5g

Section d- disease and its impact on humans

7- reproductive system

Heredity and variation

Section d- disease and its impact on

humans
What is health? Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being. It’s not only the
absence of disease. A person is said to be healthy when he/she is free of any type of disease
(infectious/deficiency), when he/she is mentally happy and healthy and when his/her social
relationships are healthy in a society.

Physical signs- no spots on skin; no broken bone

Mental signs- free from depression and worry

Social wellbeing- have satisfactory relationship with other people; good attitude to life

There are many factors which affect health, such as:

 Poorly balanced diet.

 Genetic Disorders.

 Stress, and anxiety.

 Infection from pathogens.

 Intake of unhealthy and unhygienic food.

 Lack of exercise and other physical activities.

To maintain a good health, an individual should include a healthy and balanced diet, maintain personal
hygiene along with regular exercise and other physical activities. 

What is disease? In simple terms a disease can be defined as a disorder of structure or function of an
organism that is not a direct result of physical injury. Disease normally involves a host which is the
person and a disease agent which cause the disease.

What are pathogens? Pathogens are microorganisms that have the potential to cause infectious
diseases. Viruses, bacteria, protozoans and fungi are all potential pathogens
Infectious diseases- These diseases are caused by the pathogens, such as bacteria, virus, fungi, parasites
and can be easily transmitted from one person to another, hence it is also known as a contagious or
communicable disease. Common Cold, Tuberculosis, flu, ringworm, malaria are some examples of
infectious diseases.

Non-infectious (non-transmissible/non-communicable) diseases- Diseases which cannot be transmitted

from one person to another are called non-infectious disease, it is also known as a noncommunicable
disease. These diseases can be either caused by genetic disorders, unhealthy diets, lack of physical
activity and few environmental factors.

Types of Non-infectious (non-transmissible/non-communicable) diseases

Chronic/degenerative disease – physiological detect eg cancer, coronary heart disease

Nutritional deficiency disease – malnutrition, lack of nutrients eg vitamins

Inherited disorders-inheritance of harmful genes eg down’s syndrome, sickle cell anaemia

Difference between signs and symptoms.

Signs and symptoms are common medical terms but are frequently mixed up.

A sign is an objective, observable phenomenon that can be identified by another person. A symptom is a
subjective experience that cannot be identified by anyone else.

Examples Of Signs Vs Symptoms

Medical issue Sign (objective) Symptom (subjective)

Common cold Runny nose Sinus pain from congestion

Chickenpox Spots and blisters Fatigue

Type 2 diabetes Poor wound healing Thirst

Coronary heart disease Fast heart rate Chest pain

COVID-19 Fever Loss of taste or smell

Depression Withdrawing from friends Feelings of misery

Asthma is a major noncommunicable disease (NCD), affecting both children and adults, and is the most
common chronic disease among children. Asthma is a chronic (long-term) condition that affects the
airways in the lungs.

What causes asthma/how asthma affect respiratory tract?

Inflammation is a core underlying cause of asthma. People with asthma have inflammation in their
lungs, which can be made worse by triggers such as allergens or pollution.

People with asthma have difficulty breathing. The lining of the airways swells up, narrowing the tubes
and making it difficult to move air into and out of the lungs

Asthma symptoms vary from person to person. You may have infrequent asthma attacks, have
symptoms only at certain times — such as when exercising — or have symptoms all the time.

Asthma signs and symptoms include:

 Shortness of breath

 Chest tightness or pain

 Wheezing when exhaling, which is a common sign of asthma in children

 Trouble sleeping caused by shortness of breath, coughing or wheezing

 Coughing or wheezing attacks that are worsened by a respiratory virus, such as a cold or the flu

Treatments for asthma

There are 2 main methods of treating asthma

1. The medicine can be delivered through an inhaler so it is breathe straight into the area where it
is needed.
2. Avoid potential triggers suchs as avoiding furry pets, smoking, inhaling fumes

Chronic/lifestyle related diseases

1. Diabetes Mellitus
2. Obesity
3. Hypertension
4. Coronary heart disease

Read page 284 to 291 in hodder education text

importance of diet and exercise biology

Eating smart and being active have similar effects on our health. These include: Reduce the risk of
chronic diseases, such as diabetes, heart disease, high blood pressure, stroke, and some cancers and
associated disabilities. Prevent weight gain and/or promote weight loss.

