FOUNDATIONS The lowest artificially prepared parts of the structure which are in direct contact with the ground and which transmit loads of the structure to the ground are known as foundation Coles ots (allo Ess2.1 FOUNDATIONS The solid ground on which the foundation rest is called the “foundation bed” and it ultimately bears the load and interacts with the foundations of buildings. Foundation also provides a base for the super~ structure proper. This term includes the portion of the structure below the ground level as well as the artificial arrangement of concrete block, piles, raft, grillage, etc. provided to transmit the loads on the structure including the dead load of the structure itself to the soil below. Purpose of foundation ‘The purpose of building a foundation is to provide a solid, level base for a structure, such as a building or a bridge, to transfer its weight and load to the ground. The foundation must also resist the lateral and uplift forces generated by wind, earthquakes, and other external factors. (a) To distribute the total load coming on the structure on a large area so as to avoid overloading of the soil beneath. (b) To load the sub-stratum evenly and thus prevents unequal settlement. (©) To prepare a level surface for concreting and masonry work. (@ To take the structure deep into the ground and thus increase its stability, preventing overturning.2.2 SOIL EXPLORATION * Site investigation or Soil explorations are done for obtaining the information about subsurface conditions at the site proposed for construction. = Soil exploration consists of determining the profile of the natural soil deposits at the site, taking the soil samples and determining the engineering properties of soils using laboratory tests as well as in- situ testing methods. * Determination of: v Nature of Soll deposit ¥ Depth and thickness of soil strata ¥ Horizontal extent of soil deposit v Depth of GWT v Engineering properties of Soil ¥ In-situ soil propertiesOBJECTIVES OF SOIL EXPLORATION = To access the general suitability of the site. = To achieve safe and economical design of foundations and temporary works. = To know the nature of each stratum and engineering properties of the soil and rock, this may affect the design and mode of construction of proposed structure and foundation. = To foresee and provide against difficulties that may arise during construction due to ground and other local Conditions. = To find out the sources of construction material and selection of sites for disposal of water or surplus material. = To investigate the occurrence or causes of all natural and manmade changes in conditions and the results arising from such changes. = To ensure the safety of surrounding existing structures. = To design for the failed structures or remedial measures for the structures deemed to be unsafe. = To locate the ground water level and possible corrosive effect of soil and water on foundation material.METHODS OF SOIL EXPLORATION c 2 6 i 2 a x ui ‘0 wn Direct Methods Test Pits, Trial Pits, Trenches Semi Direct Methods Borings Indirect Methods Sounding and Geophysical testing1. TEST/TRIAL PITS Trial pits are the cheapest method of exploration in shallow deposits. In this method, pits are excavated at the site, exposing the sub-soil surface thoroughly. Soil samples are collected at various levels. The biggest advantage of this method is that soil strata can be inspected in their natural condition and samples. The method is generally considered suitable for shallow depths, say up to 3m. Uneconomical at greater depths.2. BORINGS Making or drilling a bore holes into the ground with Methods of a view to obtain soil or rock samples from specified or known depth is called ‘Boring’. ‘The process consists of (Drilling a hole and visually examining the cuttings coming out from different depths Soran cout CA Xo) (olsYA-folt] (ii) Lifting the soil samples from different depths by Seacctsr a) using mechanical devices called samplers.I. AUGER BORING Q Most effective in clayey soil becinge || tehor Operate either ~~ manually — or a ooo mechanically. warrgtesl Q Hand augers are used up to a depth 6 eee m and use mechanically operated augers for higher depth Q Disturbed sample obtained and useful for identification purpose only. Q Used for small depth of exploration. Q Eg. Shallow Foundation, highway/road foundation ete.Il. WASH BORING Wash boring is a fast and simple method for advancing holes in all types of soils, Tt can be used in all types of soils except boulders and rock. The method consists of first driving a casing through which a hollow drilled rod with a sharp chisel. Water is forced under pressure through the drill rod which is alternatively raised and dropped, and also rotated. The resulting chopping and jetting action of the bit and water disintegrates the soil. ‘The cuttings are forced up to the ground surface in the form of soil water slurry through the annular space between the drill rod and the easing. The change in soil stratification could be