A Dictionary of Advanced Japanese Grammar (2008) PDF

A DICTIONARY
OF ADVANCED
JAPANESE GRAMMAR
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A DICTIONARY
OF ADVANCED
JAPANESE
GRAMMAR
Seiichi Makino
and
Michio Tsutsui
~
.......
The Japan Tunes
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Preface
This is a dictionary of advanced Japanese grammar, a companion volume

to A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar (1986) and A Dictionary of
HARVARD-YENCHING LIBRARY Intermediate Japanese Grammar (1995). More than two decades have
OF THE HARVARD COLLEGE LIBRARY passed since we began this grammar dictionary project. During that time we
have received numerous comments from our readers, many of whom kindly
encouraged us to write a third volume. And here it is as the final volume in
the set.
This book is designed for students and teachers of advanced-level Japa-
nese. After examining upper-level textbooks, reference books, and our own
teaching materials, we have collected some 230 main entries which we
believe to be highly important grammatical items for advanced Japanese
learners. As in the previous dictionaries, we have provided detailed expla-
nations for each item and have included comparisons with synonymous
items (approximately 430 items in all). The writing tasks were shared be-
Copyright © 2008 by Seiichi Makino and Michio Tsutsui tween us with each of us preparing first drafts of half of the items which
we then exchanged for comments. Our second drafts were reviewed by The
Japan Times editors and, following that, the final draft was completed.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
There is one important difference between this volume and the pre-
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, ceding ones, however. For both DBJG and D/JG we wrote the example
recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. sentences ourselves, but for this volume we have also used the Internet as a
resource in collecting and creating sentences which reflect natural usage. In
First edition: May 2008 situations where it is common practice, we use kanji. For the reader's con-
venience, pronunciations are provided in hiragana for characters defined
as levels 1 and 2 in the Japanese Language Proficiency Test (Nihongo-
noryoku-shiken) except for those kanji which are regularly introduced in
Typesetting: guild
beginning- and intermediate-level textbooks.
English copyreading: Sara Harris We are clearly indebted to the many scholars and teachers whose works
English copyreading and editorial assistance: Sharon Tsutsui are referenced here. In addition to them, there are a number of individuals
Cover art: Akihiro Kurata we wish to acknowledge. Foremost, we thank Chiaki Sekido, The Japan
Times editor. We are deeply grateful for her thorough and critical reading
of our drafts, for her numerous constructive comments on them, and for
Published by The Japan Times, Ltd.
her tireless effort in preparing this volume for publication. We thank Sarah
5-4, Shibaura 4-chome, Minato-kn, Tokyo 108-0023, Japan Harris, the English editor, for patiently transforming our English in the first
Phone: 03-3453-2013 draft to make it more natural. In addition, we owe a great deal to Sharon
http://bookclub.japantimes.eo.jp/ Tsutsui, who read the galley proofs carefully and critically and helped us to
improve the readability of the final version. Our thanks go to our colleagues
ISBN978-4-7890-1295-9 at Princeton University and the University of Washington, who kindly
answered our questions about the naturalness of the example sentences,
and also to our students, who used the early versions of some of the entries
Printed in Japan in class and gave us valuable feedback. Finally, we express our sincere
gratitude to our wives, Yasuko and Sharon, who have been so helpful in Table of Contents
every possible way during the seven years of this project.
Completing A Dictionary of Advanced Japanese Grammar was not
an easy task to say the least. We are very pleased that we are now able to Preface .............................................................................. [5]
dedicate this volume to those students and teachers around the globe who
are studying and teaching Japanese language with unceasing enthusiasm. To the Reader. ..................................................................... [8]
Our sincere hope is that this dictionary will be a useful tool in their
endeavors. List of Abbreviations ........................................................... [10]
List of Symbols ................................................................. [11]
Spring 2008
Seiichi Makino Grammatical Terms ............................................................. [12]
Michio Tsutsui
Special Topics in Advanced Japanese Grammar ............................ [26]
1. Adjectives in Japanese .................................................... [26]
2. Interpretation of "N1 no N2" .............................................. [29]
3. Politeness and Formality in Spoken and Written Language ......... [35]
4. Rhetorical Questions ...................................................... [38]
5. Metaphors in Japanese .................................................... [42]
6. Number Marking .......................................................... [47]
Main Entries ................................................................... 1-758
English Index ..................................................................... 761

Japanese Index ................................................................... 772
References ....................................................... :................ 793
[9]
To the Reader © [meaning I function]: The basic meaning or function of the entry
item is given in the box below the entry name.
® [English counterpart(s)]: English expressions equivalent to the entry
This dictionary consists of the following parts: item are given to the right of the box.
® [related expression(s)]: Items which are semantically related to
A. Grammatical Terms contains brief explanations or informal definitions the entry item are listed as [REL. aaa; bbb; eccl. Expressions
of the g~~ma.tical terms used in this book. If readers find that they are in plain type like aaa are explained in the entry under [Related
not familiar with these terms, it is suggested that they read this section Expression(s)] (@). Expressions in bold type like ccc contain
first. comparisons to the entry item under [Related Expression(s)] for
CCC.
B. Special Topics in Advanced Japanese Grammar discusses selected +Key Sentence(s): Key sentences present typical sentence patterns
(J)
topics: Adjectives in Japanese; Interpretation of "N1 no N1"; Politeness in frames according to sentence structure. The elements that form
and Formality in Spoken and Written Language; Rhetorical Questions; the sentence patterns are printed i~ red and the elements which
Metaphors in Japanese; and Number Marking. The section introduces commonly occur with them are printed in bold-faced type.
rea~e_rs ~o a number of important concepts with which they should be ® Formation: The word formation rules I connection forms for each
familiar m order to improve their reading, writing and speaking skills. item are provided with examples. The entry elements are printed in
red.
C. Main Entries constitutes the core of this volume. Each entry is organized ® Examples: Example sentences are provided for each entry.
as follows: @ Note(s): Notes contain important points concerning the use of the
item.
CD [entry name] ®[part of speech] @ [usage restriction] ® [Related Expression(s)]: Expressions which are semantically close
1© [meaning I function] l ®[English counterpart(s)]

to the entry item are compared and their differences are explained.
(¢aaa (DBJG/DIJG: 000-000)) in Note(s) and Related Expression(s)

®[related expression(s)] indicates that the item which was referred to (i.e., aaa) is explained on
(J) +Key Sentence(s) pp. 000-000 of the companion volumes: A Dictionary of Basic Japanese
Grammar (DBJG) or A Dictionary of Intermediate Japanese Grammar
®Formation (DIJG).
®Examples D. Indexes provides both a Japanese index and an English index. The Japa-
nese index includes the main entries, the items explained in Related
@Note(s) Expression(s), and the items covered in A Dictionary of Basic Japanese
Grammar and in A Dictionary of Intermediate Japanese Grammar. The
®[Related Expression(s)]
English index includes the English counterparts of the main entry items.
CD [entry name]: Each entry is given in romanized spelling followed

by its hiragana version. Entries are alphabetically ordered based on
their romanized spellings.
® [part of speech]: Each entry is followed by its part of speech.
@ [usage rest~iction]: <s> or <w> is provided when the entry item is
used only m spoken Japanese or only in formal written Japanese
and formal speeches, respectively.
[11]
List of Abbreviations V masu = masu-stem of verb (e.g., hanashi of hanashimasu, tabe of tabe-
masu)
VN =stem of suru-verb, i.e., noun which forms a verb by affixing suru (e.g.,
Adj(i) = i-type adjective (e.g., takai, yasui) benkyo, yakusoku, nokku)
Adj(i)cond = conditional form of i-type adjective (i.e., takakere of takakere- Vneg = informal negative stem of verb (e.g., hanasa of hanasanai, tabe of
ba, yasukere of yasukereba) tabenai)
Adj(i)stem = stem of i-type adjective (i.e., taka of takai, yasu of yasui) VP = verb phrase
Adj(na) = na-type adjective (e.g., genkida, shizukada) Vpot =verb potential form (e.g., hanaseru, taberareru)
Adj(na)stem = stem of na-type adjective (i.e., genki of genkida, shizuka of Vte = te-form of verb (e.g., hanashite, tabete)
shizukada) Vvol =volitional form of verb (e.g., hanaso, tabeyo)
Adv. = adverb <w> = usually used in formal writing and formal speech
Aff. = affirmative Wh-sentence = a sentence that contains a Wh-word
Aux.= auxiliary Wh-word =an interrogative word (e.g., nani, doko)
Comp. prt. = compound particle
Conj.= conjunction
Cop.= copula (e.g., da, desu)
DBJG =A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar
Dem. adj. =demonstrative adjective (e.g., kono, sonna)
Dem. pro.= demonstrative pronoun (e.g., kore, sore, are) List of Symbols
DUG= A Dictionary of Intermediate Japanese Grammar
Gr.= Group
Int. = interjection ¢=Refer to.
Irr. = irregular ? = The degree of unacceptability is indicated by the number of question
KS = Key Sentence marks, two being the highest.
N =noun * = ungrammatical or unacceptable (In other words, no native speaker
Neg. =negative would accept the asterisked sentence.)
Norn.= nominalizer (e.g., no, koto) l A/BI C =AC or BC (e.g., l VI Adj(i) I inf= Vinf or Adj(i)inf)
NP = noun phrase o = zero (In other words, nothing should be used at a place where o occurs.
Phr. = phrase Thus, Adj(na) l o I datta I kamoshirenai is either Adj(na) kamoshirenai or
Prt. = particle Adj(na) datta kamoshirenai.)
REL. = Related Expression
S =sentence
<s> = usually used in conversation
Sinf = sentence that ends with an informal predicate
S.o. = someone
S.t. =something
Str. = structure
Suf. =suffix (e.g., -sa, -ya)
V =verb
Vcond = conditional stem of verb (e.g., hanase of hanaseba, tabere of
tabereba)
Vinf =informal form of verb (e.g., hanasu, hanashita)
GRAMMATICAL TERMS [13]
Grammatical Terms (e) Z'.: 0) :J /' !::'.° .1 - !I - lii\11i9 ~- .Q 0
(This computer is too expensive.)

Ii
The following are brief explanations of some of the grammatical terms (f) :; =i - :> li-7- #- 'Y };r - Hik J...,fJ~·?-r~ '-90
used in this dictionary. (lit., George is showing signs of wanting a sports car. (= George
wants a sports car.))
Auxiliary Adjective A dependent adjective that is preceded by and (g) iV? ! j\f;j;()l~?l~f.: !
attached to a verb or another adjective. The auxiliary adjectives in the fol- (Gee! It's started to rain!)
lowing sentences are printed in bold-faced type.
(a) fbli::' 3 /l::ff?-CI~ [.,~\o Compound Particle A particle which consists of more than one word but
(I want John to go there.) functions like a single particle. For example, the compound particle to shite
t.: L..i:
wa consists of the particle to, the te-form of suru and the particle wa, but it
(b) Z'.: O)ti'/'filif'il!P'\!>9~ 'a is used like a single particle to mean "for."
(This dictionary is easy to use.)
Conditional A word, phrase, or clause which expresses a condition, as in
(c) fblii°'J...,;()ljt«f.:~' 0
(a)-(c).
(I want to eat sushi.) liA'\"(
(a) n~<7)f±$t.J:S'i"!J iTo
(d) «.A li:k'Pi 1±\tc S [.,~'a
(I will take it on if it's a translation job.)
(Beth seems to have graduated from college.)
Ii~.:. Hf (b) *1tt:htiffel'. '5 ;(}><f, J...,;h/J:Po
(e) :tta·li;f,i(\..,PJ:?f.:'o
(I might buy it if it is cheap.)
(Hanako looks lonely.) "(>;l; t!
"' l
(c) illm ~ fi,fJ> S ~~M%? f.: S ~o G-tr-Cl'" ~Po
(f) Z'.:O)io~i'°liioPJ...,f-jf.:'o
(If Mr. Yamada calls me, please let me know.)
(This cake looks delicious.)
Continuative Form Forms of verbs, adjectives and da which signal that
Auxiliary Verb A verb which is used in conjunction with a preceding the sentence is continuing. They do not indicate tense or politeness level.
verb or adjective. The bold-faced words of the following sentences are These forms include the following:
typical auxiliary verbs.
(a) Affirmativeforms:
(a) !::'JHi~-f-*Jl;ifiP-C~\.Qo
Vte \.., -C (s.o. talks/talked/etc. and)
~i5
(Bill is writing a letter now.)
>e: Vmasu \.., (s.o. talks/talked/etc. and)
~i5
(b) ~;()lmJ lt-C iii) -90 Adj(i)stem <(-C) to' ' \.., < (-C) ( s. t. is/was delicious
(lit., The window has been opened.(= The window is open.)) and)
!~< L~< t.:l'
(c) f~lifE!Ji!]iJ...,-C[.,;!;?f.:o Adj(na)steml-c/-c-®!J f if'u1-c·;-c-®!) f (s.t.is/was
(I have done my homework.) convenient and)
~tt!-S
(d) fAli:tJZ.Jil:io1jkiJ'r \.., l iii) (ff.:o 'Ptf l -c· /-C· ® !) f (s.o. is/was a
(I loaned money to my friend.) scholar and)
(14] GRAMMATICAL TERMS GRAMMATICAL TERMS (15]
Adj(i)stem< is also the adverbial form, as in 'fl< ;fiG (to go to bed early) The interrogative words which correspond to demonstrative pronouns and
or 7 i < lliliT (to talk skillfully). demonstrative adjectives are dare and dona, respectively.
(b) Negative forms: Dependent Noun A noun which must be preceded by a modifier, as in
Vnegf 815 i! f (s.o. does/did/etc., not talk and) (a) and (b).
&. T t;; td•
Adj(i)stem < fJ: < :to1' L < fJ: < (s.t. is/was not delicious and) (a) A: ~flBB39"7t:'tl=§;7-:J<bfJc'T;(P,
Adj(na)stem l ~-?I l"Lt. i fJ: < fJi,flj l ~-?I l"li I fJ: < (s.t. is/was (Are you going to meet Prof. Tanaka tomorrow?)
not convenient and) B: Iii» -'fO)-:Ji,fJc'T,
"f:1ll l ~-? / c'li l fJ: < (s.o. is/was not a (Yes, I am.)
scholar and) (b) -+T / I" 7 Ii r 1' HU-::> 'l P G t;t:f't~,
These forms are also used with certain words/phrases to convey more spe- (I expect that Sandra knows Tom.)
cific meanings, as shown in (c).
Direct Object The direct object of a verb is the direct recipient of an
(c) Other uses: action represented by the verb. It can be animate or inanimate. An animate
Vte PG lliliL'lPG (s.o. is talking) direct object is the direct experiencer of some action (as in (a) and (b)
below). An inanimate direct object is typically something which is created,
V masu ~Tl' it"'~TI' (easy to eat)
exchanged or worked on, in short, the recipient of the action of the verb (as
Adj(i)te1±1f7JlfJ:p ~< -C1±1fiJlfJ:p (unbearably hot) in (c)-(e) below). (cf. Indirect Object)
t:. f'-,
Adj(na)stem l"liPltfJ:P B:;Js:miJlr.f-l"liPltfJ:P (it's not good ~t<'i:_;
(a) LlJD$t:'tli~1'.'<l:-J::<l:f/;t)Go
if s.o. is bad at Japanese)
(Prof. Yamaguchi often praises his students.)
N l" t J:: P :9!fml" t J:: P (English would be all right) ~'~0-J
Vneg f 1= :Jlfl= (without sleeping) (b) n':to VJ 1i-a~>a:-ta IA::,

(Kaori deceived Ichiro.)
I!(
Coordinate Conjunction A conjunction that combines two sentences (c) 1~1i:;t;:Hf1it::,
without subordinating one to the other. A typical coordinate conjunction is (I wrote a book.)
ga "but."
(d) -~~Ii&-/! VJ 1=.;z:tJ-7 i~·:d:::o
(a) ~-::i'lPiTii, 75-::i t t~-tti-t!:-/v,
(lchiro gave a scarf to Midori.)
(I'm running, but I haven't lost any weight at all.)
(e) 'fbli 1"7' i OOlt'l :ta Pt:::,
Demonstrative A pronoun or adjective which specifies someone or (I kept the door open.)
something by pointing it out, as in (a) and (b).
Although direct objects are marked by the particle o, nouns or noun phrases
(a) l ;: :fl If :fl I .ti :fl l lifPil"Tii'o marked by o are not always direct objects, as shown in (f) and (g).
(What is l this I that I that over there l ?)
t;t!t :.. J.:}.i:
(f) 1E"t-li-~O):*"f:A"Jt~¥!vt~,
(b) l ;: O):;Js: If O):;Js: I <f.>O):;Js: l l;J:'fbO)l"To (Hanako was glad that Ichiro entered college.)
:..-?.iA
( l This book I That book I That book over there l is mine.) (g) r 1'li-'fO)~:l}Bl1~$:P'lPt::: 0
(At that time Tom was walking in the park.)
(¢ 0 2 (DBJG: 349-51); o 4 (DBJG: 352-54))
[16] GRAMMATICAL TERMS GRAMMATICAL TERMS [17]
Embedded Question A question within a sentence. (a)-(c) provide exam- Hearer The person who receives a spoken or written message. In this
ples (printed in bold-faced type): dictionary the term "hearer" is used in a broader sense to mean the person
~7 UM~<
to whom the speaker or the writer communicates.
(a) !B'f!~tiE;: t: it> .Q ti•'ff..7... -c <tC:. ~ 1 ,0
(Please tell me where the post office is.) Imperative Form A conjugated verb form that indicates a command, as
t.Hl)t:J: ft-:i,:A, in Hanase! "Talk!," Tabero! "Eat it!," Shiro! "Do it!," or Kail "Come!"
(b) -c Pi Th'o
f.Hl:kif~ '-:>~~9 .Q n'Jih
(Do you know when she is getting married?)
Indefinite Pronoun A pronoun which does not refer to something spe-
(c)
•
*~B*"-fi< fJ>ifl:R:hi:l-CPi-lt/i.,o cifically. No in B's sentence in (a) is an indefinite pronoun. Here, no is used
(I haven't decided yet whether to go to Japan next year.) for jisho "dictionary," but does not refer to a specific dictionary.
t: L.i: Ii
(a) A: /::'.'A.,Jd::jli'j;-!f;iJlfikt_,pA.,-C·"-9;1J> 0
Formal I Informal Forms Formal forms are the forms which are used in
(What kind of dictionary do you want?)
such situations as polite conversation and business/personal letters. Infor-
mal forms are the forms used in such situations as casual conversation, news- B: 1j' ~ P0)1Jll:i}( GPA., l''To
papers, and academic papers. Examples of these forms can be seen in the (I want a small one.)
following chart:
Indirect Object The indirect object of a verb is the recipient of the
direct object of the main verb, and is marked by the particle ni. In (a), for
Formal Forms Informal Forms
example, the indirect object is Midori, the recipient of a scarf, which is
tr~i-9 tr< the direct object of the verb yatta. It can be inanimate, as in (b). The main
verbs which involve the indirect object are typically donative verbs (as in
::k~1>-c·-t
*~" (a) and (b)). (cf. Direct Object)
Jt](t-c·-t Jt'AtC:. t't:.07
"Jt1'.tC:. (a) -.B!f!L:l:.li-C"~J1=7.;l;-7i-'?-:d::,
"Jt1::l"-9
(Ichiro gave a scarf to Midori.)
h?l~? t:::. t!t' D t;~i,' lJ;,f;;.
Informal forms are required in some grammatical structures. (b) iJ'mli;h.!1i'l!i!!1:7i=~::kMlt@'.i-9-7... t::.a
(¢Appendix 4 (DBJG: 589-99)) (The typhoon brought great damage to the Kyushu area.)
Gr. 1 I Gr. 2 Verbs Gr. 1 and Gr. 2 Verbs are Japanese verb groups: If a Informal Form (¢Formal I Informal Forms)
verb's informal, negative, nonpast form has the [a] sound before nai as in
(a), the verb belongs to Group 1, and if not, as in (b), it belongs to Group Intransitive Verb A verb which does not require a direct object. The
2. There are only two irregular verbs (i.e., kuru "come" and suru "do") that action or state identified by the intransitive verb is related only to the
belong to neither Gr. 1 nor to Gr. 2. subject of the sentence. For example, the verb hashitta "ran" in (a) is an
intransitive verb because the action of running is related only to the subject.
(a) Gr. 1 Verbs: Wt:) id::P [kira - nai] (cf. Transitive Verb)
imiid::P, -!f;IJ>Jd::P, f,'ft::.id::P, YE!d::id::P, ~:bid::P, ~ili~id::P T"f>
(a) fil:t:~A.,li~-:if.::o
(b) Gr. 2 Verbs: llfid::\' [ki- nai], ~-"'id::\' [tabe - nai] (Mr. Suzuki ran.)
Pid::P, ~~ id::P, -C·~ id::P, "
:Jlid;P
Intransitive verbs typically indicate movement (such as iku "go," kuru
"come," aruku "walk," tobu "fly," noru "get onto"), spontaneous change
(such as naru "become," kawaru "change," tokeru "melt," fukuramu "swell,"
hajimaru "begin"), human emotion (such as yorokobu "rejoice," kanashimu Na-type adjectives are very similar to nouns. Some na-type adjectives can
"feel sad," omou "feel"), and birth/death (such as umareru "be born," shinu be used as nouns, as shown in (c) and (d). All na-type adjectives behave as
"die"). (¢Appendix 3 (DBJG: 585-88)) nouns when they are used before the copula da, as shown in (e).
ltA.::.?
/-type Adjective An adjective whose nonpast prenominal form ends (c) fl)ijtii:f(.'"(:'T J:o
with i. Examples of i-type adjectives are takai "high; expensive" and tsuyoi (Health is important, you know.)
"strong," as seen in (a) and (b). (cf. Na-type Adjective; No-type Adjective)
cf. #l~t.t:A
(a) r@i~ '* (an expensive book) (a healthy person)
v-t
(b) iJ!ll~ 'A (a strong person) (d) ;:_·j.ll:W.Hi ;G; fl. i -it Iv o
(I'll never forget your kindness.)
/-type adjectives are further subdivided into two types: i-type adjectives
which end with shi-i and those with non-shi-i endings. Most adjectives with cf. ¥Jilt!Jt.t:A
shi-i endings express human emotion (such as ureshii "happy," kanashii (a kind person)
"sad," sabishii "lonely," kurushii "painful"); the non-shi-i adjectives are
used for objective descriptions (such as kuroi "black," shiroi "white," hiroi (e) Z.::O)J..lix~/~1:.l tn--c--t /t~-:Jt::./--c-Gt::./ i.::~tJ:P/ t::~il!>IJi
"spacious," takai "high; expensive"). -it Iv I t:: ~ tJ: ii' -:J t::. I i.:; ~ ii!> IJ i -it Iv --c· Gt.: l
o
(This person l is/was/isn't/wasn't l healthy I a student.)

