika

1. Mārgaśīrṣa 1. Mārgaśīrṣa
Hemanta (early winter)
2. Pauṣa 2. Pauṣa
Hemanta (Winter)
3. Māgha 1. Māgha
Śiśira (late winter)
4. Phālguna 2. Phālguna

1. Caitra 1. Caitra
Vasanta (spring)
2. Vaiśākha 2. Vaiśākha
Grīṣma (Summer)
3. Jyeṣṭha 1. Jyeṣṭha
Grīṣma (summer)
4. Āṣāḍha 2. Āṣāḍha

XI. Buddhist text Divyāvadāna, Chapter 33: Śārdūlakarṇāvadāna

The months and seasons are listed in Śārdūlakarṇāvadāna, which is the 33rd chapter in the Buddhist
text Divyāvadāna currently dated to 2nd century CE [21].

The text is as follows [22]:

varṣāṇāṃ prathame māse puṣyanakṣatramamāvāsyāyāṃ bhavati, śravaṇā pūrṇamāsyām | …
varṣāṇāṃ dvitīye māse’maghā amāvāsyāyāṃ bhavati, bhādrapadā pūrṇamāsyām | …
varṣāṇāṃ tṛtīye māse phalgunyamāvāsyāyāṃ bhavati, aśvinī pūrṇamāsyām | …
varṣāṇāṃ caturthe māse citrā amāvāsyāyāṃ bhavati, kṛttikā pūrṇamāsyām | …
hemantānāṃ prathame māse’nurādhā amāvāsyāyāṃ bhavati, mṛgaśirā pūrṇamāsyām | …
hemantānāṃ dvitīye māse amāvāsyāyāṃ jyeṣṭhā bhavati, puṣyaḥ pūrṇamāsyām | …
hemantānāṃ tṛtīye māse pūrvāṣāḍhā amāvāsyāyāṃ bhavati, maghā pūrṇamāsyām | …
 hemantānāṃ caturthe māse śravaṇā amāvāsyāyāṃ bhavati, phalgunī pūrṇamāsyām | …
grīṣmāṇāṃ prathame māse uttarabhādrapadā amāvāsyāyāṃ bhavati, citrā pūrṇamāsyām | …
grīṣmāṇāṃ dvitīye māse’śvinī amāvāsyāyāṃ bhavati, viśākhā pūrṇamāsyām | …
grīṣmāṇāṃ tṛtīye māse kṛttikā amāvāsyāyāṃ bhavati, jyeṣṭhā pūrṇamāsyām | …
grīṣmāṇāṃ caturthe māse mṛgaśirā amāvāsyāyāṃ bhavati, uttarāṣāḍhā pūrṇamāsyām |

The English translation is as follows [translated by the author]:

In the first month of Varṣā season, (moon was in) Puṣya nakṣatra on no moon day and Śravaṇa on full moon
day. … In the second month of Varṣā season, (moon was in) Maghā on no moon day and Bhādrapadā on full
moon day. … In the third month of Varṣā season, (moon was in) Phālgunī on no moon day and Aśvinī on
full moon day. … In the fourth month of Varṣā season, (moon was in) Citrā on no moon day and Kṛttikā on
full moon day. …
In the first month of Hemanta season, (moon was in) Anurādhā nakṣatra on no moon day and Mṛgaśirā on
full moon day. … In the second month of Hemanta season, (moon was in) Jyeṣṭhā on no moon day and Puṣya
on full moon day. … In the third month of Hemanta season, (moon was in) Pūrvāṣāḍhā on no moon day and
Maghā on full moon day. … In the fourth month of Hemanta season, (moon was in) Śravaṇa on no moon day
and Phālgunī on full moon day. …
In the first month of Grīṣma season, (moon was in) Uttarabhādrapadā nakṣatra on no moon day and Citrā on
full moon day. … In the second month of Grīṣma season, (moon was in) Aśvinī on no moon day and Viśākhā
on full moon day. … In the third month of Grīṣma season, (moon was in) Kṛttikā on no moon day and Jyeṣṭhā
on full moon day. … In the fourth month of Grīṣma season, (moon was in) Mṛgaśirā on no moon day and
Uttarāṣāḍhā on full moon day.

As the months are determined by the position of moon on full moon day, Divyāvadāna follows
standard seasons and months as shown in Table 2.