guessed from the rate of progress and colour of wash water. The samples recovered from the wash water are almost valueless for interpreting the correct geotechnical properties of soilIll. ROTARY DRILLING Rotary boring or rotary drilling is a very fast method of advancing hole in both rocks and soils. A drill bit, fixed to the lower end of the drill rods, is rotated by a suitable chuck and is always kept in firm contact with the bottom of the hole. A drilling mud, usually a water solution of bentonite, with or without other admixtures, is continuously forced down to the hollow drill rods. The mud returning upwards brings the cuttings to the surface. The method is also known as mud rotary drilling. ating | owIV. PERCUSSION BORING = In this method, soil and rock formations are broken by repeated blows of heavy chisel or bit suspended by a cable or drill rod. = Water is added to the hole during boring, if not already present and the slurry of pulverized material is bailed out at intervals. = Suitable for all types of soil, boulders and rock.NUMBER AND DISPOSITION OF TRIAL PITS AND BORINGS () For a compact building site having area of 0.4 hectares, one bore hole or trial pit in each corner and one in the centre should be adequate. (ii) For small and less important buildings, even one bore hole or trial pit in the centre will sufficient. ii) For very large areas covering industrial and residential colonies, the geological nature of the terrain will help in deciding the number of bore holes or trial pits. Dynamic or static cone penetration tests may be performed at every 100 meters by dividing the area into grid patterns and number of bore holes or trial pits decided by examining the variation in the penetration curves.Pale) ites m3 ites) |. Sub-Surface Sounding = Measure the resistance of the soil with depth by means of penetrometer under static or dynamic loading. = The resistance to penetration is empirically correlated with some of engineering properties of soil, such as density index, bearing capacity ete. = Applicable for cohesionless soil, from which difficult to obtain undisturbed samples. ll. Geo-Physical Methods Applicable for very large depth of exploration and speed of investigation is of primary importance. Methods of geo— physical investigation are: * Gravitational method = Magnetic method = Seismic refraction method = Electrical resistivity method Seismic refraction method and electrical resistivity methods are the most commonly used for civil engineering purposes.Pale) ites m3 ites) [Seismographh Explosive 7 Ammeter Charged, [shock point) 2 i Refiacted Ray kK p + — p 4 — pH Retacied Ray ty Method Fig: Seismic Refraction Method Fig: ResisMETHODS OF IMPROVING BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL Sometimes the safe bearing pressure of soil is so low that the dimensions of the footing work out to be very large and uneconomical. It is becomes essential to improve the safe bearing pressure which can be done by the following methods. The following techniques can be used for improving bearing capacity of soil as per the site condition. = Increasing depth of foundation = Draining the soil = Compacting the soil = Confining the soil = Replacing the poor soil = Using grouting material Stabilizing the soil with chemicalsMETHODS OF IMPROVING BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL (a) Increasing depth of foundation At deeper depths, the over burden pressure on soil is higher: hence the soil is more compacted at deeper depth. As a result it shows higher bearing capacity. This is applicable only for cohesion less soils such as sandy and gravelly soils. This method of improving bearing capacity of soil is not applicable if the subsoil material grows wetter as depth increase. This method has a limited use because with increase in depth, the weight and cost of foundation also increases. (b) Draining the soil With increase in percentage of water content in soil, the bearing capacity decreases. In case of sandy soil, the bearing capacity may reduce as much as 50% due to presence of water content. Cohesion less soils (i.e. sandy & gravelly soils) can be drained by laying the porous pipes to a gentle slope, over a bed of sand and filling the trenches above the pipes with loose boulders. ‘These trenches subsequently should lead to the nearest well or any water body.METHODS OF IMPROVING BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL (©) Compacting the soil: If we compact soil using appropriate method, then there will be increase in its density and shear strength. As a result the bearing capacity of soil also increases. There are many methods of compacting soils on site. Few of them are mentioned below. () By spreading broken stones, gravel or sand and thereafter ramming well in the bed of trenches. (ii) Using an appropriate roller as per the soil type to move at a specified speed. (ii) By driving concrete piles or wood piles and with drawing piles and subsequently filling the holes with sand or concrete. Compaction of soil