What is acute respiratory infection? Acute respiratory infection can be defined as the infection that
makes it difficult to breathe normally.

Page 312 in hodder education

What is the cause of acute respiratory infection?

You get an upper respiratory infection when a virus (or bacteria) enters your respiratory system. For
example, you might touch an infected surface or shake hands with a person who's sick. You then touch
your mouth, nose or eyes. The germs from your hands enter and infect your body

Flu (influenza) is an infection of the nose, throat and lungs, which are part of the respiratory system.
Influenza is commonly called the flu.

Common symptoms of the flu include:

 Fever

 Aching muscles

 Chills and sweats

 Headache

 Dry, persistent cough

 Shortness of breath

 Tiredness and weakness

 Runny or stuffy nose

 Sore throat

 Eye pain

 Vomiting and diarrhea, but this is more common in children than adults

Prevention

Flu vaccination
Controlling the spread of infection

The influenza vaccine isn't 100% effective, so it's also important to take several measures to reduce the
spread of infection, including:

Wash your hands. Washing your hands often with soap and water for at least 20 seconds is an effective
way to prevent many common infections. Or use alcohol-based hand sanitizers if soap and water aren't
available.

Avoid touching your face. Avoid touching your eyes, nose and mouth.

Cover your coughs and sneezes. Cough or sneeze into a tissue or your elbow. Then wash your hands.

Clean surfaces. Regularly clean often-touched surfaces to prevent spread of infection from touching a
surface with the virus on it and then your face.

Avoid crowds. The flu spreads easily wherever people gather — in child care centers, schools, office
buildings, auditoriums and public transportation. By avoiding crowds during peak flu season, you reduce
your chances of infection.

Bronchitis is an inflammation of the lining of your bronchial tubes, which carry air to and from your
lungs. People who have bronchitis often cough up thickened mucus, which can be discolored. Bronchitis
may be either acute or chronic.

Often developing from a cold or other respiratory infection, acute bronchitis is very common. Chronic
bronchitis, a more serious condition, is a constant irritation or inflammation of the lining of the bronchial
tubes, often due to smoking.

Acute bronchitis, also called a chest cold, usually improves within a week to 10 days without lasting
effects, although the cough may linger for weeks.

Symptoms

For either acute bronchitis or chronic bronchitis, signs and symptoms may include:

 Cough

 Production of mucus (sputum), which can be clear, white, yellowish-gray or green in color —
rarely, it may be streaked with blood

 Fatigue

 Shortness of breath

 Slight fever and chills

  Chest discomfort

Causes

Acute bronchitis is usually caused by viruses, typically the same viruses that cause colds and flu
(influenza).

The most common cause of chronic bronchitis is cigarette smoking. Air pollution and dust or toxic gases
in the environment or workplace also can contribute to the condition.

Prevention

To reduce your risk of bronchitis, follow these tips:

 Avoid cigarette smoke. Cigarette smoke increases your risk of chronic bronchitis.

 Get vaccinated. Many cases of acute bronchitis result from influenza, a virus. Getting a yearly flu
vaccine can help protect you from getting the flu. You may also want to consider vaccination
that protects against some types of pneumonia.

 Wash your hands. To reduce your risk of catching a viral infection, wash your hands frequently
and get in the habit of using alcohol-based hand sanitizers.

 Wear a surgical mask. If you have COPD, you might consider wearing a face mask at work if
you're exposed to dust or fumes, and when you're going to be among crowds, such as while
traveling.

