2023

MID-
SEMESTER
REPORT
(2023)
DEPARTMENT OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
YEAR-1 SEMESTER-1
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ELECTROLYSIS

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INTRODUCTION
A SOLID OXIDE ELECTROLYZER CELL (SOEC) IS A SOLID
OXIDE FUEL CELL THAT RUNS IN REGENERATIVE MODE
TO ACHIEVE THE ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER (AND
CARBON DIOXIDE) BY USING A SOLID OXIDE, OR
CERAMIC, ELECTROLYTE TO PRODUCE HYDROGEN GAS
(AND CARBON MONOXIDE) AND OXYGEN. THE
PRODUCTION OF PURE HYDROGEN IS COMPELLING
BECAUSE IT IS A CLEAN FUEL THAT CAN BE STORED,
MAKING IT A POTENTIAL ALTERNATIVE TO BATTERIES,
METHANE, AND OTHER ENERGY SOURCES (SEE
HYDROGEN ECONOMY). ELECTROLYSIS IS CURRENTLY
THE MOST PROMISING METHOD OF HYDROGEN
PRODUCTION FROM WATER DUE TO ITS HIGH EFFICIENCY
OF CONVERSION AND RELATIVELY LOW REQUIRED
ENERGY INPUT WHEN COMPARED TO THERMOCHEMICAL
AND PHOTOCATALYTIC METHODS.

WORKING PRINCIPLE
SOLID OXIDE ELECTROLYZER CELLS OPERATE AT
TEMPERATURES WHICH ALLOW HIGH-TEMPERATURE
ELECTROLYSIS TO OCCUR, TYPICALLY BETWEEN 500
AND 850 °C. THESE OPERATING TEMPERATURES ARE
SIMILAR TO THOSE CONDITIONS FOR A SOLID OXIDE
FUEL CELL. THE NET CELL REACTION YIELDS HYDROGEN
AND OXYGEN GASES. THE REACTIONS FOR ONE MOLE OF
WATER ARE SHOWN BELOW, WITH OXIDATION OF
WATER OCCURRING AT THE ANODE AND REDUCTION OF
WATER OCCURRING AT THE CATHODE.
ANODE: 2 O2− → O2 + 4 E−
CATHODE: H2O + 2 E− → H2 + O2−
NET REACTION: 2 H2O → 2 H2 + O2
ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER AT 298 K (25 °C) REQUIRES
285.83 KJ OF ENERGY PER MOLE IN ORDER TO OCCUR,
AND THE REACTION IS INCREASINGLY ENDOTHERMIC
WITH INCREASING TEMPERATURE. HOWEVER, THE
ENERGY DEMAND MAY BE REDUCED DUE TO THE JOULE
HEATING OF AN ELECTROLYSIS CELL, WHICH MAY BE
UTILIZED IN THE WATER-SPLITTING PROCESS AT HIGH
TEMPERATURES. RESEARCH IS ONGOING TO ADD HEAT
FROM EXTERNAL HEAT SOURCES SUCH AS
CONCENTRATING SOLAR THERMAL COLLECTORS AND
GEOTHERMAL SOURCES.
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OPERATION
THE GENERAL FUNCTION OF THE ELECTROLYZER CELL
IS TO SPLIT WATER IN THE FORM OF STEAM INTO PURE
H2 AND O2. STEAM IS FED INTO THE POROUS CATHODE.
WHEN A VOLTAGE IS APPLIED, THE STEAM MOVES TO
THE CATHODE-ELECTROLYTE INTERFACE AND IS
REDUCED TO FORM PURE H2 AND OXYGEN IONS. THE
HYDROGEN GAS THEN DIFFUSES BACK UP THROUGH
THE CATHODE AND IS COLLECTED AT ITS SURFACE AS
HYDROGEN FUEL, WHILE THE OXYGEN IONS ARE
CONDUCTED THROUGH THE DENSE ELECTROLYTE. THE
ELECTROLYTE MUST BE DENSE ENOUGH THAT THE
STEAM AND HYDROGEN GAS CANNOT DIFFUSE
THROUGH AND LEAD TO THE RECOMBINATION OF THE
H2 AND O2−. AT THE ELECTROLYTE-ANODE
INTERFACE, THE OXYGEN IONS ARE OXIDIZED TO
FORM PURE OXYGEN GAS, WHICH IS COLLECTED AT
THE SURFACE OF THE ANODE.