Main Clause When a sentence consists of two clauses, one marked by
a subordinate conjunction (such as kara, keredo, node and noni) and the Nominalizer A nominalizer is a particle that makes a sentence into a
other not marked by a subordinate conjunction, the latter is called a main noun phrase or clause. There are two nominalizers, no and koto: the former
clause. The main clauses in sentences (a) and (b) are printed in bold-faced represents the speaker's/writer's empathetic feeling towards an event/state
type. (cf. Subordinate Clause) expressed in the nominalized noun phrase/clause; the latter indicates no
~~ t!. t't.: empathy on the part of the speaker/writer towards an event/state.
(a) ilfl331i~JiillJiit >O)l:~t3ll:ff-:J f;::o
(¢no' (DBJG: 318-22); koto' (DBJG: 193-96))
(Yamada went to school, although he had a headache.)
(b)
;)>-f'::. 8?/: ~~
~Hli*iJl{fl.,,Pil'G~t;t.:·o
::.?.b<
Noun Phrase I Clause
Particle Predicate
(Kazuko is happy, because her husband is kind.) Sentence Nominalizer
trn>
When a sentence has a relative clause, the non-relative clause part is also B*ili'l{f-i'mtr 0) I;:_ c. ii l!ltGPa
referred to as a main clause, as in (c).
t.tt,;i;
(Reading Japanese is difficult.)
(c) ft.IH~ 0)?, N3iil' Gftt IJ t.: 1::'."r;t~~f;::o
(Yesterday I watched a video which I borrowed from my friend.) The nominalized sentence can be used in any position where an ordinary
noun or a noun phrase/clause can be used.
Na-type Adjective An adjective whose nonpast prenominal form ends
with na. For example, shizukada "quiet" and genkida "healthy" are na-type No-type Adjective An adjective whose nonpast prenominal form ends
adjectives, as in (a) and (b). (cf. /-type Adjective; No-type Adjective) with no.
td;,~!)>~
Lf
(a) §ffeil>f.t:* (a quiet house) (a) ~tfli,O)*"'f- (prestigious university)
C <Lt'
(b) ft'Af.t:A (a healthy person) (b) t~/EO)II! (specific country)
1 [20]
(c)
GRAMMATICAL TERMS
t•-:iliA
-fl&.(J)}\ (people in general) Prefixes:
GRAMMATICAL TERMS [21]
J tr tr l'.A tr Iii.'
.b"-A !:i'J-t< 11\li-: ~A (unattended), ~l& (undefeated)
(d) ~)i(J)i:t;J!lj (universal rule) • tr tr "5
!)
t' h?l:d
*The followmg are na-adjectives: i!lU!!! (impossible), 11\liffi
• tr 0)-J £ iA.!JJ:. tr CA!i'I(
(e) iJl G~ \'g (J)J!Jl.1Uil; (mostly empty baseball stadium) (ignorant), 11\Jiij~ (incapable), 11\li!.tli'. (impertinent), 11\liiliJl.l'f
tr h l'
No-adjectives can occur in the predicate as well. (indifferent; careless), 11\li~IJ?K (nonsensical)
(f) :"'.: O);k"ji:(;J:-)Rtf.:'o

*-:
}j..
~t'
'0
/j. /j. fpA,
*9'0 (unknown), *%(unfinished), *ni (unexplored)

~t'i!i<
I;. /:_')
~t•LA. ~t·t'/t•
a-: ai\'1i (the best), ft,'! (the worst), fi*'f (the newest), a:k
(This university is prestigious (lit., first-class).)
(maximum)
(g) :"'.: O)fff$til;(;J: t >".) 'l ff S ~ ~ f.:'o
Suffixes:
(This baseball stadium is always mostly empty.) tr :: C''b
-rtl \'g: -f-{ft[PJ ~ (suitable for children)
tr !tl't-:\' ~ ~
No-adjectives look like nouns, but they do not have the critical properties -rtllt: ~'llf~~!PJ tt (for portable devices)
J:-J :hAL~?
of nouns (e.g., they cannot be marked by the subject marker ga or the direct -!ti: ~ll'iffl (for practice)
object marker o). \' l;!:-isij-:J
-A I): ~~A fJ (with honey (as an ingredient))

Many no-type adjectives can be classified by meaning, as shown below. -{i-\'g: ffv~:PN~ (with a garage)
Excellent: -1ii: .A «1 / J!l. (Spanish-style)
~ i:,;?{
Li)::iLl( ~£-::::i('A (? l t'°S~~?
ili'@ (excellent), ;f,j(ff (preeminent), lllH!il (outstanding), -lm (first-class), -t!'c G It: f!lli!t •t.:· Sit (full of errors)
1''7,
19lrJ ;f:! l:di:.-j
t!'c Iv t ':J (by far the best), iiilJ'JT I) (distinguished), tfiJ> P -1:, (superb), J:~ - i. 8. :h: tit\;!; clj ti. (covered with mud)
t:dl:d
(high-class), J:k (excellent) -'A¥IJ?K:
"
:t:. I) ~P* (rather overweight)
-'!i6: ;k\'g l:i) (larger than expected, than usual, etc.)
Unique/Selected:
!:.'< t: .!:'U:< i:.<~'J :: ~'J c.cn,
5!1!§ (of one's own), 5!1!W (unique), t~~ (peculiar), 11'!1~ (proper), WJE'. Note: In the Formation section in each grammar entry, the formation rules
c. <l.,, for nouns apply to no-adjectives.
(specific), t~JJU (special) (cf. WJJK~ (special))
Common: Potential Form A verb form that expresses competence in the sense of
.b -:J') t''.'.l!iA. IJ.h tdC.-J
~;;m (common), -fl&. (general), ;)t (ordinary), iV I) \'g tc:. I) (ordinary), m~ "can do s.t." The formation is as follows:
il!i i"i
(common), -'13 tc:. I) ITTr (natural) Gr. 1 Verbs: Vcond+ 0 e.g. ~~-It 0 (can talk)
Unchanging: Gr. 2 Verbs: Vstem+ G:h0 e.g. it« G:h0 (can eat)
t'?lt' .b "A .b r....f,, it'.tA
-JE'. (constant), ~)Ji (universal), 1'~ (unchanging), 11<!! (eternal) Vstem + :h0 e.g. it«:h 0 (can eat)
Irr. Verbs: *0 * G:h0, *tL0 (can come)
A common semantic property of no-adjectives is that they do not describe
relative attributes such as height and quietness. Thus, unlike i- and na- -90 C'\'g 0 (can do)
adjectives, the suffix sa "the degree of" (e.g., taka-sa "height," shizuka-sa
"quietness") cannot be affixed to no-adjectives. Predicate The part of a sentence which makes a statement about the
(cf. Na-type Adjective; /-type Adjective) subject. The core of the predicate consists either of a verb, an adjective, or
a noun followed by a form of da. Optionally, objects and other adjectival
Certain prefixes and suffixes also form no-adjectives, as shown below. and/or adverbial modifiers may be present. In (a)-(c), the predicates are
printed in bold-faced type. (cf. Subject)
1
I [22] GRAMMATICAL TERMS GRAMMATICAL TERMS [23]
c
;J:"""'.)t
(a) f.fr*~/v/;J:J;<Jl~@~J!Qo someone or something that is in a state or a situation (as in (c)-(f)). The
(Mr. Matsumoto sees movies often.) subject is normally marked by the particle ga in Japanese unless it is the
sentence topic.
(b) :fLC')*/i.A~.A~A,O)J;IJf)[l.,~'o
(My house is newer than Mr. Smith's.) (a) ~ 3 /iJl !) A,;:'~jt"'t.:, (John ate an apple.)
(c) :,/ =i /li8*~1!10)~~z.·9, (b) ;t. Y 1) -iJl:)h'tl: lili6 C, ht.:o (Mary was praised by her teacher.)
(John is a Japanese language student.)
(c) 7/ ~-Ii~ hPt.:, (Nancy is pretty.)
Prefix I Suffix A dependent, non-conjugational word attached to nouns (d) FJ77Jlri1J\ >f.:o (The door opened.)
or the stems of verbs and adjectives in order to form new independent 'J(i
words. Prefixes are attached to the beginnings of nouns, etc., as in (a), and (e) 'JLiJl~-::J;b Go (lit., One table exists.(= There is a table.))
suffixes are attached to their endings, as in (b).
1J.tH:?h~ .b(t.:'''.!::-'.J~d tr '/pf,,t.,f,,
(f) ~iJIW"\ >, (The sky is blue.)
(a) Jm~~ (superexpress), liltl::k*ft~J! (vice-president), m1~Jit.'
(indifference) Subordinate Clause A clause which is embedded into a main clause
k.l' ;)l 'Ii'
with a subordinate conjunction. Typical subordinate conjunctions are ba
(b) ~@ft. (cinematization), Mi,l;;."Jj (how to read), ;Wj~ (height) "if," kara "because," node "because," keredo "although" and noni "al-
though." Thus, in (a) below, the bold-faced clause with the subordinate con-
Prenominal Form The verb/adjective form which precedes a noun and junction node is embedded into the main clause Nakayama-san wa gakko o
modifies it. The bold-faced verbs and adjectives in (a)-(d) are prenominal yasunda "Mr. Nakayama was absent from school." (cf. Main Clause)
forms. ~;IJ>'(>i l'~
(a) 9='Lll ~ !vilruifJ~·®:f.J'-? f.:O)Z.·$;fit~{,t1t.,t;:,

(a) :fLiJ 1 ~ite I ~A. t.:~oo (Mr. Nakayama was absent from school because he had a
(the newspaper I read) headache.)
(b) *.'15~'/*.'f!iJ>-:>f.:* The informal form of a verb/adjective is usually used in a subordinate

(a big house I a house which used to be big) clause.
fJ? ~!
(c) :ll:~f.t /:li:)JrefO::":if.:~t!&l Suffix (¢Prefix I Suffix)

(a magnificent building I a building which used to be magnificent)
Suru-verb A verb which is composed of a noun and suru, as in (a) and
(d) S~'t,f?f.t/S~'t,f?tO::":if.:7~.t-
(b), or a single word and suru, as in (c). Nouns preceding suru are mostly
(a delicious-looking cake I a cake which looked delicious) Chinese-origin words. Suru-verbs conjugate in the same way as suru.
i:-5 l'. d:: ..£,_
Stative Verb A verb which represents the state of something or someone (a) 911J5il19 .Q (to study), t1l!M<9 .Q (to clean), ~~iJ' G9 .Q (to stay up
at some point in time, as in (a). (¢Appendix 2 (DBJG: 582-84)) late)
(a) ib G (exist (of inanimate things)); \' G (exist (of animate things)), (b) / ·:; ::7 9 .Q (to knock), 1T 1 / 9 .Q (to sign)
\'G (need), -c·~G (can do) b? ~?
(c) ill!l9 Q (to heat), ~9 .Q (to guess)

Subject An element of a sentence which indicates an agent of an action
in active sentences (as in (a)) or an experiencer of an action (as in (b)) or Transitive Verb A verb that requires a direct object. It usually expresses
an action that acts upon someone or something indicated by the direct
t!h
object. Actions indicated by transitive verbs include giving/receiving (such (a) ~t;!Jl*i L-fc:;/)>o
as ageru "give," morau "receive," kureru "give"), creating (such as tsukuru (Who came here?)
"make," kaku "write," kangaeru "think"), communicating (such as hanasu
"speak," oshieru "teach," tsutaeru "convey a message") and others. Note (b) foJ~*«iT;/J'o
that some English transitive verbs are intransitive in Japanese. (What will you eat?)
(cf. Intransitive Verb)
(c) c-;::1:rr~iT;/J'o
(a) fbiiJ!i;1Jldt>7aJ 0 (Where are you going?)
(lit., With me a car exists. (=I have a car.))
Ii(
(d) C'O)~!f"1o;1Jll:zlfiii11L:·T";1J'o
(b) f~ ii ;fo1Jt;i)l ~ \ 7a> 0 (Which building is the library?)
(lit., To me money is necessary.(= I need money.)) :t:;:t:;2;'b•
lj!]>-J=« ::o
(e) ~''°?::k~JX"-!JWIJ iT;/J'o
(c) .A ~.A~ /viii:jcijEiji'§;IJl1tfJ>7aJ 0 (When are you going back to Osaka?)
(lit., To Mr. Smith Chinese is understandable.(= Mr. Smith
understands Chinese.)) (f) c"? VC!'l'.v~P!vl."T;/J',
(How come you don't buy it?)
(d) TAii77/.A~;IJV.J;L--C-·~7aJo C"'.ddft..~
(g) Jl<:ff,~"-iiC'?rr~ iT;/J'o

(lit., To me French is a bit possible. (=I can speak French a little.))
~O)Lt-::
(How can I get to Tokyo Station?)
(e) *r ~ !vii:il<:ffl:';!o)l ~!vi:~"? f;::o
C?l\"1?
(Mr. Kinoshita met his father in Tokyo.) Wh-word An interrogative word which corresponds to the English words
who, what, where, which, when, why and how. The following are examples.
(f) fAl:ii«JI.-;i)lllfj;::_jtf.j:fJ>·:d;: 0
t.:.n
(lit., To me the bell wasn't audible. (=I wasn't able to hear the bell.)) (a) ill (who), fPT (what), C'.:: (where), C'. (!)(which),\ n (when), C'. 7 L
-C/~·lf'(howcome/why),
~ [; 2;/,,,
(g) :: :: ;IJ> Glij;±LlJ;1JlJU a; 9 J::, C'.7 (how)

(lit., From here Mt. Fuji is visible. (=We can see Mt. Fuji from Note that Japanese Wh-words are not always found in sentence-initial posi-
here.)) tion; they are frequently found after a topic noun phrase, as shown in (b)
LA-'IJ'lvtJ:A
and (c) below.
(h) fM:: iJ iitfflJi1',fi!lU:~ ~J ;1; Uz:o
~(I)') t!h
(We rode a bullet train.) (b) il'fB(f);{-'f 1 -i:ii~;l)l*i Ltc:;IJ'o
(i) "
fbii-8Ji:11Jln'7a> G LPa (lit., To yesterday's party, who came there?(= Who came to
yesterday's party?))
(It seems that I resemble my mother.)
cf. ~;1Jlil'f8(!)1{-'f 1 -i:*i Lt::;IJ'o
Volitional Sentence A sentence in which a person expresses his/her will. (Who came to yesterday's party?)
The main verb in such sentences is in the volitional form, as in (a).
If( (c) B;;f;:l:'iifoI~LiLtc:;/J'o
(a) f~;l)llj';::_'.)/~i'~;l;L,J:?o (lit., In Japan what did you do?(= What did you do in Japan?))
(I will go.)
cf. fol~ B;;f;:L:· Li Ltc:;/J'o
Wh-question A question that asks for information about who, what, (What did you do in Japan?)
where, which, when, why and how, as exemplified by (a)-(g) below.
1
I
Special Topics in Advanced Japanese Grammar
1. Adjectives in Japanese
' (4)
b.
t' t
ijft'6
li'ifl!lii;J<@~~llll]I:
SPECIAL TOPICS IN ADVANCED JAPANESE GRAMMAR
a. f.&ii;J<@(])f7'77.;[-J[l-::d::a [no-adjective]
(I bought a light blue blouse.)
~
Gt:::.a [noun]
'il'i
(We chose light blue as the base color for the living room.)
[27]
Thus, na-adjectives, no-adjectives and nouns form a spectrum, as shown in

Japanese adjectives are commonly classified into two groups: i-adjectives Chart 1.
and na-adjectives. However, there is yet another group of adjectives,
which can be called no-adjectives. (See No-type Adjective in Grammatical
Chart 1: Spectrum of na-adjectives, no-adjectives and nouns
Terms.) ( 1) presents some examples of this type of adjective.
l' c:i lf/,... Parts of Prenominal Predicate Case
(1) a. -ff,}.(]))\ (people in general) Examples
speech form form particles
c <-Ct' vr
b. t\f'.JE (]) §;! (specific countries) ijjli;> (quiet)
iU'iA. Lh OJ (a) Na-adj. X-naN
c. J]dj!(])J!{:@ (eternal truth) '®!fiJ (convenient)
t:th- -tl:A...l..@
{:.(~'?
d. sl:f'.(J)~-f- (average player) ~'iJlj (special)
t' i;,~ ~1 (b) Na/No-adj. ~t~t X-na/noN NA
e. -'!!if,(])*"'J: (prestigious university) 1'*'7 (various)
'(" ~~1 tl 'i
f. iJI G~ ~ (])!J.!Tfi~ (mostly empty baseball stadium) t''.?tfA
-ff,}. (general) X-da/desu/
(c) No-adj.
No-adjectives are just like nouns in terms of their syntactic rules (e.g., '""
sl:f'. (ordinary) datta/etc.
they require no when they modify nouns), but they cannot be marked by
case particles such as ga and o. In other words, they are not nouns. The rJd ~
No-adj./ ~'A (ill, illness)

only syntactic difference between na-adjectives and no-adjectives is that (d) h-i't>6 X-noN
na-adjectives take na before nouns whereas no-adjectives take no. Noun 71<@ (blue)
X-ga/o/
However, some words can take either na or no, as shown in (2). 'IS h'i etc.
:f:l!ll'i (earth)
'S ~d (e) Noun
(2) a. t\f'iJlj ! '/;;. I(]) f l'El~ (special treatment) :; '1 / (John)
~t~t t' Ld
b. 1'*'7 ! '/;;.I(]) f :JZ~ (various costumes)
Some nouns can also be used as no-adjectives, as demonstrated in (3) and
While the predicate form of na-adjectives and nouns is the same, both the
(4).
predicate and the prenominal forms of i-adjectives are significantly differ-
(3) a. ~3(t(J)£j:(:-f-M~;[-5l >t:::.o
[no-adjective] ent from those of na-adjectives. From this, it can be said that i-adjectives
(I wrote a letter to my sick mother.) are "pure" adjectives. However, a handful of adjectives can take either i or
S-:> il'
na, as shown in (5). (The difference between the i-version and the na-ver-
b. )(O)~'Aif!l!H~ lA:::.o [noun] sion is subtle, but the i-version tends to be used when the speaker describes
(My father's illness worsened.) something objectively whereas the na-version is used when the speaker
,, describes something with strong emotion.)
c. !i!)(iJI)\(: ~ 0)~3(t~ 7 -:JTo [noun]
(Mosquitoes transmit this disease to people.)
[28] SPECIAL TOPICS IN ADVANCED JAPANESE GRAMMAR SPECIAL TOPICS IN ADVANCED JAPANESE GRAMMAR [29]
(5) a. *~I~' I~ l '5 '5 (large house) 2. Interpretation of "N1 no Nz"

b. *"'" G '/J• l ~'I~ l 'I* (limber body)
Noun phrases with the structure "N 1 no N 2" often have multiple mean-
..
c. :lo'/J• l,, I~' I~ l llili (strange/funny story)
d. i !v);z, I~' I~ l J=I (round moon)

ings. For example, (1) can mean "book(s) Hemingway wrote," "book(s)
Hemingway owned" or "book(s) about Hemingway."
(1) "'-2- /:7'''7.:r.-0)::$:

The overlapping categories of adjectives and nouns can be depicted as fol-
lows: (book(s) Hemingway wrote I book(s) Hemingway owned I
book(s) about Hemingway)
(6) In the first two interpretations, N 1 (=Hemingway) is interpreted as the sub-
/-adj. Na-adj. No-adj. Noun ject and N 2 (= book(s)) as the direct object, but in the third interpretation
neither N 1 nor N 2 receives case interpretation. (Here, the term "case" refers
to the grammatical property of a given noun which determines its role in
the sentence in connection with the predicate, for example, as a subject,
direct object, place, time, means, etc. When a noun is interpreted to have
one of those properties, we say that it receives case interpretation.)
As another example, (2) means "the president's arrival," where N 1 (= the
president) is the subject of the action represented by N 2 (=arrival). In this
example, only N 1 receives case interpretation.
t.:'l'C01Jd l::'5-:0~<
(2) **1t~Jl0)$tll"r
(the president's arrival)
In general, "N 1 no N 2" can be categorized into four groups according to
whether or not N 1 and N 2 receive case interpretation.
(3) "N1 no Nz"
Group 1: Both N1 and Nz receive case interpretation
Group 2: Only N1 receives case interpretation
Group 3: Only Nz receives case interpretation
Group 4: Neither N1 nor N2 receives case interpretation
Group 1: Both N 1 and N2 Receive Case Interpretation

(4) presents examples in which both N1 and Nz receive case interpretation.
(4) a. *iit.:J-0) F v :7.

=I *if-=f'!Jll"f-C\' 15 F v :7. (the dress Natsuko is wearing) I
*if-=f7Jlffl':> -C \' 15 F v :7. (the/a dress( es) Natsuko owns) I
*if-=f'/Jlf'F ':> t::. F v :7. (the/a dress( es) Natsuko made)/etc. l
(30] SPECIAL TOPICS IN ADVANCED JAPANESE GRAMMAR
b.
~l? c
:!RtBO)~:X:
s l'.
, SPECIAL TOPICS IN ADVANCED JAPANESE GRAMMAR
Group 2: Only N1 Receives Case Interpretation

(31]
= :!RtBl=i::l:lvl'P.Qif~:X: (the uncle (who lives) in Kyoto)

il'L' 'ff
Example (2) belongs to this group, and (7) presents additional examples. In
c. 9~0)~llli! these examples, N 1 is the subject or direct object of an action represented
= 9 ~l=ftili 0~lll!! (the meeting that begins at 9 o'clock) byN2.
{>ttri:. ~;.,, t;>
t.t ::, {> lfA:: <t;t:<
d. ;/';t1J~O)JJ00t~ (7) a. LlJH 2' !vO)#tJa
=LlJH2'!v~#WIT0/Lkl~t
= ;/';t1J~-c·~;IJ•:h.fc::JJOOm (the world expo held in Nagoya)
(Mr. Yamamura's participation)
Sometimes case markers appear between N 1 and no to clarify the meaning t' -r!A L
of the phrase, as demonstrated in (5). (The interpretations given in (5) are b. mfi'T-O)~Jf~
not necessarily exhaustive. (5b), for example, can also mean "the game that = mfi'T-HJf~ I T.::5 I Lt.::: I~ t
was held in Osaka.")
(a study of genes)
h"'L'I' S<
(5) a. #-17v/FiJ•60);.1-;i, c. )iLJ.$:0))/!;ti
= # -1 7 v / F ;IJ• G71U.::: /I - ;i, = 7U.!l!n' I )!!ti.::5 /)!!ht.::: I~ t
(the e-mail that came from my boyfriend) (the train's delay)
ESi'-/J'
~o>?~d
b. *l?N-c'0)~1';-
J., ::
d. ~flO)ffi !'.> )2,,ij.
= *l?Nl'fibh.::5~1'! =~fl~lffi1::>)2;u/ffi1::>)2;1v~1~t
(the game that will be held in Osaka) (the (bank) deposit of someone's salary)
~H.U..
c. .:=. .:i - 3 - /;! • 7 1 }J., c O)JjJl:i!if
=-=-.:i-3-7·71~tLkMi!if Group 3: Only N2 Receives Case Interpretation
(the performance (I) gave with the New York Philharmonic) (8) presents examples of this category. As shown in the translations, in
::;,,r,.,,~ ;j;"'.) fii"::>;/;l>t'
d. ~~** ""('O)"'j'.~ these examples, N 1 and N 2 are interpreted as predicate noun and subject,
-yj
respectively.
=~~?Kil'¥%<"'/-~
J.,( ,,
(the academic conference that lasts through the end of this (8) a. / q o "} r O)t!i\tl' 2' Iv
week.) = ; q o ·J I· -c· &i 0 tit!' 2' Iv
The case markers ga, o and ni never occur between N 1 and no. However, (Mr. Fukui, who is a pilot; (among two or more Fukuis,) the
sometimes ni is replaced by a case particle with a similar meaning as Fukui who is a pilot)
shown in (6). ' ,,,
b. (rg){\O)~
(6) a. jf-;i,7 v / F-"0)-'H~ = (rg){\l'&, 0~
= ff-Jl-7 v / Fl:i!i>t.:::-'H~ (my wife, who is ill)
(the letter I wrote to my girlfriend) (9) presents another set of examples in this category. Here, the suru-verb
S< -t,,(J)
b. "'f.1: t.::: '5 iJ> 6 O)~\!i !'.> Vg stem N 1 represents an action, and N 2 represents the subject of the verb, as
in (9a), or the procedure for creating a document, as in (9b).
= "'t-1:.t.::: '51: t G -::i td\!i !'.> Vg
(the gift I received from my students)
ljl}")::"J
(9) a. Jmfi"O)A. 7 .A 5! 1 Jv (12) a. 7- 7"Jv0)1: (the surface of the table; the space above the
=imrr G l p G A, 7 A 5l 1 )v table)
(the hairstyle that is popular) l''iS £
,J,:.A, l J: ~ <'l!l' -C t~A

b. nil!liO)-j'jj) (a part of the plan)
b. ()(if) 1'J=lllt0)-f.Ji!Jj 00 !:/,., 'SJ: L~
c. r~A!::#iJ.l O)W~ (the author of "The Old Man and the Sea")
= ()(if~) 1tlllt-t .Q -f.Jr!Jj lt-::i '/J'
(the procedure by which someone creates a document) d. ~J\,\l?iO)*EJ:W: (the result of the test)
IA?-lt~
It should be noted, however, that this type of noun phrase is not acceptable e. d\}lj!;O)-:J '6 VJ ((someone's) intention to attend)
for any N 1• For example, the phrases in (10) are not acceptable.
(10) a. *~tllifo1*rr~ (a/the traveler(s) who l will arrive I arrived I) B. Appositive Relationship
b. *~U~0)4• (the budget that l will be I was l reduced) In this group, N1 indicates (a) specific member(s) of the group indicated by
-u,, l l' N 2 , as shown in (13).
c. *~Jf'J\:0)7!1lf~+ (the genes someone l will study I is studying I
etc. I) (13) a. -lf :7 7 O)* (cherry tree(s))
lfA, -It lfA::'-5
Interestingly, a qualified N 1 can be grammatically acceptable in cases where b. 511Jt0)~1Jt~ (lit., the back number 51 (=the number 51 on the
the more general term isn't, as demonstrated in (11). back of an athlete's uniform))
C.-?t?( L J: Z,\'
(11) a. 5 an!J~O);fjf(fi"~ c. Z: ti G O)if~ (these documents) ( z: ti G is a demonstrative
= 5 ~l:::~!J~ l T .Q I Gt:: I 1*rr~ pronoun.)
(a/the traveler(s) who l will arrive I arrived I at five)
klA,;t:iA, C.' t: <lfA, J: '<5/v
b. ::<jl:fF.~j!j!J~O)y. C. Inclusion Relationship
=::<l>:fF.~l!ftl~l ~ti.Q/~tit.::lr• In this group, Nz is part of (or an attribute of) N 1, as shown in (14).
(the budget that l will be I was I reduced this year) ,j;,L
(14) a. o;t' ..; 1'0)Jltll (thelegsofaJtherobot(s))