Pneumonia is an infection that inflames the air sacs in one or both lungs. The air sacs may fill with fluid
or pus (purulent material), causing cough with phlegm or pus, fever, chills, and difficulty breathing. A
variety of organisms, including bacteria, viruses and fungi, can cause pneumonia.

Signs and symptoms of pneumonia may include:

 Chest pain when you breathe or cough

 Confusion or changes in mental awareness (in adults age 65 and older)

 Cough, which may produce phlegm

 Fatigue

 Fever, sweating and shaking chills

 Lower than normal body temperature (in adults older than age 65 and people with weak
immune systems)

 Nausea, vomiting or diarrhea

  Shortness of breath

Causes

Many germs can cause pneumonia. The most common are bacteria and viruses in the air we breathe.

Prevention

To help prevent pneumonia:

 Get vaccinated. Vaccines are available to prevent some types of pneumonia and the flu. Talk
with your doctor about getting these shots. The vaccination guidelines have changed over time
so make sure to review your vaccination status with your doctor even if you recall previously
receiving a pneumonia vaccine.

 Make sure children get vaccinated. Doctors recommend a different pneumonia vaccine for
children younger than age 2 and for children ages 2 to 5 years who are at particular risk of
pneumococcal disease. Children who attend a group child care center should also get the
vaccine. Doctors also recommend flu shots for children older than 6 months.

 Practice good hygiene. To protect yourself against respiratory infections that sometimes lead to
pneumonia, wash your hands regularly or use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer.

 Don't smoke. Smoking damages your lungs' natural defenses against respiratory infections.

 Keep your immune system strong. Get enough sleep, exercise regularly and eat a healthy diet.

Sexually transmitted Infections

Sexually transmitted Infections (STIs) are infections transmitted from an infected person to an
uninfected person through sexual contact. STIs can be caused by bacteria, viruses, or parasites.
Examples include gonorrhea, genital herpes, human papillomavirus infection, HIV/AIDS, chlamydia, and
syphilis.

Gonorrhea is an infection caused by a sexually transmitted bacterium that infects both males and
females. Gonorrhea most often affects the urethra, rectum or throat. In females, gonorrhea can also
infect the cervix.

Signs and symptoms of gonorrhea infection in men include:

 Painful urination

 Pus-like discharge from the tip of the penis

 Pain or swelling in one testicle

Signs and symptoms of gonorrhea infection in women include:

  Increased vaginal discharge

 Painful urination

 Vaginal bleeding between periods, such as after vaginal intercourse

 Abdominal or pelvic pain

Causes

Gonorrhea is caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae. The gonorrhea bacteria are most often
passed from one person to another during sexual contact, including oral, anal or vaginal intercourse.

Prevention

To reduce your gonorrhea risk:

 Use a condom if you have sex. Abstaining from sex is the surest way to prevent gonorrhea. But
if you choose to have sex, use a condom during any type of sexual contact, including anal sex,
oral sex or vaginal sex.

 Limit your number of sex partners. Being in a monogamous relationship in which neither

partner has sex with anyone else can lower your risk.

 Be sure you and your partner are tested for sexually transmitted infections. Before you have
sex, get tested and share your results with each other.

 Don't have sex with someone who appears to have a sexually transmitted infection. If your
partner has signs or symptoms of a sexually transmitted infection, such as burning during
urination or a genital rash or sore, don't have sex with that person.

Ringworm of the body (tinea corporis) is a rash caused by a fungal infection. It's usually an itchy, circular
rash with clearer skin in the middle. Ringworm gets its name because of its appearance. No worm is
involved.

Signs and symptoms of ringworm may include:

 A scaly ring-shaped area, typically on the buttocks, trunk, arms and legs

 Itchiness

 A clear or scaly area inside the ring, perhaps with a scattering of bumps whose color ranges from
red on white skin to reddish, purplish, brown or gray on black and brown skin

 Slightly raised, expanding rings

  A round, flat patch of itchy skin

 Overlapping rings

Causes
Ringworm is a contagious fungal infection caused by common mold-like parasites that
live on the cells in the outer layer of your skin. It can be spread in the following ways:

 Human to human. Ringworm often spreads by direct, skin-to-skin contact

with an infected person.