MATERIALS
SOLID OXIDE ELECTROLYZER CELLS FOLLOW THE
SAME CONSTRUCTION AS A SOLID-OXIDE FUEL CELL,
CONSISTING OF A FUEL ELECTRODE (CATHODE), AN
OXYGEN ELECTRODE (ANODE) AND A SOLID-OXIDE
ELECTROLYTE.
ELECTROLYTE:
THE MOST COMMON ELECTROLYTE, AGAIN SIMILAR TO
SOLID-OXIDE FUEL CELLS, IS A DENSE IONIC
CONDUCTOR CONSISTING OF ZRO2 DOPED WITH 8 MOL
% Y2O3 (ALSO KNOWN AS YSZ). ZIRCONIUM DIOXIDE IS
USED BECAUSE OF ITS HIGH STRENGTH, HIGH MELTING
TEMPERATURE (APPROXIMATELY 2700 °C) AND
EXCELLENT CORROSION RESISTANCE. YTTRIUM(III)
OXIDE (Y2O3) IS ADDED TO MITIGATE THE PHASE
TRANSITION FROM THE TETRAGONAL TO THE
MONOCLINIC PHASE ON RAPID COOLING, WHICH CAN
LEAD TO CRACKS AND DECREASE THE CONDUCTIVE
PROPERTIES OF THE ELECTROLYTE BY CAUSING
SCATTERING.
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FUEL ELECTRODE (CATHODE):

THE MOST COMMON FUEL ELECTRODE MATERIAL IS A
NI-DOPED YSZ. HOWEVER, HIGH STEAM PARTIAL
PRESSURES AND LOW HYDROGEN PARTIAL PRESSURES
AT THE NI-YSZ INTERFACE CAUSE OXIDATION OF THE
NICKEL WHICH RESULTS IN CATALYST DEGRADATION.
PEROVSKITE-TYPE LANTHANUM STRONTIUM
MANGANESE (LSM) IS ALSO COMMONLY USED AS A
CATHODE MATERIAL. RECENT STUDIES HAVE FOUND
THAT DOPING LSM WITH SCANDIUM TO FORM LSMS
PROMOTES THE MOBILITY OF OXIDE IONS IN THE
CATHODE, INCREASING REDUCTION KINETICS AT THE
INTERFACE WITH THE ELECTROLYTE AND THUS
LEADING TO HIGHER PERFORMANCE AT LOW
TEMPERATURES THAN TRADITIONAL LSM CELLS.
HOWEVER, FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF THE
SINTERING PROCESS PARAMETERS IS REQUIRED TO
PREVENT THE PRECIPITATION OF SCANDIUM OXIDE
INTO THE LSM LATTICE. THESE PRECIPITATE
PARTICLES ARE PROBLEMATIC BECAUSE THEY CAN
IMPEDE ELECTRON AND ION CONDUCTION. IN
PARTICULAR, THE PROCESSING TEMPERATURE AND
CONCENTRATION OF SCANDIUM IN THE LSM LATTICE
ARE BEING RESEARCHED TO OPTIMIZE THE
PROPERTIES OF THE LSMS CATHODE.