Group 4: Neither N1 nor N2 Receives Case Interpretation b. :::.. .:i - :o - :7 0) 5!" '7 / 5l '7 / (New York's downtown area)
Examples in this group can be further sub-grouped according to the rela- c. B ::<l>:A0) 1() (the Japanese people's mind)
tionship between N 1 and N 2 • ~;'j /:. ~ :: -)
d. Ji\"jlj'j)0)3(\f'* (the climate of Kyoto)

A. Qualifier and Dependent Noun
D. Relevance Relationship
The meanings of nouns such as ue "upper part; the area on top (of some-
thing)," ichibu "a part," chosha "author," kekka "result" and tsumori "inten- In this group, Nz represents something related to N 1 and the phrase means
tion" are not complete in themselves. In this respect, these nouns are "Nz l on I about I related to I etc. I Ni." as demonstrated in (15).
dependent nouns. In the "N 1 no N 2" examples in this group, N 1 qualifies N 2 -lt}vf:"J ~ l.'.
and gives it context and meaning, thus completing the meaning of N 2 , as (15) a. 1 7 :7 ~~O)ilc• (an article on the Iraq War)
demonstrated in (12).
b. .I. ;f, Jv;f-O)Fp~ll!§ (an energy problem I the energy issue)
ltA,::.-) IJ: (tA, -i:tL' !;:'
c. fJtElHJll~O)l!i!J~ (the health insurance system)

SPECIAL TOPICS IN ADVANCED JAPANESE GRAMMAR [35]
[34] SPECIAL TOPICS IN ADVANCED JAPANESE GRAMMAR
3. Politeness and Formality in Spoken and Written Language

E. Time-Specified Noun
In this group, N1 specifies a time frame for N1, as demonstrated in (16). In Japanese, politeness and formality are different concepts. The use of da
after nouns and na-adjective stems illustrates this difference, as shown in
(1 6 ) a. ;~~O) B ;$: (Japan in the Meiji Period)
Chart 1.
b. ::k'.'f:~{~O):flir, (Rie in her college days)
c. ~~t~~O)i (my wife when she was a newlywed) Chart 1: Politeness and formality of da
Plain Polite
· s "N no N" by tc l"T

As seen in (1) and other examples above, m many ~ased i all deter- affirmative form
itself means more than one thing; however, the heare~ rea. er usu y t.:-?t::. C' L, t::.
mines the intended meaning from the context and/or situation.
t:::-'\"~P t:::-'\"it>IJi-l±"lv
Non-formal negative form
t:::-'\"~IJ>-?t::. t:::-'\"iblJi-l±"lvC'L,t::_
te-form C' C'VC
C'ib ~ l"it>IJi-9
affirmative form
-c·£>-?t::. C'ib IJ i L,t::.
C'li~P -c·1:J:£> IJ i-ttlv

Formal negative form
C'li~IJ>-? t::. -c·1:J:£> IJ t-tt1v-c·i_,t::.
te-form -c·£>-?-c l"it>IJiL,-C
As seen above, da has four distinct sets of forms to show different levels
of politeness and formality. The examples in Chart 2 and Chart 3 show the
situations where these forms are used in spoken and in written language.
(Here, we do not discuss situations in which plain forms are required for
grammatical reasons, e.g., Kono atari da to tsukin ni benri desu. ( Z:. O)Jll IJ t.:
c)fililJ!-:-@.!fiJl"To ) "If (you live) around here, it's convenient to commute
to work.")
Chart 2: Spoken language

Ordinary business or personal letters and e-mails;
Casual conversation: business documents for customers; books for young
l'. L.t ,..Zf._ IJ children:
. ;:. O)li'flf, 1'!iflj t.: J::
.
0 -CA..£.: 0-::JJ:?ttt' 0 ;;;,. -:J
Plain
(This dictionary is convenient.)
;,
· _ilf;\l[,li*fJ:PAJ.::td.o
(Aki is not coming, right? I Aki's not coming, is she? I Non-
Polite
.
· ~ftli&,~if;f'l'O) Ji\fff t, 0 Z9 o
(Attached is an estimate of the necessary expenditures.)
~
··f!!~~/vO)~~~lvU~~~~lvZ9,
You're not coming, right, Aki?) formal (Mari's father is a doctor.)
Non- Some books for adults use this form, which sets an
formal Ordinary polite conversation; speeches, lectures and
intimate tone. This form is also used for letters and
presentations:
t::.l'"'/,., e-mails to one's family members and friends.
· ;:. O)liti!l'li::k'3£1'!iflJZ9,
(This dictionary is very convenient.) · ~0)7 ;\-I- li1'!flJZ9o
Polite
(My current apartment is convenient.)
· _ilf;\IC, ~ Iv Ii* tJ: P Iv Z9 :td.o
(Aki is not coming, is she? /You're not coming, are you, News articles; academic papers; essays; reports;
Aki?) government reports; legal documents:
l'..t L LH~1>( t''CdH'
(Not used in spoken language.) · Uilif!bill!Jliilllllf0)-J1~Zs.Q,
Plain (This is an example of particle omission.)
~ <.t.iA ltl'crt•1±t>-1idl:J-::J
Formal speeches, lectures and presentations: Plain · a'pij'-O)if;fl'J"i!il(;:R'-¥1i2.5 % Zs -::>f.:o
~ tr t;, <;.., h :: ') ~i=
· *H:l"ilifltnl;&O)fliJ IJ -r-·s fJ :I: 9, (The economic growth rate last year was 2.5 percent.)
Formal
Polite (Mr. Kimura is the pride of our school.)
;:.O)J::-j tJ:tfili*@J:f1:::i~-l!;/J:PO)c·s f} :1:9o Formal
De aru is more formal in tone than da. In many cases
(We cannot tolerate such conduct by any means.) both de aru and da are used within one document.
Formal business letters; formal business documents for

customers:
Chart 3: Written language t::.a L'.:: l:?l~ -lfA~~( !i'Al.'h
Polite · ;:. O)lltO):/Ji'&l:::-:J ~ i G-C Ii, ' 1H±li3'::f:J 'it- iV lf-C JJUsl 'ir-
h~li'l'' l.J:i'A,
News articles; academic papers; reports; essays: ~~JJ-t .QJ'1f:tt-r-·s fJ :1: 9,
iJ' tJ><1±?"'fl' ~h •.
• ;:_ O)frHjf;lJ-~Jtli~bD-C/fi't:FJl!f.:o (We (lit., Our company) will do our utmost to investigate
(This (practice of) price setting is extremely unreasonable.) the cause of the recent accident.)
!t-::i "i;• l t.:'.t'
. *8*1i~ l'l ::tnx~t.:o
(The result depends on the way you do it.)
Non- Plain
formal Most books for adults use this form, which sets a neutral While verbs and i-adjectives have distinctive forms to indicate different
tone. This form may also be used in letters and e-mails politeness levels (e.g., hanasu and hanashimasu; takai and takaidesu),
to intimate friends. they do not have distinctive forms to indicate the formality level that cor-
"'-Iv IJ
responds to de aru; therefore, the same forms are used for both non-formal
• 90)7 ;\- J-- li1'!if1Jf.:J::o
(My current apartment is convenient.) and formal situations. In other words, da and its variants are critical indica-
tors of formality level.
(2) a. ~'"'?*1:'7vl:'.''~Jjl.--CP00)o $?1J~L,fd:~P 0

4. Rhetorical Questions
(Hey, how long are you going to watch TV? Do your
homework!)
Of all the types of questions, including Yes-No Questions, Wh-Questions,
Choice Questions, Tag-Questions and Hypothetical Questions, only Rhe- a: '6'57vl:::'~Jjl.--CliPltid:PJ:o $?1J5.§1Gid:~P 0
torical Questions (RQ hereafter) do not seek or accept an answer. RQs elic- (Don't watch TV now. Do your homework!)
it the hearer's/reader's mental recognition and acceptance of an underlying t.:n h".i~H
claim. In other words, RQs look like a question on the surface but in actual- b. ~tJ~·-:r !vid:1i;l >~OfSl-l'fHJ'1'.~T 0
'bAiJ'o
ity, they are an assertion. (Who would do the job for such a low salary?)
The examples in (1) and (2) are some typical RQs used in spoken Japa- b: illt'l-:Clvid:1i;P~;fStl'f±$liGid:PJ: 0
nese. As the English translations show, the RQ is essentially the same in (No one will do the job for a salary that low.)
Japanese as in English. The direct non-RQ versions are provided by ex-
amples with a prime mark. The sentences in (1) take the form of Yes-No c. c'? (., ""(,f,\O)~ :t t F>fJP--Cr ~ G id:P<T.ll'.'9 iJ'o
Questions, and in (2), Wh-Questions. (Why won't you listen to what I have to say?)
(1) -
a. flitl:-:C /vid:~Pf±!J~
ill
~ ·lL.l:: -'h-C"i3?
--
O)tJ>o c: .'.'.: '5 -:C'f,\O)~ :t t F>f]P--Cr ~Po
(Are you going to make me do that kind of dirty job?) (Please listen to what I have to say.)
a: flitLi-:C /vid:~Pf±!Jli LJ: id:Po < d. B:<t§Ml~~ GPid:/v"C~'"'?f~hlE\-:it~?

(I don't want to do that kind of dirty job.) (When did I tell you that Japanese is easy?)
b. -:C lvid:::.. cf~;Ql5;0-:i --C P 0 b lt;!Jl id: P l5 '\" fJ: ~' iJ'o ct: B :<$;:~ 7'.1 1~ ~ G P id: Iv --C El -:i t~ ::.. C: Ii id: P J: o
(How should I know that sort of thing?) (I've never said that Japanese is easy.)
b: -:C/vid:U::lif~li5;0Gid:Po e. C'? t.,·nntf.\O)-ti"Pl:-t0o:>?

(I don't know that sort of thing.) (Why are you always blaming me?)
c. :!o§u li-:C ;f1:l' t ;k~,;t iJ' o e: l >-:J tf.\0)-ti"l >I: Gid:l >l'r ~ l >o
(Are you really a college student?) (Don't always blame me.)
c: :!o§u li;k~,;t C: li,\sLt id: Po

(You're no college student.) Depending on the context, RQs can express anger or frustration, as in
0
(la-_c) an~ (2a, b); surprise, as in (ld); joy, as in (le); a plea, as in (2c);
d. :!o§u, :)(t7'.11££-:it~Al5'\"fJ:~'iJ'o demal, as m (2d); or accusation, as in (2e).
(Are you crazy?)
RQs are also used in written language. However, usually they are not used
d: :!o§uli:)(t;Qlff-:i--CP0o to express the writer's emotion, but rather to express the writer's views in
(You're crazy.) an indirect way. Take (3a), for example. The writer may well be convinced
that the Japanese are excessively optimistic about robots, but he is hesitant
e. -:C;flliJ:h>-:it~l5'\"fJ:~'iJ'o ;fo/;6c·C: '5 ! about writing that as straightforwardly as it's stated in (3a').
(Wasn't that great? Congratulations!) ti> t:!t' ~ t.::t'
(3) a. B :<$;:Ali o '1' ·y r 1:J&i;k;J:~\JH'3+t~-:i --CP 0 O)""t(i fJ:~ 'f.:·.;:>? iJ'
0
e: -:C:flliJ:h>-:if~o ;fo/;6-C:C:
"io (Don't Japanese people have excessive expectations regarding
(That was great! Congratulations!) robots?)
a: 8:;$:}.Jio#·;1 H:::J&i::k~W.H~~ffl-:;-CP.Qo ffi G tJ:p (G':J) l'(i j ~p /£>VJ i-t!"/u l -/J>o

(I think that Japanese people have excessive expectations for 9;0 G ti:P(lu) t:::-? l ~PI it> !J i-ttlu l i!'o
robots.) (Isn't it the case that he doesn't know it?)
(ii) - (~P) l G':J I Iv l l t.: 6 7 I l' l J: 7 l iJ'
In all the examples in (4), the writer is not emotive about the subject. The
writer simply refrains from stating his/her belief in a straightforward man- Ex. ffi-:;-CP.Q l G':J I lu l l tC:6 7 /c·l J: 7 l -/J'a
ner. Depending on the context, an RQ may express the writer's humble (I doubt that he knows it. (lit., Could it be the case that he
cautiousness or lack of straightforwardness. In Japanese formal or public knows it?))
writing, RQs are used quite frequently.
(.:A~fA i'i'A~tt'
ffiGtJ:PjG':l/t'uf ltC:67 /c'lJ:7 fiJ'a
(4) a. Arai t ll!IJV!JG':J001*7'.P Gt-:; t '?«.Q =: t Ii£> .Q O)'t'Ci7d:~ 'f.:·0? fJ>o (I believe that he knows it. (lit., Could it be the case that he
(Can we not learn more from the relationship between people doesn't know it?))
and animals?)
(iii) - (ti: H l G':ll'li I 1u t:::"' l ti: P l t.: 6 7 I -c: l J: 7 l iJ'
a: Af!ll t ll!!JV!JG':JOOi*iP Gt-:; t "?« .Q a
(We can learn more from the relationship between people and Ex. ffi-:;-CP.QG':lc'liti:P l tC:6 7 /c·l J: 7 l iJ'o
animals.) ffi-:; -c P .Q 1u t::: "' ti:" l t.: 6 7 I -c: l J: 7 l iJ' o
ff l,;~'J tL'l' ::: h- ii• 0)-) (I believe he knows it. (lit., Isn't it the case that he knows it?))
b. Ht1ifrrG':Jl!!tMllll<t1»5 tG':J1:t, -c:~ti:i>=:t~ru1m1:::-t.Qt=:01:::®
.Q 0)-C·C;t 7d: ~' t.: 0? iJ'o 9;0G0:PG':ll'1i0:P j tC:6 7 /l'l J: 7 f i!'a
(Is it not those technologies that make the impossible possible ffiGti:Plu G-?0:P j tC:6 7 /l'l J: 7 f i!'a
that show what is truly attractive about technology?) (I believe that he doesn't know it. (lit., Isn't it the case that he
doesn't know it?))
b: ;f,Hl\TG':Jl!!t!!i\lliJl<tP7 'SG':Jli, -c-~ti:P2::t~QJIJ~1:::'9.Qt2::61:::®
Go (iv) - l t I-:; -cf l 8 7 /§bti:P l l G':J (l'T) I lu l'T l iJ'

(Those technologies that make the impossible possible show -l t /-:;-Cf j ,\ll.'5 /,\ll.bti:P l l G':l(l'T) I lvc·-t l iJ'
what is truly attractive about technology.)
('·::>t..:t'fL'.ft fp lf~ !., i"-J '5AC-J
Ex. ffi-:; -CP Qt§ 7 G':lc'TiJ',
c. G':J J: 7 ti:J&ilf{~ ,\S1.;m1:::lf!PJT .Qt.:· 0? iJ'o
~ff~fJ~· =: 9;0-:;-CP.Q-:;-C§-j G':liJ'o
(Who in the world would agree with such a radical ideology?) (I bet he doesn't know it. (lit., Are you (really) saying I
Would you say that he knows it?))
Ii
(Nobody would agree with such a radical ideology.) JPflfiJ' lPt,\S1.;b0:\ \G')-/J>o
(Shame on you! (lit., Don't you feel ashamed?))
Note that the endings of RQ sentences usually take one of five forms, as (v) (Wh-word)- l G':J (c'T) I lu l'T l -/J>
shown below. (ii) can be interpreted either as a RQ or a self-directed ques-
tion meaning "I wonder if-." Ex. 9;0-:;-CP.QG':J(C'T)i!'a
(I bet he doesn't know it. (lit., Does he (really) know it?))
(i) - (ti:P) l (G':J) l'li I (Iv) i.::;"' l j ti:P I ;ti!) i-ttlv l -/p
E 7 l-CffiGti:PG':JiJ'a
Ex. ffi-:; -CP Q (G':l) l."li l 0:P / zb VJ i-t!-t'u f -/J>o
(You should know it. (lit., Why don't you know it?))
9;[]-:;-CP.Q (;\_,) G-? j ti:P/ it> VJ i-ttlu f i!'a
(Isn't it the case that he knows it?)
5. Metaphors in Japanese •·n

d. 1Jl{O)~JHi:tof3 ~ /v(f)J:,? t::.o
(His face is like the moon.)
Seto (1995) used a triangle to classify five major types of metaphor, as
shown below. e. fld:: "iJ Ii .:C ;i,,q: ·;1 r Ji. f::V fC.'a
(We are like guinea pigs.)
~l'Tl'il'Aitl'
(1) Analogy (~lt001*)

l'A, t(ll
t;,~< t(ll
A. Simile ([[Pi!«) B. Metaphor rnll!Pi!«)

t'A t(ll
B. Metaphor (~Pi!«) Xis likened to Y using the pattern "X wa Y da" (Xis Y).
'!{ CA '/J•
C. Personification (:!MA 1~) i.PO)l.;'..1: t:A~d
(2) a. 1llZ3'tiAMtc.·o
(She is a doll.)
Clvli"t' 1.::U
b. A:Cttim<tc.·o
(Life is a journey.)
f.i:t'l~-Jh'A~tt'
IJ/vtt-:::J;l;>/dtt'
(2) Inclusion (J*J-22001*) (3) Contiguity (/ij!i:Ji001*) C. £> O)~t;l:A... lffC.'o
Lt' t(ll
'/J•A t(ll
D. Synecdoche (t£Pi!«) E. Metonymy (~Pi!«) (That man is a snake.)
d. "'"
1Jl{O)~J!ti:tof3 ~
lvt::.,
The triangle shows that these five figures of speech are defined by three (His face is the moon.)
types of relationships between two objects, X and Y: (1) Analogy, (2) In-
clusion and (3) Contiguity. A list of the three types, their metaphorical cat- e. f.M::"iJt;t.:c;i,,.:c.;1 uc.·o
egories and the respective examples are provided below. (We are guinea pigs.)
!ef t;A, 'IJ•

C. Personification (fiA 1~)
Xis perceived to be similar to Y, although X and Y don't show any outward
similarity. X isn't human, but is likened to a person or a part of the human body.
J;t,( t(ll (3) '"

a. nr; 1 :tJl£>1J:t:::.i!t-ffl~'-C~'Ga
A. Simile ([[Pi!«) (Hawaii is beckoning (lit., inviting) you.)
t; 1!
X is likened to Y using the pattern "X wa Y no yoda" or "X wa Y mitaida" b. Oi:b!J :tJl~O)i:p-c-smfiH t.,n'G,
(Xis like Y).
(Sunflowers are bowing in the wind.)
7.P(7)tJ: i:.A~t.7
a. 1llZ3'1i:toAM(f)J;,? tc.·,
ML
(1) c. Ji\;lil;if ~) :l;; ·:Jf:::.,
(She is like a doll.) (The storm passed. (lit., The stormy wind ran away.))
l'. lvli" t' t:Xf
b. A:Ct litif((f) J;, ? tc.·, d. Z: O)*(j:j[;~fZ;_'tJ.o
(Life is like a journey.) (This tree is healthy.)
:: t(ll~ :!::
C, £,O)~(j:A..."[fJj.f;::_~\f;:,o
e. 1J,~:t11•-::i-C~'Go
(That man is like a snake.) (The small flakes of snow are dancing.)
1 [44] SPECIAL TOPICS IN ADVANCED JAPANESE GRAMMAR
cio. SL
r
!
f. :::: O):fJ.10)H!PIJ:~~\ 'o