 Animal to human. You can contract ringworm by touching an animal with

ringworm. Ringworm can spread while petting or grooming dogs or cats. It's
also fairly common in cows.

 Object to human. It's possible for ringworm to spread by contact with

objects or surfaces that an infected person or animal has recently touched
or rubbed against, such as clothing, towels, bedding and linens, combs, and
brushes.

 Soil to human. In rare cases, ringworm can be spread to humans by

contact with infected soil. Infection would most likely occur only from
prolonged contact with highly infected soil.

Prevention
Ringworm is difficult to prevent. The fungus that causes it is common, and the condition
is contagious even before symptoms appear. Take these steps to reduce your risk of
ringworm:

 Educate yourself and others. Be aware of the risk of ringworm from

infected people or pets. Tell your children about ringworm, what to watch for
and how to avoid infection.

 Keep clean. Wash your hands often. Keep shared areas clean, especially
in schools, child care centers, gyms and locker rooms. If you participate in
contact sports, shower right after practice or a match and keep your uniform
and gear clean.
  Stay cool and dry. Don't wear thick clothing for long periods of time in
warm, humid weather. Avoid excessive sweating.

 Avoid infected animals. The infection often looks like a patch of skin

where fur is missing. If you have pets or other animals, ask your veterinarian
to check them for ringworm.

 Don't share personal items. Don't let others use your clothing, towels,
hairbrushes, sports gear or other personal items. And don't borrow such
things.

Typhoid fever is caused by Salmonella typhi bacteria. Typhoid fever is rare in developed
countries. It is still a serious health threat in the developing world, especially for
children.

Contaminated food and water or close contact with an infected person cause typhoid
fever. Signs and symptoms usually include:

 High fever

 Headache

 Stomach pain

 Constipation or diarrhea

Signs and symptoms include:

 Fever that starts low and increases daily, possibly reaching as high as 104.9
F (40.5 C)

 Headache

 Weakness and fatigue

 Muscle aches

 Sweating

 Dry cough

 Loss of appetite and weight loss

 Stomach pain
  Diarrhea or constipation

 Rash

 Extremely swollen stomach

Prevention
Safe drinking water, improved sanitation and adequate medical care can help prevent
and control typhoid fever. Unfortunately, in many developing nations, these may be
difficult to achieve. For this reason, some experts believe that vaccines are the best way
to control typhoid fever.

A vaccine is recommended if you live in or are traveling to areas where the risk of
getting typhoid fever is high.

 Wash your hands. Frequent hand-washing in hot, soapy water is the best way to control
infection. Wash before eating or preparing food and after using the toilet. Carry an alcohol-
based hand sanitizer for times when water isn't available.

 Avoid drinking untreated water. Contaminated drinking water is a particular problem in areas

where typhoid fever is endemic. For that reason, drink only bottled water or canned or bottled
carbonated beverages, wine and beer. Carbonated bottled water is safer than non-carbonated
bottled water.

Ask for drinks without ice. Use bottled water to brush your teeth, and try not to swallow water in the
shower.

 Avoid raw fruits and vegetables. Because raw produce may have been washed in contaminated
water, avoid fruits and vegetables that you can't peel, especially lettuce. To be absolutely safe,
you may want to avoid raw foods entirely.

 Choose hot foods. Avoid food that's stored or served at room temperature. Steaming hot foods
are best. And although there's no guarantee that meals served at the finest restaurants are safe,
it's best to avoid food from street vendors — it's more likely to be infected.

Tuberculosis (TB) is a potentially serious infectious disease that mainly affects the lungs. The bacteria
that cause tuberculosis are spread from person to person through tiny droplets released into the air via
coughs and sneezes.