can be effectively achieved by the following means. = Ramming most soil, Rubble compaction into the soil, Flooding the soil, Vibration, Vibro- flotation, Compaction by preloading and using sand piles ete.METHODS OF IMPROVING BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL «) Confining the soil: In this method, the soils are enclosed with the help of sheet piles. This confined soil is further compacted to get more strength. This method is applicable for shallow foundations. ‘The tendency of lateral movement can be checked by confining the soil, outside the perimeter of foundation area, by driving sheet piles, thus forming an enclosure and confining the soil. (c) Replacing the poor soil: In this method the poor soil is first removed and then the gap is filled up by superior material such as sand, stone, gravel or any other hard material. In order to do this, first excavate a foundation trench of about 1.5 m deep, and then fill the hard material is stages of 30 cm. Then compact the hard material at every stage. This method is useful for foundations in black cotton soils.METHODS OF IMPROVING BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL (©. Using grouting material: ‘This method is applicable for soils where there is presence of pores, fissures or cracks ete underneath the foundation. In this method, poor soil bearing strata is hardened by injecting the cement grout under pressure, because it scales off any cracks or pores or fissures ete. For proper distribution of the cement grout, the ground is bored and perforated pipes are introduced to force the grout. Suitable in loose gravels and fissured rocky strata. (@) Stabilizing the soil with chemicals: ‘This method of improving bearing capacity of soil is costly and applied in exceptional cases. In this method, chemical solutions, like silicates of soda and calcium chloride is injected with pressure into the soil. 'These chemical along with the soil particles form a gel like structure and develop a compact mass. This is called chemical stabilization of soil and used to give additional strength to soft soils at deeper depths. Certain chemicals are grouted in the place of cement grout. The chemical should be such that it can solidity and gain early strength.PLATE LOAD TEST = Plate load test is a field test to determine the ultimate bearing capacity of soil and the problem settlement under a given loading. = The test consists in loading a rigid plate at the foundation level, and determining the settlements corresponding to each load increment. = The ultimate bearing capacity is then taken as. the load at which the plate starts sinking at a rapid rate.PLATE LOAD TEST — TEST PROCEDURE 1. Asetting load of 7kN/m2 is applied and released. 2. First load, 1/10* of the anticipated safe load. 5. Now load is applied with an increment of 20% of safe load. Load and settlement data recorded at every 1,5,10,20,40, and 60 min and after that for every 1 hour. 5. Test is stopped when, Total load applied is 1.5 times of safe load OR, Total 25mm settlement is reached OR, Land) Plot load settlement curve. Also, following formula can be used to determine bearing capacity. Pact pene genre?PLATE LOAD TEST — TEST PROCEDURE fe. 5B» ——_-4 '#————- ss, ————_4 Bearing Plate of foundation (b) Plan (a) Section Fig: Test pit2.3 TYPES OF FOUNDATION = A foundation is that part of the Foundation Stems structure which is in direct contact with the ground to which Salon Foudaon Deep Fooion the loads are transmitted. As we z know that there are different panama types of soil and bearing capacity of the soil is different for each f individual type of soil. Tolaed pred | [Wal fooings | [Combined] { Caileveror fons teange_| | se foange = So depending on the soil profile, ne size and load of the structure, foundation engineers chose different types of foundation.A. SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS When a depth of foundation is less than the width of foundation then it is known as Shallow Foundation. Generally, shallow foundation placed no more than 6 ft depth from the lowest finished floor. Ashallow foundation is generally used when, The sufficient bearing capacity of soil available at shallow depth. Foundation material or strata do not result in undue settlement. The shallow foundation has a minimum depth of about 800 mm and the maximum depth, not more than 4 meters the ground. This type’s foundations are popular for low rise building construction.B. DEEP FOUNDATIONS ‘A foundation that is placed at a greater depth or transfers the loads to deep strata is called a deep foundation. Greater than the shallow foundation. Deep foundations distribute the weight of the superstructure vertically rather than laterally as compared to shallow foundations. This foundations are provided when the required loads from the superstructure cannot supported on shallow foundations. Hantstate (a) Bd bearing pile {it tit it tits qt ate tt ite itt V (Freon pieSHALLOW VS DEEP FOUNDATIONS Shallow Foundations are commonly used for