(The legs of this table are weak.) '/]>A, l\1l
"" t., -f? tc.·, E. Metonymy (;jij!Dff«)

g. :::: O)i~'mAl:if
(This house looks kind to people.) y of "X no Y" is omitted because Xis closely related to or is part ofY.
h. Z:: 0)~7'.1>/i.,O)CHJ:;j\ ~ T ~' Q ti: 0 (6) a. ~fii.ifi(0):71-V)hl;~/7Gt:.:,
(The mouth of this kettle is a bit too small.) (The bicycle had a flat tire. (lit., The bicycle was punctured.))
I<)> .b? c?
b. '{!>;/J>lt, (O):to~) 7'.JlmJlliH,'LPGo
(The (hot water in the) kettle is boiling.)
-Ct' l\1l
D. Synecdoche (ili!Dil«) c. ~J' .I (O){f) 7'.Jlli!J:::: ;{. 'L < Go
(I can hear the (sound of the) piano.)
A specific example describes an entire category of nouns, as in (4), or a
general category term is used to mean a specific example within that cat- . ' •
d. Jl\-C·D-'./? (O)jc)hl/lUt:.:o
egory, as in (5). (The wind extinguished the (flame of the) candle.)
l,'}');j:"'.) ?i 0) ::.-Jif... li!J: l;r..
(4) a. lOO?Riil:!i!Y~li]l:?EJl!,i::fT-::> 'L ~ t::co e. -'E- '/J' }[.," (O){f~) lt-li!l <0)7'.1\ltf ~ t::o
(I went to Ueno Park for flower viewing(= cherry blossom (I like to listen to (the music of) Mozart.)
viewing).) trGil'hli.D ~ ~-:i
~A..l::.? H.::: f. ~ 0) "H~..t~~ (0)1J,~) It- 2 iHT~-::> t::co

b. 4lJ'.B:to#~l:flllL'~lt-Mf-::>'LP~ ii", (Yesterday I bought two (novels by) Murakami Haruki(s).)
(Every day I bring a boiled egg(= chicken egg) for lunch.)
The above examples of metonymy appear to be the result of the deletion
C. (-.I) (J:i/5 ::!; l)ltf~
{.:;'?ti:PA,f::J: 0 of Y in "X no Y" (i.e., the nouns in parentheses). Metonymy is used only
(I don't like chicken (lit., bird) so much, y'know.) when the speaker gives more semantic saliency to X than Y.
(5) a. AIJ:J'i/t::ltL'~~GO)C'IJ:ti:Po All humans, it seems, have metaphorizing competence. In other words,
(Man doesn't live by bread(= food in general) alone.) they are all capable of perceiving analogy, inclusion and contiguity. The
!!A. ~iA, surface forms, that is, the phonetic shapes, are different from language to
b. a~.:::'i&IJ:filJP'1°h' G l''Th', language, but as one notices in the examples above, Japanese metaphors
(What time is dinner (lit., cooked rice)?) frequently translate directly into English.
Note that hana in (4a), tamago in (4b) and tori in (4c) describe the general (7) is a list of some of the metaphorical idioms that are common to Japa-
categories of flowers, eggs and birds, but they are used to mean specific nese and English. There is always a possibility that Japanese borrowed the
examples, i.e., cherry-blossoms, a chicken egg and chicken, respectively. expressions from English or vice versa, but as far as we know, there is no
Note, however, that pan (bread) in (5a) and gohan (cooked rice) in (5b) are evidence that they were the result of borrowing. Even if there is borrowing,
examples of food and a meal, respectively, and are used to indicate the gen- it simply shows that any language has linguistic soil that is fertile for such
eral category of food.
metaphors from outside.
M~ itt"
(7) ;fcl:na;:t-B:<"' (add fuel to the fire)
~If.I ''-~
*fjO)J: 7 l:/l!l"Gn' (as smooth as silk)
J;t:t,;j
- c 1Si~hl~ 7
-is ::.ti
(be on the same wavelength)
illJ.7'.Jli*G (blood freezes)
"T
- I=¥~ " r 1v1:

;:, T (bring the curtain down on - ) 6. Number Marking
§7j-O)Jf~tf "5 (can't believe one's ears)
-l=El~-:JS-:5 (closeone'seyesto-) Unlike ludo-European languages, Japanese does not have grammar rules
~Jl0;t;.l=lli0 (come to light) requiring countable nouns to indicate number, such as "-s" or "a" in
::.i::_If SC
English. Thus, we cannot tell, for example, how many frogs jumped into the
-O)/~l:!i€1=~m G ~ :h-:5 (dance to someone's tune)
old pond in the haiku composed by the famous haiku poet, Matsuo Basho,
*
19lrYt'?IJ:A,
m-*[f/J;(p ~ ~n) (don't lift a finger)
t'-::>-l±A which reads Furuike ya kawazu tobikomu mizu no oto (r±!t!lVi' ~~tY;Q,tr
-ki\RBI < (draw a/the line) O){f). Probably 99% of Japanese people would say one, but English transla-
t ~·
El ;1; 1 ~tflli 0 Ii E (eyes pop out (ofone's head)) tions are split between a frog and frogs: "The ancient pond I A frog leaps
'iJ•-"'"' ~ "5 ~ 0 (fill some (of the) holes)
1C in/The sound of water" (Donald Keene), or "Old pond-frogs jumped in
-sound of water" (Lafcadio Hearn). The choice isn't grammatical, but aes-
~l=S-:J;/;>0 (hit (up against) the/a wall)
~t· k I.Hi ':¥ thetic. In daily conversation, the situation is the same. Marking a noun with
Jlt:ffi0)*1J:H§l0 (hold the purse strings) regard to number is always optional in Japanese. But, as listed, by Martin
t:::. -Jt.t L
fill~ *11! ~ 0 (keep a tight rein on - ) (1975: 143-54), there are at least six ways to indicate plurality, as in (la-f).
-l=f~ffil:T (lendahandto-)
(1) a. Repetition of Nouns
-l=Ir~ffil:T (lend one's ears to-) UC.UC '('i~t Lil'.t t'it•.t
UG Ak (people), wk (mountains), Jii!Jk (islands), *k (houses),

~
*tntlO)J:: "5 t!:. (like oil and water) ff 7...t!.7...t!. 7,<-tt,L;.-1± 7J•}j.ifh
*k (trees), ~1'4 (branches), J;li k (stores), f!llk (deities), {Ek
lit.dit.t
fl.lj.jp{f
tmJ!l.~J'L-C 0 (make waves) 0 r..f J: J: t.:!.V>t!t• ii;,£':>

(flowers), Bk (days), i!tk (f"tk) (generations), llJJ k (towns)
-O))g~!m < (open the way for-)
H
b. Suffixing
~· 01=*~;1± <' (like water through a sieve) ::. C't
-t::.-to: ~O)'ft::.-t; (boys), rfM::.-to (children), "Jt~t::.-to
l c-)
(From Makino/Oka (Forthcoming)) ~ ~-) -/)>
(students), ~~illt::. 't; (teachers), '1/M::. -to (we), 1JO~ ( ~

Iv) t::. -to (Kato and his group)
Oka (2004) has shown that the frequency of metaphor use becomes higher .,,.,
as the learner's oral proficiency level goes up. For learners of Japanese, - G[~]: rf~G (children),i'LG (we),:fll{G (they), :::inG
this suggests they should use metaphorical expressions as much as possible (these guys), :::: :h G (these)
St:
when they speak or write Japanese and pay special attention to metaphors -Et[~]: 13E t(guys), -*Et (demons), :*:Et (dogs), '1/LE t
when they read Japanese writings. As with Japanese onomatopoeia, the use
of idiomatic metaphors makes communication more effective and often (we)
t;tt:. -l±A..lft•tllf;:_ ~~( ~
iiJ't:
more creative. -1i: 7t~1i (teachers), 7t¥1i (seniors), :foi'§'.1*1i
(customers)
c. Chinese Prefixes
f;:_ f;:_ Ji.A, tJ• f;:_ h/vf:( f:. !J:-)11.JA,
~-: ~)({~(many cultures), ~]3;';~ (many races), ~1imi
t::. tfA, ::.--
(many directions), ~§,lg (multiple languages)
LJ: L.tJi.? tp LJ:l)1( tA.
illi-: illi~flffi (various prices), illi"f'Foi (various branches of
LJ:-l±t• /;:' lJ: l'. td
learning), illiiliiJ!'l!' (various systems), illilJ'il!f (various
LJ:iJ'-?C:? LJ: IJ 6A
circumstances), illimlf/J (various activities), ,'llil]!ffilij
L~~L·#( L~~t•
(various theories), illi::k"Jt (various universities), illii&

b
R; (various political parties)
d. Noun-Modifying Phrases The noun-modifying phrases in (ld) also imply that the subject is plural, as
~i~i
'' 0'' 0 'l:t.A (various peopl~!' ~~f,,,- ~ (all sorts of i~~~,~, t.: shown in (3).
<~ /v(J)fA (a lot of fish), ;k~O)Wl,7\';~
:.-?tt! ~<~-?
(many tourists), ~,.z 0)
liA!:A (3) a.
.:-?iA
~!il(:(i~'0~'-?~..ffih 1 ~P-CPt.:o
~
J;b~ (innumerable contributions), ~~O))[lA (more than one

(In the park, all sorts of flowers were in bloom.)
criminal) =.t•
1·~
<
b. -fO)i't!J(:(if.: ~ft,O)!l!.;()11.i)<PL'Pt.:,
s~
e. Verbal/Adjectival Predicates (In the pond, a lot of carp were swimming.)

:!!f:;t; 0 /:!lf:&90 (gather), t.:t.?0-90 ((people) gather, get ~i~i '"t' ! =.·/::.
-s tJ•t:. C. Z'.:O)~ij'., ~.l./"~/:b*$;(Jl1l:9~f.: 0
together), liZ 0 I ltZ G-9 (scatter), }t-5 < I }t-5 It 0 (be put in
t.i'f' SS (In the past year, all kinds of incidents occurred.)
order /put s.t. in order), (~) ~P (many), tolftd:'. LP (a large
i.l>i' !
number of),~~ Wh'l:t.P (countless) Number can also be indicated with suffixes, as shown in (lb). The exam-
ples in (4) are cases where the plural marker -tachi must be used if the
f. Quantifier Expressions speaker wants to express plurality. Note that in such cases, the ~lement that
<'<
B::$:ilf!O)'Jt:i:hl*"1100AP0, (There are about 100 students of takes -tachi is either a proper name, as in (4a), or a pronoun, as m ( 4b-e ). In
(4), the suffix always means a "person and his/her group."
Japanese.)
::.: D! {';t t.!
ti. f .7,i, ;(JI 1i 121 P 0 a (There are five mice.) (4) a. Ll!Hl~lvt.:"Shlj!;P(:*t.:o
""
::$:i 1iffltffit-::d.:a (I bought five books.) (Yamada and his friends came to see me.)
~Id}! .:: £t..::
~12.l!O)':J'-l!J (three little pigs) b. fU.: -s 1;1:• c:-==- .1 - =i - 7 1: --:it.: o rr
The examples of noun repetition are restricted almost entirely to those (We went to New York City by car.)
ti•IJ)t
listed in (la). There are also restrictions regarding the use of the Sino- J;
c. :/Bzii:f.: "5 lilPJ l.:: v .A r 7 / L'flP"lP 0 o

Japanese prefix plural markers in (le). For the prefix ta-(~) there are more
examples such as tajo (~'Iii) "lit., many sentiments," tasai (~::t) "lit., many (Those women work in the same restaurant.)
~h t•~L.1; ~~
talents" and tagei (~:il:) "lit., many arts," but all these are usually used as d. :/Bzf.:"51iP-::>t~*tl/:)j!EjiW\t.I',
the stem of na-adjectives meaning "passionate," "multi-talented" and "ver- (They always drink together.)
satile," respectively.
e. £, 'l:t. t.:f.: "5 li8l:li C: '5 -9 0 O)o
The verbal and adjectival predicates in (le) imply that the subject or direct
object is plural, as shown in (2). (What will you all be doing this summer?)
1£< Kurafuji (2004) noted that there are cases where -tachi cannot be attached
(2) a. f~litl.Ff.i~lll;»r~ '.Qo to a noun, as shown in (5).
(I am collecting stamps.) fi'"htC Uf t..:: !l'.i L
~ (~ -s (5) a. J11::$:c~Hlli::k'JtO)<l&~ili (*t.:'to) tea
b. ,ffr0)..ffih 1mr? TL i -:if.: a (Kawamoto and Shibata are college professors.)
(The cherry blossoms have already scattered.) i.Ph :. t:t
l:i'.il;t-? ::lvf '/J•f! !
b. :/Bz/:ii':ff:!Ji (*f.: 't:,) ;(JI£, G 0
c. 'llim-tt 1 r O)~(i~.t Wh'l:t. Po (He has a child I children.)

(The number of information sites is countless.) Except in the above cases, the attachment of the suffix -tachi is optional.
d. lVJ1%1i L'l:t.P::k'Jt:i:;()l~~' 0 Its use is less appropriate when talking about animals; however, the plural
(Many college students don't study.) marker can be attached to practically any noun if the speaker/writer feels
close to whatever is expressed by the noun. (For details, see Makino (2007:
109-130).)
ht:( L .:: 7 J..A
Another suffix, the plural marker -ra can be used interchangeably with (10) a. f.& c"t li)'[;'±.0) ;:::''~~ ~~ G8- 1: G--C :lo VJ i To
-tachi, and, like -tachi, it cannot be used in the examples in (5). But in col-
(We (lit., I and my in-group members) are looking forward to
loquial speech, -tachi tends to be used more frequently. Either -ra or -tachi your lecture.)
may be preferred with certain personal pronouns, as shown in (6)-(S), or ht.·< L iJ' ( ti ~OJ>"i iJ' <'l:tt'
demonstrative pronouns, as in (9). b. f.& E 'bO)::k"f:i: lit!f'J'l!O)~tl!ln> t) 1\'l"f:'±_nl*--C :lo V) i To
(Students are coming from all over the world to study at our
(Note: "A>B" indicates that A is used more frequently than B, and "A>>B"
university.)
indicates thatA is used far more frequently than B.)
/Jf-(L h<~i LHD/c *1.A- fp liAtft'
c. f.& E -t O)f,1il:·li:lo~t!JH:](t1:Jv::i --C \ >td!::. It G~if,', ~Ji'fJHiC:Jl&'i'G G
(6) a. bt:::. G I tz: "5 » 6 l lifPT t 9;0 t) id: n'-::d:::.,
--c:to VJ iT,
(We didn't know anything about it.)
rn
(Our store sells (selected) merchandise at low prices to please
b. bG l 6 » tz:."5 I iiminl::kH~t!::., our customers.)
(We love sake.) The second and the third person pronouns and the demonstrative pronouns
c. b t:::. <G I tz: "5 » ?? 6 l Ii;::: O);k"f:O)zf:~'±_ l."T
{-"'.J~J:.1-\tt'
0
cannot be used with -domo, as shown in (11)-(13), respectively.
(We are alumni of this college. I We graduated from this (11) a. ~id:t:::.!tz:."5/6/*E'bliiEZ::n>t)*t:::.O)o (=(7a))
college.)
"'-l' h Ll{ll 1'I' L-t> b. ~ !vt::: I6 I tz:."5 I *E'b l ri;:::;::: C:fPJ G--C !vO)o (= (7b))
d. b:hj 6/*tz:"5l1i'f;fD±*71!'lt!::.,
(We are pacifists.) (12) a. ~16/tz:."5/*E'bllHNfi~t!::.o (=(Sa))
(7) a. ~ts.t::: I tz:."5 > 6 l liE =:n't:,*t:::.O), b. ~3z" I fz:."5 / 6 /*('."'b I liJ:: <f±ljl:~TGo (=(Sb))
(Where did you come from?) (13) a. =:nl6/*tz:."5/*E'bliiT-"(l'{f:ht:::~Jf~t!::.a (=(9a))
b. ~ Iv t:::. I 6 » tz: "5 I Ii ;::: ;::: C:fPJ G--C Iv 0) 0
b. -'f:hl 6/*tz:."5/*c·-tlliffl.~B'Jid:F"~Ji!!!t!::., (=(9b))
(What are you up to here?)
•·n c. ~:h I 6 /*tz:."5 /*c"-t I 1i3'::l'.f~7 1 7 / 3 ./l''To (= (9c))
(S) a. ~I 6 » tz:."5 I ii~fi~t=o
It is interesting that -domo can also be used to indicate that the speaker is
(They are bankers.)
·/pOJtJ:
looking down on people or, more frequently, on animals, as shown in the
b. :/E(:~ j fz:."5 > 6 l liJ:: <f±ljl:~TGo following examples.
(They work very hard.) l'c:>t:::t• 'l!"t' l.'. -/J'
(14) a. -f*;:::O)~O)J&/El'*c"'blifPT~Gd:: 7 !::: Gl'PGO)n>,
-t<-·
(9) a. =:nl 6 /*tz:."5 l liT-"(--C{f:hHJf~t!::.o (What in the world are the politicians of this country up to?)
(These are all (examples of) excellent research studies.) h:IJ't0J ttt' :::
b. ~E'~O)l'fi!'JE'bli~~i'lHIJt)id:Po
!fA,L'.·:r(~
b. -'f:hl 6/*tz:"5I1iffl.~89id:F"~Ji!!!t!::.o (Young people these days don't know how to use polite
(Those are realistic problems.) expressions.)
c. Jli}JfO)*C°<bnl 7 G 2' <--Cf±1Jnll;s.\ 'o
i:fA ~
c. ~ n I 6 I* tz: t I li3'::l'.f~ 7 1 7 / 3 ./ l''T,

(Those are all fiction.) (The dogs in our neighborhood are unbearably noisy.)
Finally, the plural suffix -domo has its unique usages. For one, it indicates Among the three plural suffixes, -tachi is the most widely and frequently
the speaker's humbleness when used with the first person pronoun, as used and -ra is next. The use of -domo is limited.
shown in (10).
A DICTIONARY
OF
ADVANCED
JAPANESE
GRAMMAR
(Main Entries)
aete 3
aete ~;;{_ --C adv.
an adverb that expresses the speaker's/ daringly; boldly; dare to -;

writer's desire or will to dare to do venture to -; force oneself to
s.t. in spite of difficulty, danger or
opposition [REL. omoikitte; shiite]
+Key Sentences
(A)
..£;.J;,d l±A,t.:::\' 0)
fflHHi Ji, .l 'l tH't 1::: RJtJ.Ui ~ iZtt rz t::. o

(The department head boldly expressed his opposing view directly to the
company president.)
(B)
Vmasu
:f.l.di Ji, .l 'l * 7Jl iJ> 1J ;~f:1iJf~llt@i ~ 1C( t.::P tJG\?,
(I would like to take on a large-scale research proposal.)

(C)
Vvol
' 7,A,
l' '!}' t~
Ji, .l 'l 7t:Ci'.O)J'll!8Ji81:::~\1!~~1u -c .tJJ:? (:,\l,t? 0
(I think I will try to oppose my professor's theory.)

(D)
Vcond
~ ~l ~ <')?:,/,.,
Ji, ;t l ~j_ l:f Ji, ;lj: t::. O)~ ;t lifJL_l0)~8JiBt.:' 0
(If I dare to say so, your idea is an unrealistic, ivory tower theory.)
(E)
Vneg
,,, l:l:ld:t'
~0)§") z: ti::: Ji, .l 'l &:Mli [., ;lj:p J:: 0
(I don't dare oppose what you're saying.)

f
l 4
4k1llHAllUJl8
aete
(i) l.'"6 PP 2'.: c /f;/;d) L:· t ~LO'--:d::. l:'T o it>;{_ l ~§Pi 1±- Iv ;61, P
aete
~id:
5
2'.: c
&J;{_ -rv tt::.< ~!v&Jl)iU::.o
Ltld.::t' (Not everything went well. I won't venture to say now what, but there
&J ;{. -r &xt-9 0 (s.o. dares to disagree) were many unpleasant things.)
4@•!11U,Ji4W
t!t f:J-,,, l'. :: L'1>5d
(a) 7 ;;( 1) fJl."iil\!1\-::i-CP.Q U1H:T00Jl.\ fliiB:$:Ac G-C £, ;{_ -C§C.±~ 1. Aete is an adverb with which the speaker/writer expresses his/her desire
~T02'.:ci:G-CP0o or will to do something daringly, in spite of the fact that he or she is
(In the U.S., if I keep silent I lose out, so as a Japanese, I'm making a aware of the difficulty, danger or opposition in executing it.
point of asserting myself.) 2. The person who dares to do something has to be a person one is very
l' l'A-l)•t' ~A..C-? 1... L'fi)i LA.~ t< "Ct,&,A,
(b) ~~~OJltlPJ~f~.Q OJii. GP c iHQ I)-::>-::> t. it>;{. -C'ffi~lj!ilJOJ~ti!l!iHli!~ familiar with, including the speaker/writer himself/herself. For example,
in (1) watashi and chichi are acceptable, but ano tsakonin is not, because
!., t::. 0
the speaker/writer is not on familiar terms with a passerby.
(Although I knew that it was hard to get approval from the committee, I <b~LJ-,,,2? h~
dared to propose a brand new plan.) (1) l f.& I 51: I ??c!;jO)im.fi' A I iii/f;f§'%t::-::i t::.OJI: c!;j ;t TJg~l!i-::i t::.o
;/J'h ~dLA-
~-OJ~M~&J;{.-Ctt@~~;{.kOJU.OJftff~~;{.k~l"®-::ik,
t~?~.1o -/p ~dt•<
( l I /My father I ??The passerby I boldly crossed the street, even
though the signal was red.)
(It was after his parents thought about his education that they made the
bold move to change their residence.) [Related Expressions]
-tr A lit' O
(d) ~Pcii,~P-::>-::>1'.,, &J;{.-C7t¥OJ~F~Ci?lil6t::.G, ~-::ilflJ-tnJ»Jj~, -t I. Omoikitte, which means "to do s.t. hard to do with strong determina-
OJ7\:;¥iiflc D ~ l1l ;?>id:< id:-::i t::.a tion," is similar in meaning to aete. The crucial difference, however, is
(While I knew I shouldn't have done so, I ventured to criticize my that aete is used when one dares to do something that runs contrary to
senior partner's wrongdoings. And, sure enough, he's stopped talking to common sense in spite of difficulty, danger or opposition, but omoikitte
me since.) is used when one resolutely does something which is difficult to do.
So in KS(A)-(D) and Exs.(a)-(h) aete can be replaced by omoikitte,
~·' td~~Ji;z;.t::.P c
(e) flii® ;{. -r Ac ii)~h ,~-::i -CP 0, but with a slight change in nuance; that is, the aete versions don't
(I'm thinking of daring to follow a path different from others.) imply strong determination, but the omoikitte versions do. As shown
l;dJ~ $~Ii /:. 0? in [l] below, aete in KS(E) and Ex.(i) cannot be replaced by omoikitte,
(f) ieyf~OJl'fit;fll:zt, ;{. -C;fJL.to 7 c Gt::.;?I, 1th'i:ti:b-::i t::.o
because the latter can be used only with an affirmative predicate.
(I dared to resist the flow of the times, but it was all in vain.)
0)-j~~( tidL.< Di? [l] a. :f'iOJ§7 2'.: c /: l cl;jjt T /*,l!,l.~\l~bT I &xtii Gid:PJ:o (= KS(E))
(g) &:i OJ~iifoil§:tJi? 1 ~ P lttLE, ® ;{. -r *?!TH&;;{. if, AOJ J: ~ t:: ;s 7,
(That man has no talent, but if I force myself to single out his strong b. l" t l ' l ' =:: c If;?> I) -c· t id:;?>-::> t::. l:'T 0 l cl;j ;;{. T I*,\!!,~ \i;J]-::> T I ~§
point, it would be his fine personality.) Pi-tt/v;QI, P~id:=:ctt::.< ~!v&Jl)iGt::.o (=Ex.(i))
-ttt• l'. DC::/::: D LtA.- !;!: (f-::> ::-?C'?
(h) it>;{. -r B:$:0Jl&l'E!~~§-c·:t.Jt'l'-UT0 c, l*~~OJrrl!JcP7=::c1:id:0 7o t:::s There are also cases in which only omoikitte can be used, as in [2],
(If I ventured to find fault with current Japanese politics, it would be to because aete is used when one does something that runs counter to
criticize the behavior of factions.) common sense, whereas omoikitte is used when one does something
difficult to do, regardless of whether it is common sense or not. It is
quite natural for a person to speak in English with an American as in [2a]
or to talk to a girl as in [2b].
6 aete ageku (ni) 7
[2] a. Llit~'iJ.J-::i<:"/*ifi>itZl7.J1 1JhAc:9€lt'll'~JliG'l.;t;.t;:G, ~t::tccr:i ageku (nil &> tf' <(t:) adv. I conj.
)Ii
-ec'ltft@UP-::if;:o
(I ventured to talk with an American in English and, because he an adverb/conjunction indicating that in the end; finally; eventually;
understood, I was very happy.) one spends an extended period of time after
~©CJ: h;
b. j,'El,~'iJ.J-::i<:"/*ifi>;t<:"liEz3'i::Jlf[-7'.l>ltt;:G, i::-::iz::f)tjlif-::>'l<h before reaching a result [REL. ue de; sue (niJ; kekka]
fu'·vf~o
(When I ventured to talk to her, she gave me a big smile!) + Key Sentences
II. Another adverb with similar meaning is shiite, the V te of the verb shiiru (A)
"force s.o. to do s.t." Shiite is used to mean "to force oneself to do s.t."
Vinf.past
The crucial difference between the two is aete implies that an action lA..;IJl(
may be met with opposition, danger, etc., but shiite doesn't have such -(,Iv ti'lv ~;tt~ '6 If< (I::) ;k"jt~J'GA..,)!t"jt-9 .Q :"'.: C /:: J.., f;:o
an implication.
' l
(After thinking for a long time, I decided to go on to graduate school.)
[3] a. E5 G 0)~0)7'J7'.llPP7'.l•li§PI:: < Plt;/1.E, H~~'t /??ifi>;t <:" l
(B)
§:Uf, Z'.:O)-t"if/5(0)7'Jf~o
(It is hard for me to say which painting is better, but, if I have to Vinf.past Noun
f.pO)t.;; J: ~ :.A. T"l:bA.. tt-:::>t.!A-
choose one, I would say this Cezanne.) 1El3' 0) JlJU~ Ii ~it- '"'
·t~AtE '6 If< 0) i~Wi f~-::> f;:o
l• "
b. Z::;/1.c§-::>'l~~Jifditd::Plvl'T7'.I\ j~~~'t /??ifi>3t<:"l§;{.lf, 1if
t.J•A..LJ? (Her divorce was a decision she made after agonizing for several years.)
~~1tc'T7'.l•tlo
(I don't have any particular hobby, but, if you pressed me, I
could say music appreciation.)
e;n; .. A11m14
(i) Vinf.past&ilf< (i::)
Conversely, in a context where choice doesn't exist, the use of shiite
becomes marginal. ~JliJ..,f;:&ilf< (I::) (afters.o. talked)
t.r•h l ~ ~tA. St.P -t±A..l'.H
[4] a. 1ltUi l ifi> ;t <:" /?~~~ 't l Fe:~H'I' G 'l 1 7'.7O)~t~i::1±\7'.i' lt'l:/T-::> (ii) Vinf.past '6 If< 0) N
it-;;t!.A.
f;:, ~ ;{. f;: ;j;; If< O);'.!(~ (a decision made after deliberation)
(He went to the war zone in Iraq at great risk.)
;l)>O)!;J: ~~-jlA, l;tA,t.::P S ~
b.1El3'1i l ifi> ;t <:"Im~~ 't l fJ!!i~O),&JtHJl GW-::> 'liEz c *6ft~ G f;:o

i.l>h !t-::i=A. ea:;on.u;w
!j-t> ~-' l J: -::ie: "("
(She dared to oppose her parents and married him.) (a) l'bli-(, Iv ti'!v•~!v t~ '6 If< l::iji;fJH::1i!IJ!iJ l P f;:;jl;;f± H¥!il f;:o
(I quit the company where I first worked after thinking very hard (about
what to do).)
#h li(~t• CJ:-t±t•
(b) ~.lili 7:;7, 3 - o ·:; ;-;, ~t*td:: E P ;t, P ;t, /d::000)3z''ti c-"J ~ii-::> f;: ®If<
ti-::i~i(
Lt7;Jlt•C'( LA T
/::, *6rnlii,!t1JI3!1lf!tc·)l!.iz::' Gf;:o
(He dated women from various countries in Asia, Europe and North
America, but in the end he spent his entire life single.)
8
(c)
-::>£"
ageku (ni)
<0
~1i£>0)1i\ft!Jlpp,
't, Ji'. :bf l:::T,g :a-tl\ t.:o