Signs and symptoms of active TB include:

 Coughing for three or more weeks

  Coughing up blood or mucus

 Chest pain, or pain with breathing or coughing

 Unintentional weight loss

 Fatigue

 Fever

 Night sweats

 Chills

 Loss of appetite

Tuberculosis is caused by bacteria that spread from person to person through microscopic droplets
released into the air. This can happen when someone with the untreated, active form of tuberculosis
coughs, speaks, sneezes, spits, laughs or sings.

Prevention

If you test positive for latent TB infection, your doctor might advise you to take medications to reduce
your risk of developing active tuberculosis. Only active TB is contagious.

Protect your family and friends

If you have active TB, it generally takes a few weeks of treatment with TB medications before you're not
contagious anymore. Follow these tips to help keep your friends and family from getting sick:

 Stay home. Don't go to work or school or sleep in a room with other people during the first few
weeks of treatment.

 Ventilate the room. Tuberculosis germs spread more easily in small closed spaces where air
doesn't move. If it's not too cold outdoors, open the windows and use a fan to blow indoor air
outside.

 Cover your mouth. Use a tissue to cover your mouth anytime you laugh, sneeze or cough. Put
the dirty tissue in a bag, seal it and throw it away.

 Wear a face mask. Wearing a face mask when you're around other people during the first three
weeks of treatment may help lessen the risk of transmission.

Cholera is a bacterial disease usually spread through contaminated water. Cholera causes severe
diarrhea and dehydration. Left untreated, cholera can be fatal within hours, even in previously healthy
people.
Symptoms of cholera infection can include:

 Diarrhea. Cholera-related diarrhea comes on suddenly and can quickly cause dangerous fluid
loss — as much as a quart (about 1 liter) an hour. Diarrhea due to cholera often has a pale, milky
appearance that resembles water in which rice has been rinsed.

 Nausea and vomiting. Vomiting occurs especially in the early stages of cholera and can last for
hours.

 Dehydration. Dehydration can develop within hours after cholera symptoms start and range
from mild to severe. A loss of 10% or more of body weight indicates severe dehydration.

Causes
A bacterium called Vibrio cholerae causes cholera infection

Cholera bacteria might not cause illness in all people who are exposed to them, but they still pass the
bacteria in their stool, which can contaminate food and water supplies.

Contaminated water supplies are the main source of cholera infection. The bacterium can be found in:

 Surface or well water. Contaminated public wells are frequent sources of large-scale cholera
outbreaks. People living in crowded conditions without adequate sanitation are especially at
risk.

 Seafood. Eating raw or undercooked seafood, especially shellfish, that comes from certain
places can expose you to cholera bacteria. Most recent cases of cholera in the United States
have been traced to seafood from the Gulf of Mexico.

 Raw fruits and vegetables. Raw, unpeeled fruits and vegetables are a frequent source of
cholera infection in areas where there's cholera. In developing countries, uncomposted manure
fertilizers or irrigation water containing raw sewage can contaminate produce in the field.

 Grains. In regions where cholera is widespread, grains such as rice and millet that are
contaminated after cooking and kept at room temperature for several hours can grow cholera
bacteria.

Prevention
 Wash your hands with soap and water frequently, especially after using the toilet and before
handling food. Rub soapy, wet hands together for at least 15 seconds before rinsing. If soap and
water aren't available, use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer.
  Drink only safe water, including bottled water or water you've boiled or disinfected yourself.
Use bottled water even to brush your teeth.

Hot beverages are generally safe, as are canned or bottled drinks, but wipe the outside before you open
them. Don't add ice to your drinks unless you made it yourself using safe water.

 Eat food that's completely cooked and hot and avoid street vendor food, if possible. If you do
buy a meal from a street vendor, make sure it's cooked in your presence and served hot.

 Avoid sushi, as well as raw or improperly cooked fish and seafood of any kind.