smaller projects and when the top layer of soil can adequately handle the distribution of weight. Deep Foundations transfer the load down to a layer of substrata bedrock to ensure structural integrity.TYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS - (SPREAD FOOTINGS) 1. Spread footings Spread footings are those which spread the super imposed load of wall or column over a larger area. It is one of the simplest and worldwide popular types of foundation. An isolated footing is mostly used to support a single column. Single footing for a column Stepped footing for a column Sloped fooling for a column Wall footing for a column Stepped footing for wall Grillage foundation 7, (olan | | (Single footing) Stepped footing ig Spe fing fr clans Z) (© Sloped footingTYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS - (SPREAD FOOTINGS) Advantages of isolated spread footing In this type of footings, shuttering material requirement is very less, which is making it economical compared to others. No skilled labor is required. It is time-saving because of simple shape.TYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS — (COMBINED FOOTINGS) 2. Combined Footings A spread footing which supports two or more columns is termed as combined footing. The combined footings may be of the following kinds. = Rectangular combined footing = Trapezoidal combined footing open ae = Combined column wall footingsTYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS — (COMBINED FOOTINGS) Following are the situation when we can use combined footing, = When center to center distance between columns is small and soil has a low bearing capacity. Individual column footing may overlap each other. In case when the column is located near to property line and sewer line, the column center of gravity will not coincide with footing. Then, it is necessary to provide combined this footing with that of the adjacent internal column. Dimensions of one side of footing are restricted to due to any reason, so that column footings may be combined. (RecaroTYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS - (STRAP FOOTINGS) 3. Strap Footings = When two or more footing is connected by a beam, it is known as combined footing and beam connecting footing are known as a strap. = When a square or rectangular footing located near to property line and if it concentrically located under the column would extend into the adjoining property, which may not be permissible. = For such a situation a trapezoidal combined footing may be an alternative. = Strap footings are similar to combined footings and reasons for considering or choosing strap footing is similar to the combined footing. sirapbeam_[——] 2) fo-Footng of wal ig: Srp tngTYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS - (MAT FOUNDATIONS) 4. Mat/ Raft Foundations Araft foundation is also known as Mat foundation, it a continuous slab covers the entire are of building a foundation and transfer its weight to the ground. Mat foundation required for following conditions. = Allowable soil pressure is low and building loads are heavy = Compressible soil mass = Reduce settlement above highly compressible soils. ‘Types: (a) Flat plate type, (b) Flat plate thickened under columns (©) Flat plate with pladestals (@) Two way beam and slab type (e) Cellular construction (f) Basement walls as rigid frameTYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS - (MAT FOUNDATIONS) = A Raft foundation also used for low bearing capacity soil, as it distributes the weight of the building over the entire area of the building, and not over the smaller zone or at the individual point. Ultimately reduces the stress per area on the soil. The stress concept is very simple for civil engineers. We know that stress is ratio weight by area. For example, if a building has are 10m x 10 m weighs 100 tons, and has a raft foundation, then the stress on the soil is weight/area = 100/100 = 1 ton per square meter. = In another case, if the same building has 4 individual footings, each of Im X Im, then the total area of the foundation would be 4 m2, and the stress on the soil would be 100/4, which is about 25 tons per square meter. So it increases load per unit area on the foundation.TYPES OF DEEP FOUNDATIONS — Pile foundation is that type of deep foundation in which the loads are taken to a low level by means of vertical members which may be of timber, concrete or steel. Pile foundation is a common type of deep foundation. ‘They are used to reduce cost and when as per soil condition considerations, it is desirable to transmit loads to soil strata which are beyond the reach of shallow foundations. Pile is a slender member with a small cross-sectional area compared to its length. It is used to transmit foundation loads to a deeper soil or rock strata when the bearing capacity of soil near the surface is relatively low. Pile transmits load either by skin friction or bearing. Piles are also used for resist structures against uplift and provide structures stability