O::O)li\ft!Jlppt, P0P0t)liP'"(h.t.:£ilf< I:::, f.;fL
(Saying "I like this one" or "I like that one," my wife tried on all sorts
of shoes, but after all that, she left the store without buying any of
Ii
' ~h Ct~~
(1) *fBlli 3 ~rsi ¢' t:i P;fz)lt 'J-=.A :a-~ Glvt'_::ilHf < (t:), *l:::'Jih t.:
(After enjoying tennis with his friend, he went home.)
cf. 11llii3 a<l'rsi <" G P;fzl! t 'T=-A :a-~

ageku (ni)
G Iv l "Z" / c:·ti• S / t.:1£'-z" f, *

0
9
1::: '}ii-:> t.:

them.) 0
oc.:c
(2) *l~rd!J:<~;tt.:i!Hf< (t:), .,Z-!J)f±$:a-~l~~IHO::tl:::Gt.:a
'\"£" t.!. tJ'f... fli,'
(d) Ll!EB1ifLO)!fi:a-~/J>J=I
tfif!-::d.:£>1f<, ~i"~:to:tLO)~f§tf§:bid:/J'-::d.:o
(After using my car for a whole month, Yamada didn't say even a word (After thinking hard for one week, I decided to take that job.)
of thanks when he returned it.)
t J: h")l,l{ ~~-ii.l'<
cf. 1 ~rsi J: < ~ ;t l -r I -r ti• s I t.:1£'-z" f, ..z- !J)f±$ :a-s 1~~it0 :: t
(e) ~Iv ~"lv~-::d.:
£,If<, ~if.f*~ I.,'"( 7 /I 1) :f7 1:::@/"f:i" 0 0:: Cl::: G t.:o 1::: Gt.:a
(After weighing my options for a long time, I finally decided to take a
one-year leave from my company to study abroad in the U.S.) 2. Since the ageku (ni) construction indicates two past events in sequence,
'/J'O)i.';J: ! .:;.., t!A.--1±1.' .:1,, S!f C/v\tt' t!t' 1:t it cannot be used for events in the future.
(f) 11ll3'1iretft~O):"/j'i1: t O)~l=~mlnt.: Mf < 1:::, §:Jl"O)A:Cio :a-a~ G1::: G-r G i-:> .:?0/,.,
t.:, (3) *P 0 P0 D~:a- G t.:il6 tf < t:=A1i5JU-h0:: t 1:::i"0 t'_:: 0 '5 0
(After falling in love with a married man, her own life was in ruins.) (After having argued a lot, the two will decide to separate.)
u 3. As shown in KS(B) and Ex.(h), the pre-nominal form is "Vinf.past
(g) f. O)'J- v ~:a-Jt:to '5 /J> t~-:i t.: £,If<, filJ tJ!:bf1:::1ih-r G i -:i t.:o
ageku no."
(I couldn't decide which television I should buy, so (in the end) I went
home without buying any.) 4. All the uses of ageku (ni) in the KS and Exs. can be rephrased using
n,n e ~"'.) t.t'\-' ageku no hate ni (wa) when the eventual outcome is a rather extreme
(h) fBl!Jl §*~ G t.:0)1iJ: < J: < '/t29h.6tJ.Pt.: £,If< !J):: t t'_:: -:i t.:!J)-C £, 0 '5 o
one. Note that ageku no hate ni (wa) may be used without a preceding
(It must have been after really agonizing that he committed suicide.) Vinf.past. Examples follow.
tr ~d C?0< l'. L d)t' liA,.:•7 -tll'tl.Af.11-::> [J
(i) ~;jSJ-O);f,.;; r+J-~1::'.-A1:::1i, :!i':~~l:::f±JiJT, .S:;.17,, ~~i5=i=~,
:Ctif.J=IB, ® f.tt#J.!v t.t:B -:i-:5 ti
ti ;)l(:h~ .tl,A,l,~-j .:?i±t' ~*~* J:?h7 .: t.:A,t~7li? (4) a. :>Cli*if.§ :Jl"O)!fi ~ § 7i"c.'·j[ G*l'm t.:!Ji, MJ" < O)§li!: -rt: ti, t '5 t
If< !])51'1:'"( 1::: 1i~Jli!', if.~:Z, *~flll!lltid: f., f*--7 id:fl!llA'l'iUU~* G-r < 0
'5 §5)-t:!fi:a-ft-:i-rGi-:it.:o
't, O)/Jl£, 0o (My father had been repairing his own cars for many years, and
(There are some free Internet services that require at the time of regis- in the end he made a whole new car himself.)
tration your address, name, telephone number, date of birth, and at the
end, all sorts of personal information such as educational background, cf. :>Cli*if.§:Jl"!J)!fi:a-§:Jl"-C·l[G*l'G1tt.:il6tf< t:, t '5 t '5 §5)--C!{i
annual income and family size, etc.) :a-ft-:i-rGi-:it.:o
~1-j C. it' .: 1±t'IJ''? ~d ff Ii
4¢M1¢W b. 4- -t / ~ 1i"jj'(j!f~!J)j/tj'-O):Cio$1:::%1Pffe!!lltH~t::>, il6 tf < O)§li!: "t t: t;t~
'!! :t:>A- LA.!,;.( '/J'/,,~'?
1. Ageku (ni) indicates that one spends an extended period of time be-
:tf.rsi:f!f[jj]-C·jltj'- t :flit~ t t 1::: G-r, .:C !J):Cio$H!I,~ U.:o
fore reaching some result. The verb preceding ageku (ni) has to be a (Cathy was deeply interested in how the maiko live in Kyoto, and
Vinf.past. Notice that the entire verb phrase Vinf.past ageku (ni) usually eventually she observed their lives while living under the same
represents something troubling, as shown in the KS and Exs. The fol- roof with them for a year in Gion.)
lowing unacceptable sentences prove this point.
cf. 4--\' /-1i"jj'(~!J)j/tj'-!J):Cio$1:::5!J1Pffe!!rJ>KH'fr-:i t.: MJ" < ,:, ~if.rd!
:flf[jj]-C·jltj'-t :ilit:a- t t 1::: G-r, .,Z-!J):Cio$H!I,~ U.:,
r
I 10 ageku (ni)
akumade mo 11
[Related Expressions] akumade mo ib <a; z:·-t adv.
There are three related expressions: ue de, which expresses a preparatory to the end; persistently; insist;
action for a relatively important action, sue (ni), which indicates the end of an adverb that represents the idea of
"to the utmost degree" strictly; just; under any circum-
a period, and kekka, the neutral expression "as a result of s.t." The following
stance; absolutely; never; com-
examples show similarities and differences among these synonyms.
1- *- ft-:> '/)>
pletely; ultimately
[l] a. tLdi ~A, ~"A;lf)g/,..,t~ l if.> If< 1: /*I: /~:li!l: /* J:. z-· f :i1Hm:::i!Jl;f)-CP [REL. doko made mo; saigo
made]
t.:i;t±Hfl;f)t.:, (= Ex.(a))
b. ielli T :/ T, 3 - o "J ;'\, ~t7¥:~U:'. P 0 P 0 ti ~O)fr'li !:::--::> ~ i'!--:d: +Key Sentences

l if.> If< 1: I *1: I* J:. z-· I *~:li!l: f, *Eifcll1i"t1JI)rt\~l.'·~;:·· LJ:o
(A)
(= Ex.(b))
.:::.-Jl::'-J
c. J:: < ~~tc::. l J::T' /**I: /*~:li!l:/*Mf< I: f 19!W;1:::l@;Gti ~ P,
')-:::>
*- tl: L
ff::$:if;1i Ji, <i ·r:· '6
t.: {!-".)
§~~'!it'~~iJ'--::>t.:,
..
(Put it into action after you have given it careful thought.)
(Mr. Emoto persistently maintained (lit., didn't change) his opinion.)
~''56-J lJHL/,., t-?t!.A
d. -~~{;tjjljj*Jil!::: J:: <*!'-!~~Uc::. l J:. z-· I~* /**I: /*<li:df 1: f T ;,/ <
'J :fJ O)::k'f:l:::.A'f'.'"9 0;: !::: 1::: G tc::.o (B)
(After he had discussed it thoroughly with his parents, Ichiro
decided to enroll in an American college.) t.:-::>ti
<'<
=nit ID Cl" l.'· '6 1J,~1'.'~--::> -C ~~~l_'·/iti\ >,
e. ~-!lili-!liBl~f--::> -c*'-1200 ;>1 - r JL--j£--::> t:::. l *1: /* J:.Z /*~:li!l: I
(lit., This is strictly fiction and not a true story.)
*if.> It'( 1: f J:: '5 ~ < Jt i --::> t.: o
(The train finally stopped after dragging a car about 200 meters.) (C)
Ue de is ungrammatical in [la, b, e] because in these examples no pre-
LJ:'.l l~
paratory action for an important action is expressed. Ageku (ni) and 1.J>O)l.:J:
§7J'(::l[@:f~ ".:> f.:o

ielfrli ®<il'''Ei
sue (ni) are ungrammatical in [le, d], because S 2 refers to an event not
yet realized. In [ld] ue de is grammatical because the first event, i.e., (She was true to herself to the end.)
discussion with his parents, is a preparatory action for an important action,
i.e., choosing a college. Kekka is ungrammatical in [lb, c, e] because in
these sentences the second event is not a direct result of the first event. #$'@Uh.HJ¥
f.pfl tt t.:-::::> L/,.,
In [le], ageku ni is unacceptable because the agent of the action is not (a) t.lli~< il.'·'E,ielO)i!!\~H§t0o
explicitly human. (I will believe in his innocence to the end.)
(¢(no} ue de (DIJG: 547-50); sue (ni} (in this volume); I.di e::/vlth !i/d-C' l::t.i: -:::i-:J"
kekka (DIJG: 121-23)) (b) ielli® < il'·t 8::$:0)~lji!i;1:::&jHD!lHJ'E1tt.:,

(He kept opposing Japan's entry into the war up to the end.)
(c) ®< il'-Al'~0!:::§'JO)tJ:iJ®~-C-f.fili1t1iGtl:Po
(If you insist on doing it by yourself, I won't venture to assist you.)
12 akumade mo
akumade mo 13
!iAJ:;,A,('f., lt>=-? --:J-5
(d) &3Li'l!iiib< :J:l"t;J:!l;tJL~*:J\;ittc:o
3. The meanings of akumade mo can be roughly grouped into four catego-
(The insurgent troops continued their resistance to the end.) ries. (Some sentences can have more than one interpretation.)
i!?:J. k-? ~J: D
(e) :13;61.lf 7 P'5~i::;b < :J:l"~i5t,i)-p~t§i'§T0l7:Jld: 6::-..-ts61:: t~;i{.;61£, Go (i) "to the end; persistently; always" (KS(A), (C), Exs.(a)-(f))
(If you persistently refuse to have a discussion (with me) like that, I'll
make another plan.) (ii) "strictly; just" (KS(B), Exs.(g)-(i))
i.J't'ltA. (iii) "under any circumstance; absolutely" (KS(A), Ex.(j))
(f) 'T1 riiib< :J:l"t§:Jtll))'j.Ji!,/::::..t=:b-:JtC::o
(Kate was always particular about the way she looked.) (iv) "completely; ultimately" (Ex.(k))
l'.J 0A. lfA,L'.-::i Ii Ld
(g) l'!!!~ii ib < :J; l"J'!!!~l" ib -J -C, J'Jjl,'~;61.lf l7:J;i!l !'.) 1:: Id: 0!:::I>'51:*~iEii E 2'.: I: t 4. When akumade mo means "to the end," it is used only in contexts
id:Po where someone does something despite the fact that the situation is
against him/her. In Ex.( a), for example, the speaker maintains a position
(Theories are strictly theories; there is no guarantee that reality turns
contrary to the opinion of others. Thus, akumade mo cannot be used in
out the way they predict.)
(1). (See Related Expression II.)
DJ:-) UJ?T ;:C
(h) 2'.: 2'.: /::lf';6>;htd'tffl ii ib < t l" t § 'ttl" ib 'J, -it- I::' .A 1:: J: -J -C ii~ld: G:f:;)J} Ii'( i1!; T 1±'-:::it::t' ~t' ::: liL lb.
(1) a. f~iiffJl B l7:J 7 7 'J / l"ki@xi I* ii!>< :i; Z'b I fif~:J; Z l IE 'J tJz < "') <& 'J
il-n1ib 'J :J: To
t=o
(The cost written here is strictly an estimate. It may differ depending on
the service (you choose).) (I'll keep going (lit., run to the end) by any means in tomorrow's
marathon.)
'l;d?/)•A, ?i t~ '6i:P-t57'J> -'(>
00 o:.::n~ib<:J:l"t~l7:J~-ld:~l"i"~, ~ffi~~~~~2'.:l7:J~tt~§~0~ t> ~~'.ltd t' O);: i±"l.'~-:J
t: ~ /d:P;6> i::.l!.\P :J:To b. tl!lf:JU:.i:: I *ii!>< :i; Z'b I fifi:J; Z l :'t ~ ~0 :'t!J&Jiifrirt~ 0 7o
(I wonder what kinds of creatures will be able to survive on the
(This is just what my sixth sense tells me, but I think Mr. Yamada will
earth until the end.)
quit this company soon.)
~l' L J: 5. The final mo sometimes drops, but the meaning or nuance does not
(j) -'.!/' L, .to~~~ L, -CPtd= ~ tc:: Pl7:Jl"T;6\ *ti*i:: ii ib < :J; l"i1'J;fil'fi:: L, -CP tc:: change.
t= ~ tc:Pl7:Jl"To
(I'd like to borrow some money from you, but I'd appreciate it if you [Related Expressions]
would keep it absolutely secret from my family.)
T
I. Doko made mo "to a limitless degree" is synonymous with akumade
(k) 'Zi'.ii;b < :J: l" t w< ~l:J, ~ -J -CPtc::a mo and can be used for akumade mo when it means "to the end;
(The sky was completely blue and clear.) persistently; strictly; ultimately," as in [l].
[1] a. K<$::.E£;ii I ii!>< :i; Z'b IE.::. :i; z·<t l § 8ll,~~;{. Id: ;a'-J tc::o (= KS(A))
•~m1;w
b. ;fLii I ii!>< :i; Z'b I c·.::. :i; z·<t l 11Ji:l7:J~~H§ t: 0, (=Ex.(a))
1. Akumade mo can modify verbs, as in KS(A), Exs.(a)-(f), (j) and (k),
adjectives, as in KS(C) or nouns followed by a copula, as in KS(B) and c. l'!!!~ii I ii!>< :i; z· IE.::. :i; Z'b l J'!!!~l" ib 'J -c, J'Jl.~n 1 .lf l7:J;i!l 'J 1:: Id:
Exs.(g)-(i).
0i::P'5f!il;liEiiE2'.:i::tld:Po (=Ex.(g))
2. Akumade mo literally means "as much as one gets tired of," but the
common meaning in today's use is "to the utmost extent." The specific d. 'Zi'.ii I ii!>< :i; Z'b IE.::. :i; z·<t l w< ~l:J- ~ -J -CPtc::o (= Ex.(k))
meanings vary depending on the context, as seen in the examples above.
II. Saigo made "until the end" can also be used for akumade mo when
akumade mo means "to the end."
14 akumade mo I anagachi- nai anagachi - nai 15
ift' ::'
O k t.::t'iJd '/J' L t_:t, <75"'!.:
[2] a.f.&lil<lf><*Z't/M:~*ZffElO)~~~j§~.Qo (=Ex.(a)) (c) !XJIO)pH-/J 1 f-*~1: J:-::i 'l t ~b .Qt T:hi:f, l'A5tl'Jz~--c'@IJl~b .Q D*IJ
H
b.1El1i 1<If>< *l-''t /iiHi*z l B*0)$1il!i:l=&xr~Pl'\.UJ'G1tt::o

t P ') 0) t lb 0:-/Jl t P!iffl'IHn •o
(= Ex.(b)) (If it's true that the pH of your skin changes depending on your health,
then "the lipstick that changes its color depending on your mood" isn't
necessarily a lie.)
tpf,,-tfA, 11HC'-? :::t \''?/J
(d) 7\S:i:l:~:tC'f~'-i:ti~fJI*.@ 0) Iii!!.@ t P ') 0) t, lb 0: iJI t~-:d::3((.Mf t --c'
li'-i:l >o
(It wouldn't be a total lie for me to say I would have difficulty with a
society in which men and women are completely equal.)
anagachi ~ nai il5~fit,~~1.,' str. <w> !il'l\ll-'.I J..f,, 'ti t' h '/J>f,, St! .lAl.¥J
(e) =: O)f;j~ffO)i~H:li 7 ;:!; Ph 1, iey,q)lfD~Hif:it .Q O)li, lb 0:-/JliJ~l±\O)-tl"P
t ifh> VJ Ii§ it '-i:Po
a structure that indicates that s. t. is not ' (not) necessarily; (not) always
necessarily the way the speaker/writer [REL. kanarazushimo - nail (This actor is talented, but sometimes his performances come off a
thought little strange, and I don't think it's necessarily always the fault of the
producer.)
-t!"t' L ~~'L' Lll)tO)':Jl;O)~ -l±A..atit' SI!
(f) l±."JEO))jt~ ~ i J:-::i 'lPt.::AhLf.f,j\j9'JO)~~i'iH¥aJ§1:'.!!if:it -CPt:: VJ T .Q:: t
+ Key Sentence !g.1-'.lt.::t' fJ
h> G, /iJllf*illfUJJifW,~ t
t.!.-:J~fA,Ld
ib 0: hit ~'.!El'~ 0: Po
0 Lt'
(Since some people who've come close to dying say that they can
•·h Tt' fJ
fElO):j:l:E!J1 t
t t,t.it clearly recall what was being said around them while they were on the
ib 0:-/Jl t Fa~Jl-::i'lP '-i:P O)h>t L:h'-i:Po operating table, we can't simply deny the occurrence of out-of-body
experiences.)
(His guess may not necessarily be wrong.)
-~Mi·
The adverb anagachi is used with a negative predicate, indicating that

the proposition implied in the context is not necessarily false. The writer
* -Js;ljt
of Ex.( a), for example, initially thought that there were not many people
ib 0:-/JliJ flll)ll >--c'ii'-i:l > (-isn't necessarily wrong)
who would want to conduct an orchestra. But because software for virtual
conducting is selling well, he modified his initial judgment.
•0•;111101;5
L ~ L~ [Related Expression]
(a) ;~-7--\' J[,j~;fl!l1!:f Y7 r ;QLJ'ri:h 'LP.@ t =: 0 ~ Je,.Q t' ~)l1;:J:1~11!!1!:fl: 0:-::i
1!< iJiA,l;t-j
-C;t;.t::PtP'JO)li, ib'-i:iJlijf~!U:ltO))J]j~--c'ii'-i:PG LP, The adverb kanarazushimo - nai can also mean "not always" and can
(Judging by how well virtual conducting software has been selling, replace all the uses of anagachi - nai in the KS and Exs. But there are cases
apparently I'm not necessarily the only one who'd like to try orchestra where kanarazushimo - nai cannot be replaced by anagachi - nai, as shown
conducting at least once in my life.) in [l], where the speaker/writer doesn't give some objective reason. In [2],
if t' :::., l'-::i Ll? t!. i: < where the speaker/writer gives an objective reason in the preceding context,
(b) Ji1~0)~:i'j'i:(i~~!l!t}Et <f.,,'5(;{_.@ iJI, -'(O).X l::: Y- f'ii~/i..,--c'P'l3((.)tiJ1p
0
both adverbs can be used.