XII. Aṣṭāṅgahṛdaya Sūtrasthāna iii.1-2 and iii.4-5

Currently accepted date of Vāgbhaṭa, author of Aṣṭāṅgahṛdaya, is around 600 CE [23].
Aṣṭāṅgahṛdaya is one of the three most important texts of Ayurveda. It lists the seasons and months
in Aṣṭāṅgahṛdaya Sūtrasthāna iii.1-2 and iii.4-5.
The text is as follows:
māsairdvisaṃkhyairmāghādyaiḥ kramāt ṣaḍṛtavaḥ smṛtāḥ |
śiśiro’tha vasantaśca grīṣmo varṣāḥ śaradhimāḥ ||1||
śiśirādyāstribhistaistu vidyādayanamuttaram|
ādānaṃ ca tadādatte nṛṇāṃ pratidinaṃ balam ||2||
ṛtvo dakṣiṇāyanam varṣādayo visargaśca (4-5, only relevant parts of verses 4 and 5 quoted)

The English translation is as follows [24]:

The months starting with māgha, in combination of two, two succeeding months constitute the 6 seasons as
śiśira, vasanta, grīṣma, varṣā, śarad and hemanta respectively.
 Ādāna kāla – the three of them commencing with śiśira ṛtu (i.e., śiśira, vasanta and grīṣma) are characterised
by the northern movement of the sun and is also called uttarāyana or ādāna kāla, because sun absorbs strength
from living beings daily.
The remaining three seasons commencing from varṣā ṛtu (i.e., varṣā, śarad and hemanta) are characterized
by the southern movement of the sun (dakṣiṇāyana) and is also called visarga kāla.

XIII. Kāvyamimāṃsā, Chapter 18

Rājaśekhara, author of Kāvyamimāṃsā, is currently dated between 880 and 920 CE [25].
Rājaśekhara has given the list of seasons and months in Kāvyamimāṃsā (Chapter 18, lines 4-16).
The text is as follows:

caitrātparaṃ pratimāsaṃ mauhūrttikī divasavṛddhiḥ niśāhāniśca trimāsyāḥ; tataḥ paraṃ mauhūrttikī

niśāvṛddhiḥ divasahāniśca | āśvayujātparataḥ punaretadeva viparītam | rāśito
rāśyantarasaṅkramaṇamuṣṇabhāso māsaḥ, varṣādi dakṣiṇāyanaṃ śiśirādyuttarāyaṇaṃ dvyayanaḥ saṃvatsara
iti sauraṃ mānam | … tatra nabhā nabhasyaśca varṣāḥ, iṣa ūrjaśca śarat, sahaḥ sahasyaśca hemantaḥ,
tapastapasyaśca śiśiraḥ, madhurmādhavaśca vasantaḥ, śukraḥ śuciśca grīṣmaḥ |

The English translation is as follows [26]:

After Caitra, for three months, there is an increase of the day and a decrease of the night by one muhūrta per
month; after that, there is an increase of the night and a decrease of the day by one muhūrta. After the month
of Āśvayuja, the same is reversed. As per the solar calendar, a month is the passing of the sun from one
constellation to the other, and the year is of two ayanas (half-years), the dakṣiṇāyana, starting with the
monsoon, and the uttarāyaṇa, starting with śiśira. … Therein, (the months of) Nabhas and Nabhasya are the
monsoon, Iṣa and Ūrja autumn, Sahas and Sahasya winter, Tapas and Tapasya śiśira, Madhu and Mādhava
spring, and Śukra and Śuchi summer.

The seasons and months conform to the standard configuration.

XIV. Current descriptions

Current description of seasons and months as given in Hindupedia is shown below [27]:

Each year consists of six Ritus or seasons. Each Ritu comprises two Maasas or months and three such ritus
constitute one kaala. Hence Aadaana and Visarga kaalas each consist of six months and three ritus. The six ritus
and their characteristics can be summarized in the following table:
 Kāla Ṛtu Characteristics
(Semester) Māsa (Month)
(Season) of the Season

Māgha and
Phālguna (mid
Śiśira Cold and dewy
January to mid
Ādāna march)
Uttarāyana Caitra and Vaisākha
Vasanta (mid March to mid Spring
(Northern May)
Solstice)
Jyeṣṭha and Āṣāḍha
Grīṣma (mid May to mid Summer
July)

Śrāvaṇa and
Bhādrapada (mid
Varṣā Rainy
July to mid
Visarga September)
Dakṣināyana
Āśvina and Kārttika
(Southern Śarat (mid September to Autumn
Solstice) mid November)
Mārgaśīrṣa and
Pauṣa (mid
Hemanta Winter
November to mid
January)

The seasons and months, according to Hindupedia, conform to the standard configuration.
However, according to Wikipedia, there is a regional variation in the grouping of months and
seasons [28]. North, West, and Central Indian calendars conform to the standard configuration of
seasons and months. However, East Indian calendars, Bengali and Odia, have months shifted by
one month compared to the standard configuration as seen below.
 5. EFFECT OF PRECESSION ON SEASONS AND MONTHS
From the above lists of explicit mentions of seasons and months, it is clear that they conform to
the standard configuration from the earliest times till now. However, the combination has changed
in East Indian calendars. According to the “Vartak-Oak hypothesis,” the grouping of seasons and
lunar months should have changed by one month every 2,000 years due to precession. Why there
is no evidence of it in the Indian literature? Why has the standard configuration started to change
now? An in-depth explanation will be provided in the concluding part of the series -- “Fatal logical
Errors in the Vartak-Oak Hypothesis”.