against lateral and overturning forces. = No firm bearing strata exist at any reasonable depth and the loading is uneven. = Strip or spread footing is uneconomical. = High water tableTYPES OF DEEP FOUNDATIONS — ‘Types of pile foundation 3 = End bearing pile 4 = Friction pole —} = Combine end bearing and « friction pole ~a = Compaction piles HI t} t t| (6 Combed er beating, (2 Compaction pleTYPES OF DEEP FOUNDATIONS Well foundation is a type of deep foundation which is generally provided below the water level for bridges. Well foundations are used for major foundations works, such as for = Bridge piers and abutments in rivers, lakes, ete. = Break water and other structures for shore protections. = Large water front structures such as pump houses, subjected to heavy vertical and horizontal loads. Lctten trop pis Sond fing ‘steing Bottom olua| Fig: Well founndat zy Sheng sageEARTHWORK EXCAVATION OF FOUNDATIONS Excavation procedure for foundation construction requires site clearance, setting out, excavation and safety measures based on depth of excavation. BEFORE 1, Site Clearance Before Excavation for Foundation Before the excavation for the proposed foundation is commenced, the site shall be cleared of vegetation, brushwood, stumps of trees etc. Roots of the trees shall be removed to at least 30 cm below the foundation Bikes level. The pits formed due to roots of trees, old — ‘AFTER foundations etc. shall be filled up with soil and = compacted.EARTHWORK EXCAVATION OF FOUNDATIONS 2. Setting out of foundation Setting out of building foundation trenches is the process of laying down the excavation line and centerline on the ground based on the foundation plan. The setting out process is also called as ground tracing that is performed before commencing the excavation process. Once the design of foundation is complete, a setting out plan or foundation layout is prepared for a suitable scale and the plan is dimensioned accordingly.EARTHWORK EXCAVATION OF FOUNDATIONS be done either manually with the help of conventional implements, shown in figure. or with the help of special . mechanical equipment. - : 6 For small buildings, excavation is carried a) out manually by means of pick axes, y = crowbars, spades etc. In case of large (0) buildings and deep excavation, NW ie mechanical earth cutting equipment s 7 = = can be used. Implements for foundation excavation (Conventional Tools) is shown in figure: 3. Excavation [Convention Tools] Excavation of foundation trenches can \ ule it Is i t } i 1EARTHWORK EXCAVATION OF FOUNDATIONS 3. a a Excavation [ Excavation Mechanical Equipment] Fig (a) shows a drag shovel which can excavate the foundation trench up to a width of 1.7 m. Fig () shows a multi-bucket trencher, which can excavate trenches up to 1.5 m width and 5 m deep. The boom is raised and lowered as required by the driver moving a lever and can be locked in any position. The spoil is carried up from the trench by buckets (having cutting teeth) attached to a continuous steel chain and tipped on to a belt conveyor at the top the tise, from where it is deposited to either left or right hand side of the trench. fe) MuuTi~ pucker TRenenen 1. Boom 2. Bocce 3. Dipper fondle 4 Teh 5. Cham mounled buckets 6 Raking ext 7. Vertical cutEARTHWORK EXCAVATION OF FOUNDATIONS - ROCK, WET EXCAVATION) A. Excavation in Soft Soil Q In case of soft soils, continuous or “close planking" is adopted and the poling boards are kept touching each other without any gap as shown in figure (a). Q If the soil is very soft and loose, the boards shall be placed horizontally against the sides of the excavation and supported by vertical waling boards (wale), which shall be strutted to similar timber pieces on the opposite side of the trench as shown in figure (b)..EARTHWORK EXCAVATION OF FOUNDATIONS - (SOFT SOIL, WET EXCAVATION) B. Excavation in Hard Soil Q For hard soils when the depth of excavation is less than 1.5 m, the sides of the trench do not need any extemal support. Q If the soil is loose or the excavation is deeper, some sort of shoring is required to support the sides from falling. In the case of “open planking” and strutting the entire sides of trenches are not covered. Vertical boards (known as poling boardsjof the required length can be placed with gaps of about 50 cm. O These shall be kept apart by horizontal waling (wale) of strong timber at a minimum spacing of 1.2 m and strutted by a cross brace. Fig: Open PlankingEARTHWORK EXCAVATION OF FOUNDATIONS - (SOFT SOIL, HARD ROCK, WET EXCAVATION) C. Wet Excavation Excavation of foundation in water logged sites poses a great problem for the site engineer. There are various methods of dealing with the situation which depend upon the depth of excavation, depth of water table and many other factors. Following methods are generally adopted while digging foundation trenches in water- logged sites: a) By constructing drain —_) Constructing deep well cc) Well Point System d) Vacuum Method e) Chemical consolidation) Constructing shallow well