 Stick to fruits and vegetables that you can peel yourself, such as bananas, oranges and
avocados. Stay away from salads and fruits that can't be peeled, such as grapes and berries.

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a chronic, potentially life-threatening

condition caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). By damaging your
immune system, HIV interferes with your body's ability to fight infection and disease.

HIV is a sexually transmitted infection (STI). It can also be spread by contact with
infected blood and from illicit injection drug use or sharing needles. It can also be
spread from mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth or breastfeeding. Without
medication, it may take years before HIV weakens your immune system to the point that
you have AIDS.

There's no cure for HIV/AIDS, but medications can control the infection and prevent
progression of the disease. Antiviral treatments for HIV have reduced AIDS deaths
around the world.

Symptoms

The symptoms of HIV and AIDS vary, depending on the phase of infection.

Primary infection (Acute HIV)

Some people infected by HIV develop a flu-like illness within 2 to 4 weeks after the virus
enters the body. This illness, known as primary (acute) HIV infection, may last for a few
weeks.

Possible signs and symptoms include:

 Fever
  Headache

 Muscle aches and joint pain

 Rash

 Sore throat and painful mouth sores

 Swollen lymph glands, mainly on the neck

 Diarrhea

 Weight loss

 Cough

 Night sweats

These symptoms can be so mild that you might not even notice them

Transmission/How HIV spreads

To become infected with HIV, infected blood, semen or vaginal secretions must enter
your body. This can happen in several ways:

 By having sex. You may become infected if you have vaginal, anal or oral sex
with an infected partner whose blood, semen or vaginal secretions enter your
body. The virus can enter your body through mouth sores or small tears that
sometimes develop in the rectum or vagina during sexual activity.

 By sharing needles. Sharing contaminated injection drug paraphernalia

(needles and syringes) puts you at high risk of HIV and other infectious diseases,
such as hepatitis.

 From blood transfusions. In some cases, the virus may be transmitted through
blood transfusions. Hospitals and blood banks screen the blood supply for HIV,
so this risk is very small in the U.S. and other upper-middle-income countries.
 The risk may be higher in low-income countries that are not able to screen all
donated blood.

 During pregnancy or delivery or through breastfeeding. Infected mothers can

pass the virus on to their babies. Mothers who are HIV-positive and get treatment
for the infection during pregnancy can significantly lower the risk to their babies.

Treatment
Currently, there's no cure for HIV/AIDS. Once you have the infection, your body can't
get rid of it. However, there are many medications that can control HIV and prevent
complications. These medications are called antiretroviral therapy (ART)

Treatment side effects can include:

 Nausea, vomiting or diarrhea

 Heart disease

 Kidney and liver damage

 Weakened bones or bone loss

 Abnormal cholesterol levels

 Higher blood sugar

 Cognitive and emotional problems, as well as sleep problems

Page 366 table in phill gaad

effects of sti on pregnant mother and foetus

STIs can cause many of the same health problems in pregnant women as in women who are not
pregnant. But having an STI also can hurt the unborn baby's health.

Having an STI during pregnancy can cause:

  Premature labor (labor before 37 weeks of pregnancy). Early (preterm) birth is the number one
cause of infant death and can lead to long-term developmental and health problems in
children.1

 Infection in the uterus (womb) after birth

Some STIs can be passed from a pregnant woman to the baby before and during the
baby's birth.

 Some STIs, such as syphilis, cross the placenta and infect the baby in the womb.
 Other STIs, like gonorrhea, chlamydia, hepatitis B, and genital herpes, can pass from the
mother to the baby as the baby passes through the birth canal.
 HIV can cross the placenta during pregnancy and infect the baby during delivery.

The harmful effects to babies may include:

 Low birth weight (less than 5 pounds)

 Eye infection
 Pneumonia
 Infection in the baby's blood
 Brain damage
 Lack of coordination in body movements
 Blindness
 Deafness
 Acute hepatitis
 Meningitis
 Chronic liver disease, which can lead to scarring of the liver (cirrhosis)
 Stillbirth

the impact of human disease on human population

An infectious disease may reduce or even stop the exponential growth of a population.