References:

1. https://nileshoak.wordpress.com/2017/08/02/astronomy-lynchpins-ramayana-mahabharata/.
2. Refutation of Nilesh Oak’s astronomical dating of Ramayana to 12209 BCE | by Dr. Raja
Ram Mohan Roy | May, 2021 | Medium.
3. Refutation of Nilesh Oak’s Astronomical Dating of Ramayana to 12209 BCE | by Dr. Raja
Ram Mohan Roy | May, 2021 | Medium.
4. Refutation of Nilesh Oak’s Astronomical Dating of Ramayana to 12209 BCE | by Dr. Raja
Ram Mohan Roy | May, 2021 | Medium.
5. Refutation of Nilesh Oak’s Astronomical Dating of Ramayana to 12209 BCE | by Dr. Raja
Ram Mohan Roy | May, 2021 | Medium.
6. Refutation of Nilesh Oak’s Astronomical Dating of Ramayana to 12209 BCE | by Dr. Raja
Ram Mohan Roy | May, 2021 | Medium.
7. Refutation of Nilesh Oak’s Astronomical Dating of the Ramayana to 12209 BCE | by Dr.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy | Jun, 2021 | Medium.
8. Refutation of Nilesh Oak’s Astronomical Dating of the Ramayana to 12209 BCE | by Dr.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy | Jun, 2021 | Medium.
9. https://twitter.com/RamMohanRoy108.
10. Sushruta Samhita was NOT written over 7,500 years ago | by Dr. Raja Ram Mohan Roy |
Medium.
11. Refutation of Nilesh Oak’s Astronomical Dating of Ramayana to 12209 BCE | by Dr. Raja
Ram Mohan Roy | Apr, 2021 | Medium.
12. https://twitter.com/NileshOak/status/1206824487590727680.
13. Keith, A.B., 1914, The Veda of the Black Yajus School entitled Taittiriya Sanhita, Part 2,
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, pp. 349-350.
14. Eggeling, J. (1885). The Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa according to the text of the Madhyandina
School. Part II, Books III and IV. Oxford: At the Clarendon Press., pp. 320-322.
15. The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa, Book 3: Vana Parva, Translated into
English Prose from the Original Sanskrit Text by Kisari Mohan Ganguli.
16. Tagare, G.V., The Brahmāṇḍa Purāṇa, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2002 Reprint, page 211.
17. Tagare, G.V., The Vāyu Purāṇa, Part I, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1987, page 345.
18. Bühler, G. (1886). “The Laws of Manu translated with extracts from seven commentaries”,
Oxford: At the Clarendon Press, p. 396.
19. Bhishagratna, K.K.L. (Editor) (1907). An English translation of The Sushruta Samhita based
on original Sanskrit Text, Vol. 1-Sutrasthanam. Calcutta: Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna, pp.
46-47.
20. Shamasastry, R., Kautilya’s Arthashastra, Bangalore: Government Press, 1915, pp. 153-154.
21. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divyavadana
22. Divyāvadāna, edited by Vaidya, P.L., The Mithila Institute, Darbhanga, 1959, pp. 354-55.
23. Sharma, R., Byadgi, P.S. and Paliwal, M. (2011). “Glimpses on Roganidan by Vagbhata: A
bird’s eye view”,IJRAP, Vol. 2, No. 5, pp 1402-1404.
24. Vidyanath, R., Illustrated Aṣṭāṅga Hṛdaya of Vāgbhaṭa, Varanasi: Chaukhamba Surbharati
Prakashan, 2013, pages 44-45.
25. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajashekhara_(Sanskrit_poet)
26. Feller, D. (1995). “The seasons in Mahākāvya Literature”. Delhi: Eastern Book Linkers, p.
41.
27. http://www.hindupedia.com/en/Ritucharya
28. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritu_(Indian_season)

More about the author

I am a seeker of historical truths and am deeply interested in the heritage of India. I have earned a
B.Tech. in Metallurgical Engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur and a Ph.D.
in Materials Science and Engineering from The Ohio State University, USA. I have a deep interest
in ancient Indian texts. My research besides Materials Science covers several different areas: Vedic
cosmology, Vedic astronomy, Jain astronomy, and ancient Indian history. I am the author of
several books including Zero Points of Vedic Astronomy: Discovery of the Original Boundaries
of Nakshatras and An Alternative Timeline of Indian History: From Buddha and Mahavira to
Bappa Rawal.
Blog: Dr. Raja Ram Mohan Roy – Medium
Twitter: https://twitter.com/RamMohanRoy108
Published on Academia: 26 September, 2021