OXYGEN ELECTRODE (ANODE):

LANTHANUM STRONTIUM MANGANATE (LSM) IS THE
MOST COMMON OXYGEN ELECTRODE MATERIAL. LSM
OFFERS HIGH PERFORMANCE UNDER ELECTROLYSIS
CONDITIONS DUE TO THE GENERATION OF OXYGEN
VACANCIES UNDER ANODIC POLARIZATION THAT AID
OXYGEN DIFFUSION. IN ADDITION, IMPREGNATING
LSM ELECTRODES WITH GD-DOPED CEO2 (GDC)
NANOPARTICLES WAS FOUND TO INCREASE CELL
LIFETIME BY PREVENTING DELAMINATION AT THE
ELECTRODE/ELECTROLYTE INTERFACE. HE EXACT
MECHANISM FOR HOW THIS HAPPEN NEEDS TO BE
EXPLORED FURTHER. IN A 2010 STUDY, IT WAS FOUND
THAT NEODYMIUM NICKELATE AS AN ANODE
MATERIAL PROVIDED 1.7 TIMES THE CURRENT
DENSITY OF TYPICAL LSM ANODES WHEN INTEGRATED
INTO A COMMERCIAL SOEC AND OPERATED AT 700 °C,
AND APPROXIMATELY 4 TIMES THE CURRENT DENSITY
WHEN OPERATED AT 800 °C.
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APPLICATIONS
SOECS HAVE POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS IN
FUEL PRODUCTION, CARBON DIOXIDE
RECYCLING, AND CHEMICAL SYNTHESIS. IN
ADDITION TO THE PRODUCTION OF
HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN, A SOEC COULD
BE USED TO CREATE SYNGAS BY
ELECTROLYZING WATER VAPOUR AND
CARBON DIOXIDE. THIS CONVERSION
COULD BE USEFUL FOR ENERGY
GENERATION AND ENERGY.
SOLID OXIDE ELECTROLYSIS CELL IS THE
LEADING TECHNOLOGY FOR THE
PRODUCTION OF GREEN HYDROGEN BY
HIGH-TEMPERATURE ELECTROLYSIS.
HOWEVER, OPTIMIZATION OF EXISTING
REFERENCE MATERIALS CONSTITUTING THE
CELL AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF
INNOVATIVE MATERIALS REMAIN CRITICAL
FOR SOLID OXIDE ELECTROLYSIS CELLS. IN
PARTICULAR, THEY ARE KEY TO REACHING
PERFORMANCE AND DURABILITY TARGETS
COMPATIBLE WITH COMMERCIALIZATION
FOR THE THREE MAIN MARKETS IDENTIFIED
AS FOLLOWS: LARGE-SCALE H2
PRODUCTION, POWER-TO-X AND POWER-TO-
POWER.
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ELECTROLYSIS

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OPERATING
CONDITIONS
SOEC MODULES CAN OPERATE IN THREE
DIFFERENT MODES: EXOTHERMIC,
ENDOTHERMIC AND THERMONEUTRAL. IN
EXOTHERMIC MODE, THE STACK
TEMPERATURE INCREASES DURING
OPERATION DUE TO HEAT ACCUMULATION,
AND THIS HEAT IS USED FOR INLET GAS
PREHEATING. THEREFORE, AN EXTERNAL
HEAT SOURCE IS NOT NEEDED WHILE THE
ELECTRICAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION
INCREASES. IN THE ENDOTHERMIC STACK
OPERATION MODE, THERE IS AN INCREASE
IN HEAT ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND A
REDUCTION IN ELECTRICAL ENERGY
CONSUMPTION AND HYDROGEN
PRODUCTION BECAUSE THE AVERAGE
CURRENT DENSITY ALSO DECREASES. THE
THIRD MODE IS THERMONEUTRAL IN
WHICH THE HEAT GENERATED THROUGH
IRREVERSIBLE LOSSES IS EQUAL TO THE
HEAT REQUIRED BY THE REACTION. AS
THERE ARE SOME THERMAL LOSSES, AN
EXTERNAL HEAT SOURCE IS NEEDED. THIS
MODE CONSUMES MORE ELECTRICITY
THAN ENDOTHERMIC OPERATION MODE.
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ELECTROLYSIS