Po t p '):: t Ii, ib 0:-/JliJ!l!t!Et ii§ it '-i:Pt p '):: t h>o
(I felt like the last chapter wasn't quite necessary, but it feels good to
read it. So, I guess it's not so superfluous after all.)
16 anagachi - nai I aruiwa
----
WI
aruiwa 17
MtG
[l] a. ')t'G t,CI), l &,t'L.,'t /*~fJ:if"S l iiL'lifJ:~'o
~;..,
+ Key Sentences
(All that glitters is not gold.) (A)
:::")!A-
Nourn Noun2
b. iil"i'"Gli l &,·ft..,'t /*~fJ:if"S l fiHo!i-clifJ:~'o
iA.tlA,(}-:::>
(Rich people are not always arrogant.) ;j{-J[;A::/ (iJ•) £b 'GP Ii JJ~~ L' :toi!~r2' Po
'"CC'b.t'
c. B=*Jdi l &,·ft..,'t /*~fJ:if"S l T\JL'LifJ:~'o (Please write either with a ballpoint pen or a fountain pen.)
(Japanese are not always polite.)
tdt LA,C--::>
(B)
d. :/BtCl)llilili l &, t' t.., <t I*~ fJ: tf "5 l J:!;~l:'li t;;.~ 'o Sentence1
(He doesn't always tell the truth.)
:::"Jtf,,, 1:.1:'< iJ•A,'5-? D t:i'i '(>'5 B*Cl) J: 7
Ld L fi'
t;;.:');'Cff~t:f:j';l:'li, ''"
*~Cl)~~:'t't;;. < -t'G iJ» ib 'G Pli
[2] a. ;bCl)~(i, fittlit2:t1§b;fl-CP'Gltc, f~Cl)l,~~l:'li~Jdfjjl;(:ffG
~\{j,t,
pffij~~-li:Go \ ~fJ:jft;, /&,t'L.,'f., lfilf!'lil:'(ifJ:~\Cl)t::'.o (cf. [lb]) Sentence2
lj)A,
(They say that guy is arrogant, but sometimes I've seen him 71-00ACl)~1:.~.ffl~-t
. iJ> Gf;;.ltfLl:f'f;;.'GiP 0
being very kind. He isn't always arrogant.)

(In a society l~ke Japan where the number of children is decreasing, we
b. UFOliif:: < tJt~CI) t;;. \'::. t t2: t \' 7 Cl) iJl',ljl;~t2: iJI, UF0Cl)l\iE~'J3'.Jl;
.::i.-?ct- tc>t: :.A.1!Jo Cdl1! Ld.::
LA- l::."? may h~ve to either reduce the number of colleges or increase the number
~~'Gt, \ ~ fJ:if"S / &,t' L., 't l Ji!;~L'lifJ:~' UiaPQJtLt;;. P J: of foreign students.)
t::
7 o (cf. [ld]) (C)
(It is widely believed that UFOs are sheer nonsense. But when
you look at evidence of UFOs in photos, it seems that the claim Adj(i)1 Adj(i)z
l.'.A..-ttt• 0
isn't altogether groundless.) (:J:-:J'l, A1:.li~f
-ttt•i'J>(
·11mn1 llJH>~, iJ> ;b'GPli ll]f~ \ ;I}> t:d ,,

(¢ kanarazushimo (DIJG: 92-96)) 'mPi£b-:J-c< 'Go
(Depen?ing ?n whether someone's personality is cheerful or gloomy, his

or her life will change dramatically.)
(D)
L~Hl'i 7:::.. ~:XL iJ' G

-9«-C Cl)*i\&li, ib'GP(i (Cl)) il't G;flf;;.P 0
*-C\>'G
(Perhaps all religions originate from animism.)
conj. 4ij.Jllifiilt.i14
or; either - or; perhaps (i) Ni(iJ'), S'GPliN2
a conjunction that marks alternatives
[REL. mata wa; moshikuwa; Y2 (iJ>), ® 'G \ >li£J: (either my father or my mother)
soretomo; mata; naishi (wail
I':'I., .·'· ·.
18 aruiwa
aruiwa 19
t_:t,C?~d OH i:J' !!i;
(ii) V1inf 1!>, zt;, 0 \>Ii V2inf 1!• (f) A-"70):k*1tiJ:!O)WfiffiiHfi'!1!•, &>0Pli, i!tP1J•O)C'.°'5G1!•t:5 0
(People's assessment of the president is split: They either love him or

::$:~~tr 1!•, zt;, 0 \ 'Ii 7::::. ;;< ~ T 0 1!• (either reading books or
hate him.)
playing tennis) tfA..~t· -lt\•C.-? l?Af]-::J ldi?t'
(iii) j Adj(i)inf / Adj(na)stem I 1!•, zli, 0 \>Ii l Adj(i)inf I Adj(na)stem I 1!• (g) ma 8 ::$:0)lfi!:}\l;lil5L.:lz:. [_, L p t_'
01!\ ~\f*j;, 0 p Ii 7 Ji 1) .7J 0) J:: 7 1:.::::.:kiffJi
(¥ ..
StL~ . . t:foi:.Qi!•t G;flfoi:Po

liiEl\ >1!•, zt;, 0 \ >li":)i G foi:\ >1!• (interestmg or bonng)
J;.A,Ll{b-C~ ~< ~t'-C~ • (Right now there are too many political parties in Japan, but in the
JX..±891!•, zt;, 0 \ •liJ!R1l\ti'!91!' (democratic or dictatonal) future, perhaps there will be two big parties like in the States.)
(iv) zt;, 0 \•Ii l VI Adj(i) I inf(O)) 1!• t G;flfoi:\'
zli,0Plil:ff< /tr-:Jt.:1 (O))i!•t G;flfoi:P (s.o.perhapswillgo/ 4¢MIJW
went there) 1. Aruiwa is a conjunction that marks alternatives or possibility, depending
zt;, 0 P Ii l liiE!P /liiEli!' -:J t.: I (0)) 1!• t G;flfoi: P (s.t. is/was perhaps on the struc~ure. When aruiwa occurs with kamoshirenai, as in KS(D)
interesting) and Ex.(g), it means possibility, but otherwise it connects alternatives
as shown in KS(A)-(C) and Exs.(a)-(f). '
(v) zt;, 0 P Ii l Adj(na)stem /NI l o I t::C -:J tc:.(O)) Ii!' t G;flfoi:P
zt;, 0 P Ii l Jt'A / Jt'At!:: -:J t.: (0)) I 1!• t G;flfoi:P (s.o. is/was perhaps 2. In Formation (i), the use of ka is optional.
healthy) 3. In the "alternative" interpretation, ka aruiwa can be merely ka, but the
zt;, 0 \>Ii j 7\:;:'t / 7\:;:'tt!:: -:J t.: (0)) I 1!• t G;flfoi:\' (s.o. is/was perhaps a use of aruiwa makes the utterance more formal.
teacher) (1) a. tl~li!iiJlZ::."fil;Zl:li r -7< r fJ>(cl!>.Q~'ti):t- r ~ -Jv~BGJ:.1Jl.Q 0
(=Ex.( a))
•¥%'"""4• " ~
b. l&:l'il"i'fJ' (ii!> .Q ~'ti) *ll'J'r"f:~w:r5c G t.:"f::'t ~!*ffl G ;.!; To (= Ex.(b))
(a) tH~:1i:im::·fil;Z1:1i r -;;< r 1!•&> 0 Pli:t- r ~ -Jv~B GJ::.1Jl0o
In ~he case of the "possibility" interpretation, aruiwa retains its
(For breakfast, the company president has either toast or oatmeal.)
basic ~eaning of a~t~r?atives. For example, in Ex.(g), the speaker is
-tn• i; ni< ~t•'~''tJ~< .J±A.=.? ;~q,J:?
(b) l&:l'il"f:&i .Q 1 >li*ll'J'r"f:~w:r5c G t.:"f::'t H¥ffl G i To expressmg the poss1b1hty of a two-party system as an alternative to a
(We will hire a student who has majored in either political science or multi-party system.
economics.) [Related Expressions]
'ij')'jt/,... .t;liJI
(c) ::''B:)(li~~M', &,.QPli1 /?1-;;j'-·;; l,l.';fc;~JIPGiTo
There are three conjunctions in addition to aruiwa with the meaning of "or":
(Please place your order either by phone or by Internet.) mata wa, moshikuwa and soretomo. All of them can replace aruiwa in the
t:.i.• ~ It C.'H-A-
(d) =. O)~t±li:k~Jl.~foi: iJ 7< r 7 ~ T .Q 1!•, &> 0 \'Ii, 1l'IJ&tT 01!' G i!' foi: \ 'o KS and Exs., in which the speaker is wondering which alternative is to be
(The only choice left for this company is to execute a large-scale re- chosen, as shown in [1]. If not, soretomo cannot replace aruiwa as shown
in [2]. '
structuring or else go bankrupt.)
-C!,,;QA., "'.) [l] a.8::$:0)J::7foi:'.i>i'-1~ti~L'li, :k"f'O)~~'.!>foi:<T-91!•, jcl!>.Q~'ti
(e) !Eif'.l:foi:-:Jt.:Gilt811!-C·f>)IJ~T01!•, &l0Pli::1'JV7~GJ::7i::JiS',-:J°LP
/E~~/~L,(~/fnt~l~00AO)"f::'t~~~T~Gfoi:0n~
iTo
(Once I retire, I'm thinking of fishing at the river or playing golf every foi: 0 i Po (= KS(B))
day.) b. =-O)~t±li:k;J;JU~foi: 1J A r7 ~T-91!•, l cl!>.Q~''i /Et.: ti/~ t._, <
t;t/fnt~I, 1l'IJ~T01!•Gi!•foi:Po (=Ex.(d))
-
20 aruiwa
r atakamo 21
c. z: O)*n~r~;i-:J -ci) G;0~.. t d5 .Q (, '';;t I ~ft t-t I* t.: ';t I cb L <'1} atakamo 'li>f.:'/J''b adv. <w>
fLdN.!l!l-J""CP.QiJ>, f:O)c-/S GiJ>t!'co
(It's either that this book is wrong, or that I am wrong.) an adverb used to present a counter- (just) as if - were; (just) as if
factual statement emphatically - did -; just like; just; exactly
[2] a. #-Ji.-A'.: / (iJ') l ;v.,.Q~'t;t. /;J;t.:t;t. I 'f.> u <t;t. /*·Htt'f.> I 7Jif."fl:' [REL. marude; ka no yoni]
:foi!l!~~P, (=KS(A))
b. J&lil"¥'(i!') l ;v.,.Q~'t;t. I ;1; t.:t;t. I 'f.> u <t;t. /*itt.t'E.> I *IW'f"¥'iwr)( + Key Sentences
LJ.:"¥'~il*fflGiTo (=Ex.(b)) (A)
c. ;::'¥±;tl;t.1U5(i!'), l ;v.,.Q~'t;t. /;1; t.:t;t. I 'f.> u <t;t. /*itt.t'f.> I 1 / Noun
;<-;t,,; rl:':folJiJ\PGiTo (=Ex.(c)) ""'

~Ii lbt::.IJ> t
{t~l:hL'r
Jtff~ O)J:: 7 1=
b
•
:fi0j'h-CP0o
d. :.:: 0) ~ti Ii ::k~JH~U:r 1J :A r 7 i T 0 i!', l ;v., .Q ~' t;t. I *t.: t;t. I 'f.> i., < (He behaves as if he were the person in charge.)
(;j:. / *itl. C {, f, Jtli£T 0 IJ> G IJ> /J:Po (= Ex.(d)) (B)
The hierarchy of formality among the four conjunctions is roughly moshi- Vinf
kuwa > mata wa > aruiwa > soretomo, with moshikuwa as the most formal 1):::.7-=t- :tJI)
conjunction and soretomo as the least formal conjunction. The first two in lbt.:IJ>t :lj<O)J::i 91'(.Q (IJ>O)) J:: 71: jf: .Q 0
;<-;IJ-(i
the hierarchy are seldom used in spoken language, as shown in [3].
(The linear motor car runs as if it were gliding on ice.)
[3] ~itlAli;::;:: l:P i Ti!', l ;v., .Q~\(;j:. Ii ti. t 'f.> /*;!; f.:(;J:. /*'f.> l., <
t;t. I, :liMri!'/J: !vi!' t., i Ti!', (C)
(During winter break are you going to stay here? Or are you going Vinf Noun
on a trip or something?) i"? -is !fA, If 'fi>h,fp(
2'.:0)~il.fi-151'.-Jl, lb t.:iJ> t :EWJi/;(: ~ \ .Q (IJ>O)) J:: 7 7J: !ll\i~

Note also that neither mata wa nor moshikuwa nor soretomo can be used
with kamoshirenai, as shown below. In other words, they cannot indicate
t?t;O)')
possibility. l:' J'Ji\J:i/;U '.Q o ;1'' 'J r H\l!;j:fift: \! 0,
[4] a. T"'"lO)*f&li, l ;v., .Q~ q;t. I** t.:t;t. I *'f.> u <t;t. I *itt. t 'f.> I 7:::.
(Using this device you can operate a robot at the site as if you were
~ 7-.''lo- i!' G *-Cl> 0 (0)) i!' t G:h/J:I >o (= KS(D))
actually there.)
b. ljl,:ft B:;j>.:O)J&J\l:lil'iLJ'L t., -Cl) 0 ;IJI, ~\]'* l ;v., .Q ~ q;t. I*;!; t.: t;J:. I *'f.> l.,
( (;j:. /*{tl.C'f.J I 7 /1 1) :IJO)J:: -J l==::kJ&J\l;(:/J:.Q;IJ>'f, L,,;h/J:Po
(= Ex.(g)) (i) lb t.: i!• t N 0) I J:: 7 1: I J:: 7 7J: NI
t;~ 1 !.,
(¢ mata wa (DIJG: 171-74); moshikuwa (in this volume); lb t::.i!' tJ::RJO) l J:: 7 1: I J:: 7 IJ:§I >15 I
(as if s.o. were a supervisor;
soretomo (DBJG: 421-22)) a way of talking as if s.o. were a supervisor)
(ii) lb t::.i!' t l VI Adj(i) I inf(iJ>O)) l J:: 7 1: I J:: 7 7J: NI
lb t::iJ' t J:: <9'0-? -C \ P.Q I Pt:: I (iJ>O)) l J:: 71: I J:: 7 IJ:§P1J I (as
if s.o. knew /had known s.t. well; a way of talking as if s.o.
knew /had known s.t. well)
--
22 atakamo
i1h t::. h' t i 't(P I yl!'--::d::. l (iJ'O)) I J:: ? 1: I J:: ? IJ:§-i>:1J l (as if s.t.
, (g) :::: O)~il!lili :::I/ l:'. .:i - ?' , :'.:l7 7 1 -;17.A1= J::-::i ·c ® t::.h' t Arsih1~~1=
0
atakamo
J::_A.,~fA l'.-::i ~
23
t>
were I had been cheap; a way of talking as if s.o. were/ had been tr~C:? :: ? 'll'
,AO)f;js:O)r:j::tl:Jv::i-Cft!i!llJJG-CP.Q J:: -5 IJ:J"}J5f1:~.'t.&-/:l'i G-CP.($ 0
cheap)
(Using computer graphics, this movie creates the effect of people
(iii) ®t::.h'l IN/ Adj(na)steml I l'®.Q /l'®--:d::. l (l!>O)) I J::? I=/ J::-5 IJ: actually working and playing inside someone's body,)
Nl C i!--::>tJ•< SI~
-li"Ath i? (h) fl.Ii® t.: h' t '1'.~fR:lv l'P 15 iJ>O) J::? IJ:~Ulf:Ht;{. t::.o
® :::.h' twri* I c'® 0 /l'®-::i t::. l (l!>O)) I J::? 1= / J::? IJ:§V1J l (as (I felt as if I were flying (lit., I had the illusion of flying) through the
if s,o, were /had been a specialist; a way of talking as if s,o,
air,)
were /had been a specialist) .MA.Li'i hhhh .b -t!t' t•ALd «:,t;:_
-r
®t::.iJ'lJ:.~
td
I l'® 0 l (iJ>O)) I J::-51: I
J::? IJ:"lSP:tJ l
/c'®-::it::. (as (i) :::: O))(~li® t::.h' t iX;k 1Jl::fi£ ~fr-::i -c P 15 iJ>O) ::::'' i:: ~ FP~ ~-§.;{. 15 o
if s,o, were /had been good at s,t.; a way of talking as if s,o, (These sentences give people the impression that we are doing some-
were /had been good at sJ,) thing dishonest.)
4@>%11.tUttM M¢MIJW
l'. L1'( X.t•h? C.°') t
l, Atakamo is used to introduce a counterfactual statement emphatically,
(a) ;::O)~~::fili®f::.-);>cf_,7j(7'~::fiO)J::? l=!llJJ11=T0o
This means that what is described in the atakamo phrase/clause is
(This magnet acts as if it were a permanent magnet) not real or true. Atakamo is usually paired with auxiliaries meaning
(b) 1J .:c- r: :::I;_,,. r: o -;r,') 7 r: Ii~< O)PCO)-T'.A 7 r: -;1 7'i®OO~ -f O)t t~Jt "appear," such as yoda and gotoshi, The use of gotoshi, however, is
- ')".J t::. i:? t limited to formal written language, The noun-modifying and verb-
O)PCL~G/:l'i G, ®t.:h'l §510)7'.A 7r-;17°0)J::?1='1*11=--915:::: i::iJll'~
modifying forms of gotoshi are gotoki (Ex,(i)) and gotoku, respectively,
.Q 0
( ¢ gotoshi (in this volume))
(A remote control software program displays the desktop of a remote
personal computer on the computer in front of you and enables you to 2, Ka no before yoda, gotoshi and their variations is optionaL Ka no
operate it as if it were your own computer's desktop,) emphasizes counterfactuality,
'/J>/J)i.:J: .b i
(c) 11Jtftli® f.:TJ' '6 §510)? i) l:P G J::? l:i/L{{5~llh -CP.Q 3, Yona in "yona N" and gotoki in "gotoki N" can be omitted when N
0
represents things like sensations and impressions, For example, (la) and
(She behaves as if she were in her own house,) (lb) are acceptable without yona or gotoki, whereas in (le) yona cannot
td i' _ ::?It\• 1:!-All'll'
(d) J:.~tJ:~a)j:stli, ®t.:h'l EJO)ITTil=-tO)J't~iJ\/1'1Jl-::i-CP0J:: 71=~¥am=1 be omitted,
/I -:Jc-~ 15 t O)l"To
(1) a, ;::O)~lliH~-::i'l, ifi>t.:fJ><°f>ffl,:f:~l=P0 I J::?~ /o l~'.ftl', ffl,:f:~I=
~With wel~-written explanatory sentences, the reader can get vivid
p.(50,f,''Y r ~:Ji*1itc'~0o (=KS(C))
images, as if the scenes were spread out in front of his eyes,)
t.dt t:d L b. :::: O))(~li iii> t.: iJ' <°f> IX; k 1Jl::fi£ [- fr-::i -c P 0 h' 0) I ;::-· t '!! Io l FP~ ~
(e) 11Jtli® t::.h' t § 51h1J:.RJl' ;Ji; 0 iJ>O) J:: ") l:fbl:f±$~§°P--:J It 15 0
-'J.;{_{$0 (=Ex,(i))
(He gives me assignments as if he were my boss,)
:!1A(t".JO)')-tft•-l:!:"C' C: ~ ¥H (f-) l'.A
c :::: O)~il!lili :::I / l:'." .:i - ?' , 7' 7 7 1 -;17.A1= J:: -::i 'l, iii> t.: fJ•<°f>Arsih1
(f) !!*MllJf.ltl!liJl:l!' i:: Ii, fl:~7''Jv-7'1JI ;Ji; t::.iJ> t---:JO)¥!A c'® G -);>O) J::? d~
' L ( ~~1:,AO)f;js:O)r:j::t 1=>--::i -Cft!i!llJJ G -CP 15 I J::? ~ /*o l J"}J5f1: [-.'t&-ili
;{_ 'l, *llJ.flG i!--!!:" 15 fHH&- c'T o
(The linked_ tax_ payment system is a mechanism by which a group of G-CP15a (= Ex.(g))
compames is viewed and made to pay taxes as if they were a single 4, Besides the auxiliaries mentioned in Note 1, atakamo also occurs with
corporation.) verbs of thinking and perception, such as omou "think," kangaeru
"think," ninshiki-suru "recognize," etc.
24 atakamo
(2) a. ;: 0)1;)t~O)'@.liil>)f.:1J>{,;J(!J\t-,\!,t:b-li".Qo
(The colors of the night sky make you think there is a fire.)
I bakari ni ';fiJ> IJ ': conf
bakari ni 25
-ttPOA C(""Cl'),; J,;A, OA.L-::i -l±l>Q:l?t.tl::.: l'-t;,t;t.; ~dSd -t±'At-:l' l<Jl-?

a conjunction indicating that a single simply because; just because;
hR~O)W~~~O)~•. ttM~#WG<BM~~ il»~~'t~~#W
~!'J ::, ii'L' Od l'. factor causes a negative situation simply on account of -
.&l C' i!rJ 15t~M~-tt15 J: 7 ti:~~lt- G -C liti: ij ti:t 'o
(Product labels must not be designed to mislead us into believing
that the product as a whole is excellent by overemphasizing the +Key Sentences
quality and performance of particular parts.)
(A)
5. Atakamo is also used to mean "just" when nouns refer to specific times, ~
as in (3). Subordinate Clause Main Clause

i.,1JJ")LJ( Vinf.past
(3) a. ~'fliil>) t.: ;l)>{,)f,t~~ - ;{' / t.=o
iJ>(J)l'.J: ;lpJ,,,itt'
(It (lit., The time) is exactly job hunting season now.) rt< oc.::C-"A 1&'.:fxtO)~{,~li,'11,\< ti:-::>l
f~;Ol-§!Jtti:;: t It- ~-::if.: lfh>VJ 1:
~(t, :tA7J'l' G i -::d.:o
b. f.L.;1;18:$:/:jjU.:O)li. ~il»t.:1J''t~:0 1 fililJ~O)~t.: -:d.:o
(When I came to Japan, it was just the time the cherry blossoms (Just because I said one nasty thing to her, my relationship with her
were peaking.) deteriorated.)
-
[Related Expression] (B)
Subordinate Clause Main Clause
Sentences with atakamo - yi5da/gotoshi can be rephrased with marude -
yoda/gotoshi without changing the meaning, as shown in [l]. The only Adj(i).inf
difference is that atakamo sounds more bookish.
Jr_, O)'f Ii, f;~;l;I ss~' If h' VJ 1: /;! 7 ;z, _;1 - r 1:" i.::: 66 ij ti -c" 15 o
[l] a. 1&'.li I ii» f.:f.l'ii I* .QT' f Jlff~O) J: 7 1:tlJRMf-::> -CP 15 o (= KS(A)) ~
(That child is being bullied by his classmates simply because he is

b. 1;-= 7 oe- ?1- }J - Ii I ii» t.: f.l'ii I* .Q z- f :7.J<O)J:\t-'9« 15 (:O>O)) J: (physically) weak.)
7 l:;iE.Qo (= KS(B))
*
c. ;: 0) )(]j): Ii I ii>) t.: ;I)> ii I .Q C' f ~ ,z :6 1::f _iE It- tr-::> l p Q ;(/> 0) ;:· t ~
J'IJ~lt-..!J-;t 150 (= Ex.(i))) (i) Vinf.past lfh' VJ 1:
jlt«t.:l;fh' VJ 1: (simply because s.o. ate it)
(ii) Adj(i)inf ifh' VJ 1:
!il G I \' / h' -:it.: f lfh' VJ 1: (simply because s.t. is/was difficult)
(iii) Adj(na)stem I ti: IC' i!rJ 15 It.:-::> t.: I c' ;if,-::> t.: f 1f:0' VJ 1:
::f~ I ti:/ -c- ar_, 15 / t.=-::> t.: I -c- ;if,-::> t::. f lfh' VJ 1: (simply because s.t.
is/was inconvenient)
(iv) NI C' ;if, 15 I t.=-:i t::. IC' i!rJ-::> t::. f lfh' VJ 1:
~1: I C' Jr_, .Q / t.= -:it::. IC' i!rJ-::> t::. f l:f:O> VJ 1: (simply because s.o. is/
was a student)
26 bakari ni
bakari ni I ba koso 27
•H•@HhOtJM The main clause indicates the resulting negative situation, .but when the
2· bakari ni clause takes the auxiliary adjective - tai, the mam clause can
ti.AG<
(a) ;0(,1) 8 td tdf;th,1'.'Ptdf;Q• I) 1:, =*:.Jld:~*i}~OO~ .:Clfhtco
indicate effort, as shown in (1).
(I missed a really important announcement just because I happened to . ,- ih l± -1± 0"0
iJ f.: ~'ti tJ> ~J t: fJ2lii-ti Id:\ >!*'fold:~~ ~~c I_'.@~
"(<
be absent that day.) (1) a. ;t, t >-:>Ii§ i
'/Nl)l;J:
(b) 11!z3(;61i1;p tc PC:§ -::i c ~ tc ff,\q: i1;P l:;fT;6• Id: ;6•-:dc If ;6• I) I:, -'( h771:1fif&
t:l' :::·
(He is wearing a gaudy suit jacket that doesn t smt him JUSt be-
cause he is so eager to stand out.)
(,1)'f-"V/:Al:TJ:-::icl,:J';-::itco
(Simply because I didn't go see her when she wanted to see me, it b . .y /-t- - :A dn#'*·~ Jil.f.:~ 'tt'tJ• ~Jt:, ti ~'ti~, 8 :2is:77• G:::: : i - 3 -
turned out to be my last chance to see her.) ::71:'?-::il~:J';l,f:::o
l\tl'.:'A. i-?i'<l:A l' t:Acl)~f: lf"::>l/v
(c) )1§;611J: \\If iJ> I) 1:;f1HJ'GA(,1)f!lll')i@'t~P 1:§£Jli-9 .Q C: P 7 Z". C: 771 J:; < ® 0 o (I came to New York all the way from Japan just to see the
Yankees' Hideki Matsui.)
(Disputes among heirs over an inheritance often develop simply be-
cause there is no will.) 3. If bakari ni is preceded by the particle to, it has a totally different
meaning "as if s.o. were saying-."
(d) t6iJL;Ql 1J: ;6>-:::> tdf;Q> I) I:, 1!9(ffijj t 0 < l:Jjl. G hid: 17•-::i tco
tplJJL'.J: ,, J:
(I couldn't even go to the movies just because I didn't have any money.) (2) fill1;t~;Ql'f--\' /AC (;t:';IJ> ~)
t:-1Bz3(1:5t '~-:::> fco . "
LJ: "5 ~ l~-1±-.:::i t-::T t.i•At:~
(e) J2-'.~(,1)~lif77'1',i)jtJJl' ® -::i tdf77• I) 1:, lliJ77• .Q ,~~~YE?d:-ttc L, i -::i tc, (Thinking that it was his best chance (lit., As if he were saymg now
is my chance"), he made advances toward her.)
(Simply because the doctor's treatment wasn't appropriate, the patient,
who could have been helped, lost his life.) 4. The negative of aru can be used either in the present tense, as in Ex.(c),
f.1•(1)!.'..< :::< tAGJ:-l±l' L'.AL~t: "'-:;i -l±l' ? or in the past tense, as in Ex.(d).
(f) 1SZ3<1i~A3<'1il' ®-:::> tdf77• I) l:Afi&l:JU C'.'li&l:JU Bl:lttco
(She suffered from racial and sexual discrimination simply because she
was a black woman.)
L~lil:~ tJ•/dtl' J:OJ t::.
(g) ~i'i C'.(,1)~'f*;61~p/f;6•1)1:R*li:A 1' v:A;Qlf,U I), J::<{rg](t/:ld:-::itc,