Disease may cause economic loss in feedlots through mortality, treatment cost

discuss the effects of malaria and dengue strain 1-4 on the human
body
table page 337 phil gaad

spreading infectious disease

page 299 hodder education

under vectors

rat: run on food

mosquito:

housefly:

describe the life cycle of the mosquito and housefly;

page 330 and 334

phill gaad

page 326 to 335 hodder

explain the importance and methods of controlling vectors which

affect human health;
Vector control is crucial to reduce the incidence of infection from diseases; this is especially important
for those for which there is currently no effective cure or preventive medical measures available, such as
Dengue, West Nile virus and Chikungunya virus.

What are the methods of vector control?

Vector control involves using preventive methods to eradicate or control vector populations, in order to

limit the transmission and spread of diseases. Preventative measures include:

• Habitat control: Removing or reducing the number of places where the vector can breed helps to

limit populations from growing excessively. For example, by removing stagnant water, removing old

tires and empty cans which serve as mosquito breeding habitats and through good management of

used water.

• Reducing contact with vectors: Reducing the risk of exposure to insects or animals that are vectors

of diseases can limit the risk of infection. For example, using bed nets, adding window screens to

homes, or wearing protective clothing can help reduce the likelihood of coming into contact with
vectors. An important component of exposure reduction is also the promotion of health education

and raising awareness of risks. Bed nets treated with insecticide can reduce the risk of insect bites

and infection.

• Chemical control: Insecticides, larvicides, rodenticides and repellents are used to control pests and

can be used to control vectors. For example, larvicides can be used in mosquito breeding zones;

insecticides can be applied to house walls (indoor residual spraying); bed nets treated with

insecticide and use of personal skin repellents can reduce the risk of insect bites and thus infection.

The use of pesticides for vector control is supported by the World Health Organization (WHO) and

has proven to be highly effective.

• Biological control: The use of predators (natural enemies of the vectors), bacterial toxins or

botanical compounds can help control vector populations. For example, using fish that eat mosquito

larvae or the introduction of sterilized male tsetse flies in order to reduce the breeding rate of these

flies are methods to control vectors and reduce the risk of infection.

All these measures are important elements for an integrated approach to control the spread of
vectorborne diseases. The choice of the most appropriate method(s) to use depends on the disease
pattern and behavior of the vector

Hygiene and defences against disease

What is hygiene and why is it important?

In general, hygiene refers to practices that prevent spread of disease-causing organisms. Cleaning
processes (e.g., handwashing) remove infectious microbes as well as dirt and soil, and are thus often the
means to achieve hygiene.

The term ‘food hygiene’ refers particularly to the practices that prevent microbial contamination of food
at all points along the chain from farm to table. 

Within this overall aim, the specific objectives for food hygiene are to:

 Prevent food spoilage, i.e. changes that make food unfit for consumption due to microbial or
chemical contamination.
  Inform and educate people about simple and practical methods of keeping food safe to protect
themselves against foodborne diseases.

 Protect food from adulteration (intentional contamination).

 Ensure proper practice in the food trade to prevent the sale of food that is offensive or defective
in value and quality.

Sterilization describes a process that destroys or eliminates all forms of microbial life

Pasteurization is the process used to preserve milk by heat treatment.

autoclaving, boiling, canning). (b) Effects of high temperatures, disinfectants and antiseptics in the
control of microorganisms. (c) Disinfection - use of chemical agents (chlorine, disinfectants, antiseptics).

Page 306 to307 phil gaad

Disinfectant vs antiseptic

Antiseptics and disinfectants are both widely used to control infections. They kill microorganisms such as
bacteria, viruses, and fungi using chemicals called biocides. Disinfectants are used to kill germs on
nonliving surfaces. Antiseptics kill microorganisms on your skin

Antibiotics- A drug used to treat infections caused by bacteria and other microorganisms.