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RESEARCH
HYBRID-SOLID OXIDE ELECTROLYSIS CELL

WATER ELECTROLYSIS BASED ON A SOLID

OXIDE ELECTROLYSIS CELL (SOEC) HAS THE
POTENTIAL TO BE COST-EFFECTIVE,
ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY, AND HIGHLY
EFFICIENT FOR HYDROGEN PRODUCTION.
THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF SOECS, DEPENDING
ON ELECTROLYTE MATERIALS: OXYGEN ION-
CONDUCTING SOECS (OXYGEN-SOECS) AND
PROTON-CONDUCTING SOECS (PROTON-
SOECS). HERE WE REPORT OUR NEW FINDINGS
IN EXPLORING A SOEC BASED ON A MIXED-ION
CONDUCTOR THAT CAN TRANSPORT BOTH
OXYGEN ION AND PROTON AT THE SAME TIME,
WHICH IS DENOTED AS “HYBRID-SOEC”. WHEN
BAZR0.1CE0.7Y0.1YB0.1O3-WAS USED AS AN
ELECTROLYTE, THE HYBRID SOEC SHOWS THE
HIGHEST EFFICIENCY, DEMONSTRATING A
CURRENT DENSITY OF 3.16 A AT 1.3 V AND 750
°C IN 10% HUMIDIFIED HYDROGEN AT
HYDROGEN ELECTRODE AND 10% HUMIDIFIED
AIR AT AIR ELECTRODE. MOREOVER, THE
HYBRID SOEC EXHIBITS NO OBSERVABLE
DEGRADATION IN PERFORMANCE FOR MORE
THAN 60 H OF CONTINUOUS OPERATION,
IMPLYING A ROBUST SYSTEM FOR HYDROGEN
PRODUCTION.
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ELECTROLYSIS

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RESEARCH
TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF
HYDROGEN PRODUCTION
HIGH-TEMPERATURE SOLID OXIDE
ELECTROLYZER CELL (SOEC) HAS GREAT
POTENTIAL FOR EFFICIENT AND ECONOMICAL
PRODUCTION OF HYDROGEN FUEL. IN THIS
PAPER, STATE-OF-THE-ART SOEC
TECHNOLOGIES ARE REVIEWED. THE
DEVELOPMENTS OF THE IMPORTANT STEAM
ELECTROLYZER COMPONENTS, SUCH AS THE
IONIC CONDUCTING ELECTROLYTE AND THE
ELECTRODES, ARE SUMMARIZED AND
DISCUSSED. YSZ AND LSGM ARE PROMISING
ELECTROLYTE MATERIALS FOR SOEC
WORKING AT HIGH AND INTERMEDIATE
TEMPERATURES, RESPECTIVELY. WHEN CO-
DOPING OR A BLOCKING LAYER IS APPLIED,
SDC OR GDC ARE POSSIBLE ELECTROLYTE
MATERIALS FOR INTERMEDIATE-
TEMPERATURE SOEC. NI–YSZ REMAINS TO BE
THE OPTIMAL CATHODE MATERIAL.
ALTHOUGH LSM–YSZ IS WIDELY USED AS SOEC
ANODE, OTHER MATERIALS, SUCH AS LSF–YSZ,
MAY BE BETTER CHOICES AND NEED TO BE
FURTHER STUDIED. CONSIDERING THE CELL
CONFIGURATION, PLANAR SOECS ARE
PREFERRED DUE TO THEIR BETTER
MANUFACTURABILITY AND BETTER
ELECTROCHEMICAL PERFORMANCE THAN
TUBULAR CELLS. ANODE DEPOLARIZATION IS
AN EFFECTIVE METHOD TO REDUCE THE
ELECTRICAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF SOEC
HYDROGEN PRODUCTION. ALTHOUGH SOME
ELECTROCHEMICAL MODELS AND FLUID FLOW
MODELS ARE AVAILABLE, THE PRESENT
LITERATURE IS LACKING DETAILED
MODELLING ANALYSES OF THE COUPLED
HEAT/MASS TRANSFER AND
ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTION PHENOMENA
OF THE SOEC. MORE WORK, BOTH
EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL, ARE
NEEDED TO FURTHER DEVELOP SOEC
TECHNOLOGY TO PRODUCE HYDROGEN MORE
ECONOMICALLY AND EFFICIENTLY FOR THE
COMING HYDROGEN ECONOMY.