(Just because her relationship with her mother-in-law was so bad, she
often fell ill from the stress.)
conj. <w>
~~~!_,Iv ®i ::: C't t IJ-.:::i LA
(h) jjljj¥!1\;611f;6• -::i tdf;O• I) 1:-'ff~tc i) Ii §Lll.1C,,7711J: \ >o
(Those children don't have a sense of independence just because they a conjunction that emphasizes a it is precisely because - that-;
are spoiled so much by their parents.) reason only because -; to the extent
~dl'( < 0-? that -
(i) ~flt'*f~(,1)<\&ff;QIJ:; < 1J:77•-::itclf;6•1) 1:, =*"ltl=A-::ic;1PG'i'5''.ffl,cP.@o
[REL. kara koso]
(I'm having a difficult time in college all because my high school edu-
cation wasn't good.)
+Key Sentence
•~m•;w
Vcond
1. The conjunction bakari ni is used to indicate that a single factor causes a a :::
jjt-*k:)J ~Ah cP.@(,1)t2'o
-/J'A~l'J L l'.
h
J~J:ftf)f:,¥,i ~ :Z.f!f [_, l ~'n c
-r
negative situation. if ~
(It is only because I support environmental protection so much that I put

my efforts into planting trees.)
28 ba koso ba koso I bekarazu/bekarazaru 29
e¢mt;w
(i) l VI Adj(i) l cond Ii=. .:C 1. Ba koso is a subordinate conjunction that is used to give a precise
WtllDli =. .:C (it is only because s.o. reads s.t.) reason.
liJf'31tnli =. .:C (it is only because s.t. is interesting) 2. In the ba koso structure, the main clause tends to end with noda as
shown in most of the examples, because the emphatic reason which ba
(ii) jAdj(na)stem/Nll''ikJ;fL(i=:..:C koso represents and the function of noda, i.e., the function of involving
:JG'Al'®;fLli=. .:C (it is only because s.o. is healthy) the hearer/reader in his or her statement, are mutually complementary.
7t;'t. l.'' ;ti nli =. .:C (it is only because s.o. is a teacher) [Related Expression]
Ba koso can be replaced by kara koso which can be used in both spoken
•¥'@1111014¥
,hi.,' J:0:
and written language. However, kara koso cannot always be replaced by ba
(a) l~J ;()l;kJ;fl,(fz=. .:C't. ~ .Q:@"l,)l;Ol;kJ Go koso, because the kara koso clause can be negative, but the ba koso clause
(Only because there is love is there joy for living.) cannot, as shown in [ l].
If/,, l, ~~(!;l:-:::>"'C'A. l:H i'
l!"H::'t' l:Ml{ l;l\l>J:-5
(b) fi:J;::k~~:tJO)m~nlikJ;fl,(f =:. .:CLliFf:tJjE~~~jE-t!:" ~ G ~{~~PO)f:::o
1'.Pt'l;l:-:::> " /..7._ ,,
i}Jif
[l] a. ~~;0 1 _t~1::: l 815-t!:" ~ P 11' s.: f I *815-t!:"~ ltn,t.: i l AJ:: IJ 1:::
(It is precisely because of the enormous demand for electricity that we *'il'l1
G ~ lt;h,li'~ G ~l >o
cannot help but develop atomic power plants.) (It is precisely because you can't speak English well that you
need to practice more than other people.)
(c) ~iiHiO)~aifi~i!i-tn1£=. .:c' ooi0)14~u~~~1t G ~ ltnli~ G ~p !:'. ,\!,t !i;IJ> l'.l\l>il~"i St LO
'50 b.ft!JO)i'Jt~;0 1 .:cn1a:E lliis< ~P1J'6.:-t /*liis< ~1tn,t.:-t 1 =.

(It is only because I hope for peace in the Middle East as much as I do "'" GnGo
O)JJt~liliiEI< ~c;
that I think we have to strengthen the role of the UN.) (Precisely because other classes are not so interesting I find this
class interesting.)
(d) ~'tic:itinii=. .:C~I::: =. ;,,~1:::fltflt !:'. t O);Ol§i{_ G ;,,t:: J::o
(It is precisely because I'm your close friend that I can talk straight to
you like this.)
(e) t::V,,;,; H/f-::itdHtl'®n1£=. Hi~li~~IJW-::i-Cf±IJ~ Gl"PG O)f::o
(It is precisely because he is a president with vision that his employees
are working with high spirits.)
(f) }di-Al'PGO);Ol~Gltnli=:..:C~,:; r UllJ70)f::o
(To the extent a person feels lonely when he/she is alone, he/she will bekarazu I bekarazaru ~ iJ' 6 9' / ~ iJ' 6 t5' .Q aux. <w>
keep a pet.)
lfAJJA- C ~-? 7;</,.,L.,19>l,igi ff ?ct:!.
(g) §liJliin'EIEEl''ikJ;fLli=. .:C .B.;:=t.:=t.~liW-::i l"P < O)l'ikJ Go an auxiliary verb that indicates a shouldn't; must not; ought not
(To the extent that there is freedom of speech, democracy will keep strong prohibition to-; cannot; Don't -
growing.) [REL. Vinf.nonpast na; o kin-
!£( ~;,.. LA!it' ,, " zu(ru); -kinshi; te wa ikemasen;
(h) 1~;01 =.;,, ~ =. 1:: ~ § 7 0) t :i'1i ~ 11'.i!'ic-tn1i =-.:ct::: o nai de kudasai; nai yoni shite
(It is because I am really anxious about you that I am telling you such a kudasai]
thing.)
30 bekarazu/bekarazaru bekarazu/bekarazaru 31
l!: iif/,., Ii
+Key Sentences (e) J1tEl"H±<«iJ'Gfo

(Don't tell a lie.)
(A)
t,11'.i ''fvJ:-j
Vinf.nonpast (f) 1 /?1-;f.·:; r~f.t7a~JJ l«iJ'Gf#,J iJ'GP<-:JiJ'5iffJG"C,;t;.d:;'5o 7°
.:");IJ't' 0~ J,,.
Ll:f .b :d ;\~-~~f#:!i"0«iJ'GTa 'tIG!f""7 71 Jv!:flJ!l!:h0«iJ,Gf, 1 /
Z::1:t!: A..Q « ;/J>i'.»f 0 tr t::A,ifA, :b"t
?1 - ;t, ·;; r JJ[i'i];::: '5 !:Af!lliJlp 0;::: C: ~ ;G;:h0 «iJ' G fa
(Keep off the lawn. (lit., Don't enter the lawn.)) (Let me quote some of the Internet don'ts from this collection: Don't
make private matters public. Don't touch suspicious-looking files.
(B)
Don't forget that there are people on the other end of the Internet.)
Vinf.nonpast Noun ;/J'h 1-0i~ .:") ,, tJ:t.i: t-:t't.lt(
!i' /,., L ~~< (g) :/!ll!i~:1:t.C: G "C§fi"«iJ' G i!:- Mr"®Hr-::d: C: G "l:*~H~~ i!:-li G :ht.:: a
l!JFf:1J!i.:r.;f.;v
!fie
"'
x< «iJ' G ~ 0 'b (J) C:"i>::i"CP0o (He was expelled from college because he committed an unpardonable
'f-illi\C: [_,,"[ act for a student.)
J: t:!.'h' D liA
(Atomic energy has become indispensable as a source of energy.) iJl({t-:J
(h) Z.:JJt!l:JJr:f!:tit!t'l'tli"«iJ'G ~--:5~il!ltiliC:/vc""PC:§-::i"C d:;Pt::;s '50

(One could say that there are very few theories we cannot criticize.)
e;n111Eouue l!: -ttl!: ue:.:e: s ? t: t-.J
(i) *JP]; C: !i-§!: G "C P .:UL !@;::: I) f~«iJ' G ~- -:5 ¥~iJll@Z.: 0 t&l~JJ;::: C: -c·
(i) Vinf.nonpast «iJ' G fa (Exception: T 0--+ l TIT 0 f «iJ' G f)
£> 00
ll3tr«iJ' G fa (You shouldn't read it.) (In a nutshell, a miracle is when an utterly unexpected and unlikely
ft« 0«iJ' Gfa (Don't eat (it).) event happens.)
~{i~T (Q)«iP Gfa (You shouldn't plagiarize.)
(ii) Vinf.nonpast «iJ' G ~- 0 N (Exception: T 0->T«iJ' G i!:.. 0)
1. Bekarazu is a negative form of beshi that means "should; ought to." It
£, 0«iJ' G ~· 0 ~~~ (a situation that shouldn't exist) expresses a strong prohibition and is used only in written language.
~~5: <«iJ' G ~- 0 ti JJ (an indispensable thing (lit., a thing that is
2. The prenominal form of bekarazu is bekarazaru, which is the written
necessary and that one cannot lack))
D ll' t t;-.J •
version of bekide nai. Examples follow:
i'§!Ei"«iJ' G ~- .:$ ¥~ (an undemable fact) ~-j I) t::l'l:A- !;1:-:J lfA
(1) -'C :htiiflf.\3"1!:*1..2. C: G "CT l «"tJ• S ~- .Q I«"~ z.·"1:~' f 9£§t:.'.-::i t.::a
(It was a statement that the Prime Minister shouldn't have made. (lit.,
he shouldn't have made as Prime Minister.))
(a) ~lfiJJrti-c·i*~§i5~f.t '5 «iJ' G f o t C'-Jito:-U::t' 1\1.l~ .:? t'
(2) 1,1'.j!~f~"" c !i~ti" l «'1.J• S ~ .Q I«"~ "?:ti "1: ~' f 1T"®t:.'.o
(You ought not to use your cell phone in the train.)
.},,./,., "
(Child abuse is an act that nobody should condone.)
(b) ;::: ;::: C'::f\:!::ilt~ i!:-li-:5«iJ'Gfo
(¢bekida(DIJG: 11-15))
(Don't let your dog go (to the bathroom) here.)
t10J~·fr5~'.i l:t.i:~ L :.: " [Related Expressions]
(c) ;J5t~r:f(:~JJ1l]C:f.&~~T-:5«iJ'Gfo
(You shouldn't talk in class with your neighbors.) There are expressions synonymous to bekarazu such as - na, - o kinzu(ru),
tr J;-j " -kinshi, -te wa ikemasen, -nai de kudasai, and -nai yoni shite kudasai.
(d) ~ffJJJ1l], A.0«iJ'GTa
(No trespassing. (lit., Don't enter if you aren't on business.))
32 bekarazu/bekarazaru I beku beku 33
H
[l] a. z~I: l A.9~7J' 5 9· I A.9 '4>. I A.9:. c ~g9·(9) I A.-:> ~'f ;,~'t e;t;111111t;M
;1; it A I A. 5 '4>. ~' "'C'"l' ~ ~' I A. 5 '4>. ~' J: ? t: 1_, l' "'f ~ ~' f I z~ I*! :ll:. l:A(tA lJ' f!. (If/,., t!.t' 't! If J: -Ct'
t' 't!A l (a) KttliAf'l'Jl'i:t-l'iiJiJi&i"« < ::kmmld: 1J 7. r 7 \t-rr '5 75EtC::o
'SA.fJg!l::.o (= KS(A))
(K Company plans to execute large-scale restructuring in order to
b. 11$0)9='-z.'~1*'11~15~ l ii? ~n' 5 9· I ii? '4>. I ii?:. c ~g9· ( 9) I reduce personnel expenses.)
l:?L~ t~J:.? C'?I:~?
ii -:> l' tH' tt ;1; it A I ii :b '4>. ~' 't' "'f ~ ~' I ii :b '4>. ~' J: ? t: 1_, l' "'f ~ (b) ''H±liP'IJlf!< :lo~~
;!1>{
;i0)$1*7d:.::~7."l:x1fibi"«<,
t-:l'S? f!.l'LA. -tt-:i(JI
.llUJTO)il5tfJi!ilt-IJl;A L-
~'f /'11$0)J:j=l-z.'O)~'lff'll~fi!!J!lg.It.o (=Ex.(a)) l'iPIJ i L-fco
The six synonymous expressions can be ordered by the degre.e of pro- (We (lit., our company) have installed the newest facilities so that we
hibitive expression they express as follows: na > bekarazu > kmzu(ru) > can quickly respond to our customers' various needs.)
r: lfA~l'
-kinshi > te wa ikemasen > nai de kudasai > nai yoni shite kudasai. l.'. C'( 1)-::i
~=%0)mML'i"~, ma7~r~7~7.rtL--r~~i"«<n•9='L'i".
( ¢ na(DBJG: 266-67); -kudasai (DBJG: 209-10); (I am a mother of two children and am currently studying to start my
-yoni suru (DBJG: 562-64)) own practice as a foot therapist (lit., to become independent as a foot
therapist).)
(tl'~t'-C't! I)~') ~dl'( ') ~-SIA? 'f!
k&1*1¥J ld:J:!l!E!=Jc·::k"f:~lc!"f
(d) ::$:"¥:(;I;, lt-§l: It G;fl.Id: P1fjjj.O){f~ Id:"¥:~(: .:r O)~
t.H' il;t.: J: !.,~Ji)t( 'f!J,,, ~d
~lt--9-?l .Q « <, ~"f:'1Z:Hff<-9- L-l'P.Q.

(We (lit., our university) provide scholarships to give educational
opportunities to excellent students from overseas who cannot go on to
higher education for financial reasons.)
beku "'< aux. <w> l:~'it!.i.' t.: .:::. li.,,itl.'
(e) m::kld:.!JHilU1lJ6~ L-td~-i!, :Jo~1*0)'.tc3'::lit1!f:i:t-aft7't t L- -rIBll!lld:x1fibi:t-
h(f!.i "dblvt!A,tp( Ii f!.l."~?-tl'A l'./vf( i:::l'S?
L{'>'J'.t' ;t;. t.t:t:;

rr"J«<, tii*J/7.7b.O)~@:L-\t-1'TPi L-tco
the verb modification form of the in order to; to; for the purpose
(We have reexamined our internal systems so that we can rapidly
auxiliary bekida, which is used to in- of; for; so that - (can)
respond to major accidents in a manner that gives highest priority to
dicate a purpose or aim [REL. tame (ni)] customer safety.)
ttl.'x.l>;I)'( LA ?AJ:-? l.'. tr t!.
t:; > / r / 7. 7 L>.~fflP~O)~.iltlt-
(f) J: IJ .JitA,tC::if&B".¥'f.lflt-rr '5 tcb61:1;1;, y
1;J.:~ 1)11.b( t~'iJ:?
+Key Sentence ~< «<, / 7. 7Ma~O)m:fii:t-7d: < i":: t?Jim~L'&i Go
Vinf.nonpast (In order to engage in management innovation that is more advanced, it
;: O);k"jt-z.'(;I;,
-/)t-;i
2"f:MiliiJI:
~ ·l:H> ..
~3t9 «<
l'.11A.lJ
~jflfJi!j;>Jl)i;/lt)G;fil'o'Go
is important to remove redundancy in management systems so that we
can eliminate unnecessary operations.)
(At this university, preparation is under way for changing (the current e¢MIJM
system) to a semester system.)
1. Beku is the verb modification form of bekida "should." However, when
beku is used to modify the verbs of main clauses, it means "in order to"
4i.JQllfihM18 rather than "should."
Vinf.nonpast « < (Exception: T .Q -+ l T IT .Q f « <) 2. Beku is a highly formal expression and is usually used in written
~11ii"« < (in order to talk (to s.o.)) language. (¢ bekida (DUG: 11-15))
-~.§ii" (.Q) « < (in order to study)
I"""..
I
34 beku I beku mo nai fl beku mo nai 35
[Related Expression] 41$1111.HJW

t:.t-\tt' \'
Beku can be replaced with tame (ni) without changing the meaning of the (a) 10-¥001=~unt.:ft'f':'tO)Ji'lE::.0fd::cffi.g«< tfd::P,
sentence. Tame (ni) can be used in informal situations, too. (There is no way for me to know the whereabouts of the woman I split
up with 10 years ago.)
[l] a. ;:O)::k'f:L'li, 2'f:MlliUi::?3£~.g I~< /t.:llf)t:f~$frll"/J 1 :ll6!.JGtL L~'.H!A, =' OH'
-CPG, (=KS) (b) ~~:f:lt liiiHJ. M<tr fd:: c :~'H:r « < t fd:: n' ~ t.:,
(In the post-war era, one could not even hope to make a trip abroad.)
b. K*±1::1:Af'!''A' ~mu~ I 9~ <19 .g t.:lif) t: f ::k~JM~fd:: J 7.1 r7 ~tr 7 l,.d:-5 ifAi;.d O)i-' J:.(t:-:::i Ii U('!!A. IPl!t'\;
(c) tnBlil'fflL'LlJI~li~tr«< tfd::"/J,~t.:"!!1, ~Blii"~"/J'!Jllin, s~1=~<
7'.ttt~, (= Ex.(a)) =).::'-? -)0(
Llliif!llk L, \ )~ L, ~ t~ ~ t.:,
Note that suru, not su, precedes tame (ni) in this structure. (On the first day, it was impossible to view the summit because of rain,
(¢tame (ni) (DBJG: 447-51)) but on the following day, the weather was perfect, and the mountain
was shining silvery white. It was sublimely beautiful.)
:bhhh 1-0>)Ld.:'5 IJ: 71•
(d) fltk 0) J:: 7 fd::s§P-T- J_,, "/J 1fflmi'*11fiO)T-f"- J_,, l::~llf-:i« < t fd::Po
(A weak team like ours simply cannot be expected to beat Team T, one
of the competitors for the championship.)
t: ltA
(e) .:C 0)$fH 1/til ~ t.:a¥TLii~7f.M<tr<PL'ffi .g « < t fd:: "/J'~ t.:a
(The incident occurred when I was traveling abroad, so there was no
beku mo nai "'< 'b Jd:1,' phr. <w>
way for me to know about it.)
ift,~A t.;l~'J ~t.;t'
impossible; there is no way for (f) J'ililli:li~'ttL'::$:~1mtr~ra~fd:: l:'.'M1~i"« < t fd::\ 'o
a phrase meaning "it is impossible to
s.o. to -; cannot be expected (Lately I've been so busy that it is impossible to find (lit., to expect to
do s.t." have) time to read books.)
to
[REL. Vpot wake ga nai; Vpot -~Ml·ff
hazu ga nail
Beku mo nai means that there is "no way for s.o. to do s.t." The phrase is
used exclusively in written Japanese. The verbs preceding the phrase appear
+ Key Sentence to be limited to nozomu "desire," shiru "get to know," and katsu "win." In
terms of frequency, nozomu beku mo nai appears to be the most frequently
Vinf.nonpast used.
t'!:iiJ( *-.A,
fL"/Jl~f!Jp:j O)* ~ Jl'. 7 fd:: c' ""'
~t; « < t fd:: \ ,0
[Related Expressions]
(It is impossible for me to hope to buy a hundred million yen house.) Vpot.inf.nonpast wake ga nai and Vpot.inf.nonpast hazu ga nai mean
"there is no reason to believe that s.t. is possible" and "s.t. isn't expected
e;n;o011uu4 to be possible," respectively. Verbs can be practically any verb for the two
constructions. However, the verb of Vinf.nonpast beku mo nai is usually
Vinf.nonpast « < t fd:: \' (Exception: i" .g
,, ---+ I i" Ii" .g f « < t fd:: \ ')
limited to nozomu, shiru or katsu, as stated in Note. So, beku mo nai can be
MJ-:i « < t fd:: \ ' (it is impossible to win) replaced by wake ga nai and hazu ga nai, but not the other way around, as
D -n,
shown in [l] and [2], respectively.
i!f'.tti" ( .g) « < t fd:: \ ' (it is impossible to deny)
36 beku mo nai I beku shite beku shite 37
[IJ a. ~~1&1ii1iH'HMr id: c l ~t.'"' <'t t;;. fl'? f;::. I~~ 0 tJ tt fl1·t;;. fl'? f;::. I e1;1111.u;w
~~MJ:f'f11'f;;.fl>?f;::. fa (= Ex.(b)) i.P:h t!.V•C')~d
(a) 1J!{li*Afrt~JiUd:: 0
« < VC id:? f::o
b. !!t-7 0) J:: 7 id:§§ P 7- - t> 7'.l'iHJH~:fiff O)T'f- - td:: l MJ-?"' <'t t;;. ~'I (He became president, exactly as expected.)
MJ-r 0 tJ ttti1·t;;. ~'I MJ-r 0 ';t 'f'f11·t;;. ~' I o (= Ex.(d)) (b)
£ 1S .::
~9'a"'fli~:tiMa~7'.I' 6nl<:*17'.l1~m1::
i±l>-tt~ lf0<-Jv C?t!.t'
J:: <, **'::;,_,:;, « < vc A? t:: t P 7
!:f~' n•J..
[2] a. ;: Iv id:H GP B :Lfs:~M' l ~1'C~ 0 tJ ttti ·t;;. ~'I ~1'C~ 0 ';t 'f'fl ·t;;. ~'I *~1'Ct.'
1 1 ~~L:·£, 0,
"'< 'f.,t;;.~'f 0
(Machiko distinguished herself as an excellent academic achiever in her
high school days. As expected, she got into the University of Tokyo.)
( l There is no reason why I can I I cannot be expected to be able -ttt•t.P< L19> /j, fJ1( ,ft~ l'"' 'S lt.,,:::_A,
to I read such difficult Japanese.) (c) =Ali'~tlL ~IJ;j(, "jt)l\l'l'.lli'«L:~:i&v-cP.Q, =Ali*6~i'0«< l,L:;fi!j
1a:< L
b. f~ 1:: ~~ 7'.I' l• tt 0 tJ tt fll' t;;. ~'I ii= tt 0 ';t 'f' fll' t;;. ~'I*•< "'< 't t;;. ft\3' l,f::O)f::o
~'I 0
(Their personalities, hobbies and academic backgrounds match. Just as
( l There is no reason why I can I I cannot be expected to be able (we) expected, those two got married.)
JiiJC, lJH L t:
to I write poems.) (d) f()J,8.0)~l!i,i;liP"?'t)'i'L?l:fPl,, I/V/"s7'v-+tWilf"'f7'.11!!7'.l'-:d:: 0 $