Antigen- An antigen is any substance that causes your immune system to produce antibodies against
it. 

Antibody- A protein made by plasma cells (a type of white blood cell) in response to an antigen (a
substance that causes the body to make a specific immune response).

An antitoxin is an antibody with the ability to neutralize a specific toxin

The immune system

What is the Immune System?

The Immune System consists of different types of cells and molecules, which protect our body
against pathogens. Pathogens are defined as everything from parasites to fungi, bacteria, viruses
and haptens. Haptens are molecules that may cause an immune response when they come in
contact with a protein. All these cells and molecules are distributed in all the tissues of the body as
well as lymphoid organs, which eliminate or prevent microbial infections to decrease the growth of
tumours and start the repairing process of damaged tissues.

Page 313 to 318 phil gaad

Immunity is the resistance to disease.

Types of Immunity

Natural and artificial immunity.

Natural immunity: natural innate active and natural innate passive

Natural immunity

Antibodies generated due to a normal infection. Includes antibodies provided by mother through their
colostrum, the initial breastmilk. Only protects for short time, but when infant is most vulnerable.

Natural innate active/Active immunity

Immunity derived from antibodies generated by own body. Generated in response to normal infection
or in response to vaccine antigens. For example, the skin, the barrier of the human body functions by
protecting the entry of germs and other disease-causing pathogens.

Natural innate passive/Passive immunity

Immunity derived from antibodies from another body, such as given through mother's milk or artificial
means (antivenom antibodies). Generally does not last as long as active immunity as antibodies are not
supplied by the body.

Artificial/adaptive immunity

Antibodies generated by receiving antigen in a vaccine/serum rather than a normal infection. Generally
does not last as long as when generate antibodies from a natural infection.

The use and misuse of drugs

What is drug and its uses?

(drug) Any substance (other than food) that is used to prevent, diagnose, treat, or relieve symptoms of a
disease or abnormal condition. Drugs can also affect how the brain and the rest of the body work and
cause changes in mood, awareness, thoughts, feelings, or behavior.

Prescription drug- taken under medical advice for prevention or cure of diseases. Eg paracetamol and
aspirin for pain

Drug abuse- taking drugs in excess or reasons other than medical use so they harm their body mentally
and physically.

Drug dependence addiction – is the addiction when a person wants to repeatedly take a drug which they
rely on for support.

Non-prescription drug- includes cocaine, LSD, heroin, ecstasy, alcohol, marijuana

Classification of drugs

Narcotics- heroin, morphine

Stimulants- cocaine, caffeine

Sedatives- tranquilisers

Hallucinogens- cannabis, ecstasy

Performance drug- anabolic steroids

NB: sometimes drugs are classified as types A, B, C according to the danger their danger in society.

Heroine- causes serious social problems. Heroin is a depressant acting on the central nervous system
which may relieve tensions and anxiety at first. The pupils of the eyes become smaller and user have no
desire for food, drink or sexual activity.

Tranquilizer and sleeping pills- slow down body functions. In excess cause blurred speech and poor
muscle coordination. This is dangerous because of the mental illness often associated. The effects are
particularly dangerous if taken with alcohol.

Cocaine- white powder commonly called crack or snow that acts as a powerful stimulant. It causes
increase activity of the heart rate, blood pressure and body temperature. May cause sudden death, skin
abscesses, weight loss.

Marijuana – otherwise known as ganja or herb. It is taken to produce euphoria (high). Causes the pupils
to enlarge with glassy eyes apathy (loss of interest in all around). Memory loss and unpleasant
hallucinations may occur including panic and fear.

Steroids- mainly obtained from the sex hormones such as testosterone. These drugs are taken to
improve athletic performance by forming protein for increasing muscle growth.

Assignment

Write about the social effects of illegal drug taking.

Reproductive system