UUHE\;: G <"( <l, Li@;:'? f::o
(Yumi's driving was always wild, and her car's engine and brakes
weren't in good condition. An accident occurred, exactly as expected.)
~tt'.tt' C?~A.
(e) £,O)~Uii;ti£'§7'.1 1 f~ lvt::-:i t::l'.i' 61$tl£i' 0« < L, 'lf~tl)l!t Gt::O)t::,

(The management of the company has been so careless that it went bank-
rupt, exactly as expected.)
beku shite "'< L, -r phr.
(f)
c t:.<
'f.l.di§~7'.ll;lli¥0)i'<"ill:<
") -r
O)f::V>, f-]V)/,ff~i::id:.Q«< GL:id:-::d:ta?'lP
a phrase used when s.t. occurs/occur- exactly as expected Pl'l,J:'Jo
red exactly as expected [REL. yahari/yappari] (You could say that I became fond of fishing, exactly as expected, be-
cause my home is so close to the ocean.)
+ Key Sentence 4¢MIJM

V 1inf.nonpast V2 (= V1) 1. The phrase beku shite is used in the construction "V 1inf.nonpast beku
t!.l' (: t.: t:.l'-l±A., shite V2," where V1 and V 2 are identical. The construction means s.t.
~C~tttW*~li ilil:.?;, «<le: JHl;:, '? f;::_o was expected to happen and it actually did. For example, in KS, World
War II was expected to occur and, in fact, it did.
(World War II occurred, exactly as expected.)
2. Beku shite cannot be used with Adj(i!na) nor with N + Copula nor with
4i.IQ11fillt.h@ Vneg nai, as shown in (1).
V1inf.nonpast«< l'lV2 (whereV1=V2) (Exception:i'0-- li'/i' (1) a. * B :Ljs:O) :toi' Ui:toP l P"' ( I.., l ;fop l, Po
0 I«< l'l) (As I expected, Japanese sushi is good.)
)@;: 0« < l L:i@;: 0 (s.t. occurs exactly as expected) cf. B :Ljs:O);foi' L, li'(!>';t ~J ;fop L, Pa
J;k:f-hi' ( 0) « < l 'l nl<:J'JJi' 0 (s.t./s.o. succeeds exactly as expected)
38 beku shite
I
'f
beku shite 39
b. *7f.Jjl,li 8::$.:Al=Jjl,~ .:5o1 · -'\'7!/. ~ /v'f_, 7 ~ 1J :JJ A <:il'J -:5~( i_, "t the underlying expectation is based more on objective facts, whereas in the
7 ~ J :JJAt::Co
1 yahari/yappari version it is based more on subjective intuition.
(Mr. Roy Yamada, who looks Japanese, is really American.) [l] a. ~fCl'Jzttt'J'F::klj!j;(i \~;:~~< [.,""( /~i;PJ /~-:>,!fJ I)@;:: -:>t::o
cf. 7f.Jjl,li 8::$.:Al=Jil,~ .:5o1 · -'\'7 ?t' ~Iv ii~ ·:"!fJ 7 ~ 1J :JJ At::Co (=KS)
c.*«1 1 J-~/vli:)!Hi:P~( 1..,"t*~iJ'".Jt::o b.1Jtli::k*1C~JH= ! ft~~< I_,""( /~iifJ /~-:>(!fJ I ~'::>t::: 0 (=Ex.(a))
(As expected, Mr. Bailey didn't show up.)
c. Jil:9'1li'-lii'@itl<'.O) if-fn' iJ PX:*fin':tliUlf 1= J:: <, :ll!:::kl= !.A.~~< i_, -r / ~
cf. «1 lJ - ~ lvii~i;PJ*~iJ'".Jt::o
iifJ /~-:>(!fJ I A'::>t:::C:P7/il§~l:®.:5o (=Ex.(b))
3. Verbs that precede beku shite are limited to intransitive verbs such as
naru "become," okoru "happen," kawaru "change," hairu "enter," katsu (¢ yahari(DBJG: 538-40))
"win," tosan-suru "go bankrupt," and others. Note that these verbs all
represent something that goes beyond human control, except for kekkon-
suru "get married" in Ex.(c). But notice that musubareru, a synonym
for kekkon-suru, is a non-controllable verb.
Note also that a passive verb, which is in essence an intransitive verb,
can be used, as in (2).
:I.di ~ ~
(2) fB(li~;btJ.-:5~( [.,"t~bh-CP.:50

(He is hated, exactly as expected.)
4. Beku shite is used primarily in formal written language.
5. The phrase is usually employed with Vinf.past, but it is also used with
Vinf.nonpast in a generic statement, as in (3).
t::-::iL{'i.PI.' ~ !iA..-C~ -C~ fi'
(3) a. ~tt~li, ~::$.:E81=§51W.7f.li-9«-Cfijj(t::CiJ>iJ, ~!/f-:J~-:Jli~!/f-:J~(
•
VO!/f-:JG, Jrllt-:5~-:JliJrllH~< L,"tJrllt.:So
(In the real world, everybody is basically your enemy, so, as one
would expect, the winners will win and the losers will lose.)
.-;i"jb_A iJ' '0 1,•~ ~H-ttl•-C!
b. :t±~J1~1i?£b .:s~
7J>t•tp(
<1..,-r?£v.:s O)t::cn' tJ,
tr IJ
tlll:lll1<tt~O)Jl~irrJ&ffJ
l=olOi'i G J:: 7 t G-C ii ~J]!t::Co
(It is impossible to revise the accepted ideas of a regional com-
munity by administrative means, because those ideas change
anyway, as they are meant to.)
[Related Expressions]
All the examples of beku shite in the KS and Exs. can be rephrased by
yahari/yappari, as shown in [l]. But there is an important difference be-
tween the two expressions. For example in [lb], in the beku shite version
--
41
II 40 chinami ni chinami ni
chinami ni "5 7d: Ji. t: conj. "The humanization of architecture." Incidentally, about 1,500 people
attended.)
I a conjunction to indicate that what fol- incidentally; in this connection (c) 7 /I 1) jJ 0)*$~15tli
~dt~ h? ;I.I' if; iJ'A,
7 if.I:::~~, ~Jf~f*agz~ C: G:::. C: ;Qll."1! Go -tmtJ1Fsi
t,11) L.11-it,11)-C~ h"i~d
lows is additional information related <P UJf~ ~~i:ti1¥.n::: ~ G :b WC:·£> Ga iJ Id: ~1::: -t O)FsiO)~i8J.li, f*agz;01 1 if.
liA.iil< -t{A,;il( L h?
to the previously stated main theme F.llld: Gcf.filt cf.if.Id: G lfif:mtni:z~ ~ fLG o
(A professor in the U.S. can take a sabbatical every seventh year.
During that period the professor concentrates on research. Incidentally,
+ Key Sentence professors are paid half their salary for a year's sabbatical or their full
Sentence1 Sentencez salary for half a year.)
t::.t'"'-A, ~ l)>t' L~ ( , ~
''"
•O)~m~~~~~~~~-r*~~
,,
H
M~Rnllm~f-l:::f\lltU;itJ;fl 'LPG C: M@MiM
l:::}v;iLPGo Z:.".J;>jl~po
Chinami ni is a coordinate conjunction that is used to introduce an inci-
Sentence3 dental remark related obliquely to the main theme of the preceding parts of
tll> ,, the discourse. This conjunction is quite different from tokoro de, because
i)ld:h.1:::, *if.O)~~~«~~~,--l~~~ko
the latter is used to change the subject while the former is used to give
additional information without changing the subject.
(I love his post-modern novels. I like the way he leaves the interpre-
tation to the reader. Incidentally, his work published last year topped
the best-seller list.)
S10 (S20 ······o) iJ ld:l;.1::: Sno

(¢KS)
4K!filllltitJW
-5X.I}) (.lll,;11')1)',I., l.'/vld!i l)•t>f/i""(A, ~
(a) 71:3~n' tj J:!J!TO)~fil\jAf!l."~P~i*O)Ml;@iJ:lln 1 imn'fL L :lo I)' ))., FT-)).,, ~ ;i'·~'

-y ;f, Id: ~O)f~~f~;01/H~ ~;fl 'LP Go -1) ld:~I:::, _A}J}j;pJ.likA 3,500 p:j, .::f
t:t
{# 1,000 fIJl"®Go
(An exhibit of Impressionists' paintings opened last week at an art mu-
seum in Ueno and representative works of Renoir, Monet and Manet,
among others, are displayed there. Incidentally, the admission fee is
3,500 yen for adults and 1,000 yen for children.)
C-J~d ,:.(~t'tt1V0(1J 1 -:::if.P(' i:JdfA, fJ' .,..
(b) 7tJi 0) 26 BC: 27 B 1:::J'lO?:-c·OO~~~$-§:n 1 00n'nt~o ~~O)Arsif~ C: \' 7

~).., ti' L'l"'-t-J -t-><
0);{)17-"Yf:±~f~o -IJ7'd:~1:::$:1Jr]%'~1i*91,500At:±~f~o
(On the 26th and 27th of last month, there was an international
conference on architecture in Tokyo. The theme of the conference was
42 dake dake 43
dake tEtt prt. (E)

Adverb
a particle meaning "to the extent that as much as; as - as possible; L~~ !., 0/v£A. t.lt'J:-J (h
f~±1l1ii!)(vr:>IAJ@l=-::>1 >'l <:~;;;, t::lt ~lit[.,< ill5 G ' l r 2' Po
s.o. (can/wants to) do s.t. or s.t. can as much as one wants
happen" (Tell me about your MA thesis in as much detail as possible.)
4kUlll@llilH@
+ Key Sentences
(A)
(i) V1pot.inf.nonpast t:: It V2 (where V1 = V2)
Vi pot.inf. V2 (= V1)
ilt-"' G tL;;;, t:: It ilt-"';;;, (s.o. eats as much/many s.t. as he or she can)
nonpast (ii) V1inf.nonpast t::lt V2 (where V1 = V2)
;,,.
'6'P '5 'IS I=*~ ~)'Cd) .Q t::1t ~)'CA, z :foPt::7JnlJ::po § '5 t:: It§ '5 (s.o. says as much as he or she wants to say)
(You'd better read as many books as you can while you are young.) (iii) V1inf.nonpast l:'.lt V2 (where V =non-volitional intransitive verb;
V1 = V2)
(B) "·'
H~ G trt:: It H~; G tr (s.t. swells as much as it can)
V1inf. V2
nonpast (= V1) (iv) <: ~ M:: It Adj(i/na) I Adv.
~~.Q ~~.Q !:::,

IW
tL t §bf l='Jw--:> -r G i--::> t::o c' ~;;;, t:: It*~\ >'T- '-\'- (as big a cake as possible)
t::lt
c·~ ;;;,t::lt~< Jli<< "" (walk as fast as s.o. can)
(After he had eaten as much as he wanted, he went home without even
thanking me.) 4;;1111.u;w
(C)
(a) ~V':>'5 lii"G~c·i"G~ilt-"'GtL;;;,t::1t1ll;-"'f::o
V1masu V2
(Yesterday I ate as much sushi as I could at a sushi restaurant.)
~~ t::P t::1t ~~.Q V') iJI f~vr:>±itt:i" o
(b) "F"tvr:> '5 'IS 1=¥ll¥>'H=rr It;;;, t:: lt:f'T--:> -r h. t:: P !::: .'G', Pi To
(My principle is to eat as much as I want to.) (I think I want to go abroad as often as I can while I'm a student.)
D =.-) ~ S( C
(D) (c) J!!!ljii~ 2' A.., mrr@l=l!!tL 'l G i '5 V':>t:, mlf-1:!:-;;;, t:: ltmlf G ' l r 2' Po
V 1inf.nonpast (Driver, I may miss my plane, so please go as fast as you can.)
V2 (=Vi)
(intransitive) l'f,,:' k .l.(
0) ,.;. (d) ITTfn' G:}~P'lPt::/f'ijJ1. ~§ '5 t:: It§--::> t:: GT '5--::> !::: G t::o
"
'5 'IS V':>-Tli~iJl 1$tH t::lt {$V'f;: ~l::c'To (When I freely gave vent to my longstanding complaints (lit., as much
as I wanted to) it felt so good.)
(It looks like my child has grown as much as he is going to.) ;:. L1'J
(e) :fo~lif~ '5 t:: ltf~--::> 'l t l&~fvr:>j>!J: Plf!iJl~Pt::P 0
(I'd like to buy a trouble-free car no matter how much it costs.)
"
(f) ~V':> '5 li~t::Pt::lt~t::V':>t:, ilitf*tT--:> ~ fJ Gt::o
(Yesterday I slept as much as I wanted, so my mind and body are
refreshed.)
ID dake atte 45
44 dake H
.f
S~i-OJLJI
(g) Jm)!il::tJ:--:Jt~~, fLO),@.O)liS!l,;fi§liJlln.Qt::1tJJU1:ll_,iPi U~o
0?.b-J Ii dake atte t.:'tt if.>') -r phr.
(When I got gout my big toe really swelled up (lit., as much as it could
I
a phrase that means "and as one and as one would expect; so
swell).) vr would expect" or "for good reason" (naturally); for good reason
~~il'a~O)·~~l'tLt7.Q~~--:JkO)l',~M~l'~.Q~09~tJ:t [REL. dake no koto wa atte·
:::. ;:, 1:: i±ld~ P -i:-t o dake nil '
(Until now, we have lived in the midst of a big, noisy town, so now we
would like to live in as quiet a place as possible.) +Key Sentences
(i) :::_O)~t±l::.AJJt~Pflll.83, it~AtiLJ~G.J\'VJf~p:::.tlifiJJl'Tfl'o l'~.Q
l'.J ~?
(A)
(' t.:l'-C~
t:: It Jll.f*i'!\]l::tolf ~ r ~ t >o Noun
(Why do you want to join this company and what do you want to do fpl))tJ: (:A~ tJ:~"'.i
once you join the company? Please write down your answers in as 1J!tixli .A.~31:11 t::lt;/i;--:Jl -t:::_•p 7 'fSi::{±~l'P.Q 0
much detail as possible.) (She i~ a popular actress and, as one would expect she lives .
if-;,iJ'l' L~.,;t~
(j) .JCO)"Jt~l::lil:'~ .Qt::ltl:f't!l];-9.Q J: 71:: GiTo splendid house.) ' m a
(I will do my best to attend the academic conference.) (B)
Vinf
e@mi;w
1. Dake in "V 1inf.nonpast dake V 2" (V 1 = V 2) indicates the extent to which
~ l:. ::
~ii'-litj\ ~ '\~fJ> i)J'\ v .:i: ~ 1.,,·n,.Q t::ltj;j--:Jl "'" G fl' t •o
i*fJ'*
someone (can I wants to) do something or something can happen.
(Satoko has practiced ballet since she was a child so naturally h .
2. The V 1 can take a potential form explicitly, as in KS(A) and Exs.(a)- limber.) ' s e is
(c), or can have a potential meaning, as in KS(D) and Ex.(g), when the
verb is a non-volitional intransitive verb such as nobiru (grow), hareru
(C)
(swell), chijimu (shrink), mori-agaru (get lively), among others. More Vinf
examples follow: ML l: ;:);A, -(1)~71~~1)(1)1~~~~"".)t~~
-ttA~( ~~ .fJl ~·119.Q t::ltj;j--:Jl,
(1) a. l'l\S~ Gt~ G, ~-\' 'Y 7Jl*1ijt,' tO::'tt*i~ l' Vi --:J t~o L'ii~ GntJ:t • t (!)f::--:J t~ 0
(When I washed the shirt, it shrank to nothing (lit., as much as it
could).)
. ,,
b. JV\l>. ~Ii~ f J ..tii .Qt.: tt q£ VJ J::fJl "".) t~ 0
(He is proud of his office for good reason: The view is somethin
could never see from other offices.) g you
(The drinking party grew very lively (lit., as lively as it could).) 4i.1iju€\ltU,@
If the V 1 is a volitional transitive verb it means "as much as one wants (i) Vinf t:: It j;j --:J l
to-," as in KS(B), (C) and Ex.(f), or "as much as one can," as in Ex.(e).
I £iz;l LP.QI £izX.. LPt~ It:: It j;j --:J l (s.o. is/was teaching s.t., and
3. Dekiru is a potential form of suru, but dekiru dake is a set phrase fol- as one would expect)
lowed by an adjective or an adverb, as shown in KS(E), Exs.(h) and (i).
(ii) Adj(i)inf t:: It j;j --:J l
""' I 'fffJ> --:J t~ I t:: It j;j --:J l
I 'ff\' (s.o. is/was young, and as one would
expect)

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A DICTIONARY

This is a dictionary of advanced Japanese grammar, a companion volume

Main Entries ................................................................... 1-758

English Index ..................................................................... 761

1© [meaning I function] l ®[English counterpart(s)]

(¢aaa (DBJG/DIJG: 000-000)) in Note(s) and Related Expression(s)

CD [entry name]: Each entry is given in romanized spelling followed

Grammatical Terms (e) Z'.: 0) :J /' !::'.° .1 - !I - lii\11i9 ~- .Q 0

(This computer is too expensive.)

Adj(na)stem l"liPltfJ:P B:;Js:miJlr.f-l"liPltfJ:P (it's not good ~t<'i:_;

Vneg f 1= :Jlfl= (without sleeping) (b) n':to VJ 1i-a~>a:-ta IA::,

(This person l is/was/isn't/wasn't l healthy I a student.)

(f) :"'.: O);k"ji:(;J:-)Rtf.:'o

*9'0 (unknown), *%(unfinished), *ni (unexplored)

-A I): ~~A fJ (with honey (as an ingredient))

(a) 9='Lll ~ !vilruifJ~·®:f.J'-? f.:O)Z.·$;fit~{,t1t.,t;:,

(b) *.'15~'/*.'f!iJ>-:>f.:* The informal form of a verb/adjective is usually used in a subordinate

(c) :ll:~f.t /:li:)JrefO::":if.:~t!&l Suffix (¢Prefix I Suffix)

(c) ill!l9 Q (to heat), ~9 .Q (to guess)

(g) Jl<:ff,~"-iiC'?rr~ iT;/J'o

(g) :: :: ;IJ> Glij;±LlJ;1JlJU a; 9 J::, C'.7 (how)

Thus, na-adjectives, no-adjectives and nouns form a spectrum, as shown in

No-adj./ ~'A (ill, illness)

(5) a. *~I~' I~ l '5 '5 (large house) 2. Interpretation of "N1 no Nz"

d. i !v);z, I~' I~ l J=I (round moon)

(1) "'-2- /:7'''7.:r.-0)::$:

Group 1: Both N 1 and N2 Receive Case Interpretation

(4) a. *iit.:J-0) F v :7.

Group 2: Only N1 Receives Case Interpretation

= :!RtBl=i::l:lvl'P.Qif~:X: (the uncle (who lives) in Kyoto)

,J,:.A, l J: ~ <'l!l' -C t~A

(14) a. o;t' ..; 1'0)Jltll (thelegsofaJtherobot(s))

d. Ji\"jlj'j)0)3(\f'* (the climate of Kyoto)

c. fJtElHJll~O)l!i!J~ (the health insurance system)

3. Politeness and Formality in Spoken and Written Language

· s "N no N" by tc l"T

te-form C' C'VC

C'li~P -c·1:J:£> IJ i-ttlv

te-form -c·£>-?-c l"it>IJiL,-C

Chart 2: Spoken language

Formal business letters; formal business documents for

(2) a. ~'"'?*1:'7vl:'.''~Jjl.--CP00)o $?1J~L,fd:~P 0

a: flitLi-:C /vid:~Pf±!Jli LJ: id:Po < d. B:<t§Ml~~ GPid:/v"C~'"'?f~hlE\-:it~?

b: -:C/vid:U::lif~li5;0Gid:Po e. C'? t.,·nntf.\O)-ti"Pl:-t0o:>?

c: :!o§u li;k~,;t C: li,\sLt id: Po

a: 8:;$:}.Jio#·;1 H:::J&i::k~W.H~~ffl-:;-CP.Qo ffi G tJ:p (G':J) l'(i j ~p /£>VJ i-t!"/u l -/J>o

Go (iv) - l t I-:; -cf l 8 7 /§bti:P l l G':J (l'T) I lu l'T l iJ'

5. Metaphors in Japanese •·n

(1) Analogy (~lt001*)

A. Simile ([[Pi!«) B. Metaphor rnll!Pi!«)

!ef t;A, 'IJ•

J;t,( t(ll (3) '"

f. :::: O):fJ.10)H!PIJ:~~\ 'o

"" t., -f? tc.·, E. Metonymy (;jij!Dff«)

~A..l::.? H.::: f. ~ 0) "H~..t~~ (0)1J,~) It- 2 iHT~-::> t::co

- I=¥~ " r 1v1:

UG Ak (people), wk (mountains), Jii!Jk (islands), *k (houses),

tmJ!l.~J'L-C 0 (make waves) 0 r..f J: J: t.:!.V>t!t• ii;,£':>

(students), ~~illt::. 't; (teachers), '1/M::. -to (we), 1JO~ ( ~

(various theories), illi::k"Jt (various universities), illii&

J;b~ (innumerable contributions), ~~O))[lA (more than one

e. Verbal/Adjectival Predicates (In the pond, a lot of carp were swimming.)

c. :/Bzii:f.: "5 lilPJ l.:: v .A r 7 / L'flP"lP 0 o

9'0 (unknown), %(unfinished), *ni (unexplored)

(b) .'15~'/.'f!iJ>-:>f.:* The informal form of a verb/adjective is usually used in a subordinate

b.1El1i 1<If>< l-''t /iiHiz l B*0)$1il!i:l=&xr~Pl'\.UJ'G1tt::o

(g) ~i'i C'.(,1)~'f;61~p/f;6•1)1:Rli:A 1' v:A;Qlf,U I), J::<{rg](t/:ld:-::itc,

.Q .Q !:::,