g)}_Electro-osmosisEARTHWORK EXCAVATION OF FOUNDATIONS - (SOFT SOIL, HARD ROCK, WET EXCAVATION) a) By constructing drains This method is generally adopted in shallow foundations in water-logged ground. In this method, drains of suitable size are constructed by the sides of the foundation trench. The drains collect sub-soil water from the sides and the enclosed area and convey it into a shallow pit or sump well. From the sump, the water is continuously bailed or pumped out. This is the cheapest method of draining excavated area and can be easily adopted by deploying unskilled labour and by using simple equipment.b) Well point system EARTHWORK EXCAVATION OF FOUNDATIONS - (SOFT SOIL, HARD ROCK, ) Small pipes, 5 to 8 cm in diameter and about 0.5 to 1 m long is covered le by the cylindrical wire gauge screens connected to vacuum header pipe at ""or""'b™e" the surface constitute a well point system. They are generally installed by jetting, Their spacing is about | to 2m . This is suitable for dewatering excavation up to 6m. When a partial vacuum (suction) is developed ball valve closes and water i is drawn in the well point through screen and water is then pumped off es through the header pipe. Ree Retaining pin FEI ton show Fige Detuite of wl pointEARTHWORK EXCAVATION OF FO ROCK, WET EXCAVATION) ATIONS - (SOFT SOIL, HARD Ground Level Falter er Direction of Flow J oF Wel Point These well points in turn are all connected to a common header that are attached to one or more well point pumps.EARTHWORK EXCAVATION OF FOUNDATIONS - (SOFT SOIL, HARD ROCK, ) Hb Screen _}| |i p= Sesn_-: | | — suction tubeEARTHWORK EXCAVATION OF FO ROCK, WET EXCAVATION) ATIONS - (SOFT SOIL, HARD c) Multi Stage Well Point Bagos td eeing tetener 191958, lucent rock or ineaneble lave Multi sta point systemEARTHWORK EXCAVATION OF FOUNDATIONS - (SOFT SOIL, HARD ROCK, ) d) By constructing shallow and deep wells Shallow well: A hole of 30cm in diameter is bored. A strainer tube of 15cm diameter with casing pipe is lowered in the bore hole. Filter is prepared by pouring gravel in the annular space. A suction pipe is lowered into the filter well and suction is created and dewatering is by done by pumping. Deep well system consists of one or more individual wells, each of which has its own submersible pump at the bottom of the well shaft. Such systems are particularly suitable where large volumes of water. It is used when depth of the excavation is more than 16m. Wall point Fig: Deep well systemEARTHWORK EXCAVATION OF FOUNDATIONS - (SOFT SOIL, HARD ROCK, WET EXCAVATION) ¢) Vacuum method For fine grained soils, the well point system can be extended by the vacuum method. Diameter of hole is 25cm. Fine sand, silty sand and other fine sands.EARTHWORK EXCAVATION OF FOUNDATIONS - (SOFT SOIL, HARD ROCK, WET EXCAVATION) e) By chemical consolidation of soil In this method, the soft water-logged soil is converted into a semi-solid mass by forcing chemicals like silicates of soda and calcium chloride into the soil. This method is used for small works. f) Electro-Osmosis Method + Modern method suitable for fine grained cohesive soils (clay). + Electro-osmosis is defined as “the movement of water through a porous media by applying direct current field”. + Spacing between electrodes is 4 to 5 m, potential voltage ~ 40 to 180 volts, + For practical purpose, permeability may be assumed to be 0.5104 cm/sec for the most soil for electric gradient 1volticmEARTHWORK EXCAVATION OF FO ROCK, WET EXCAVATION) ATIONS - (SOFT SOIL, HARD Elect ie Electron > trode Heat ‘Soll Particle Soil ParticleEXCAVATION IN THE TRENCHES FOR PIPES, CABLES ETC. AND REFILING Trenches are carried out principally to allow installation and repair of public utilities, drains, and sewer pipes such as RCC Hume pipes. The pipe or conduit should be positioned in the center of the trench. ‘The width of trench: Up to depth one meter, the authorized width of trench for excavation shall be arrived at by adding 25- 30 cm to the external diameter of pipe (without socket or collar), cable, conduit etc. 1 Where a pipe is laid on concrete bed, the authorized width shall be the external diameter of pipe (without socket or collar) plus 25-30 cm or the width of concrete bed whichever is more. For depth exceeding one meter: An allowance of Scm per meter of depth for each side of the trench shall be added to the authorized width (that is external diameter of pipe plus 25cm) for excavation. This allowance shall apply to the entire depth of the trench. In firm soils the side of the trenches shall be kept vertical up to depth 2 meters from the bottom.EXCAVATION IN THE TRENCHES FOR PIPES, CABLES ETC. AND REFILING In the case of more than one pipe, one cable, and one conduit etc, the diameter shall be calculated as the horizontal distance from outside to outside of the outermost pipes, cables, conduit etc. (If the soil is soft, loose or slushy (liquid mud, watery), shoring to be done for excavation in soft, loose or slushy soils. Refilling Works: O Itis the process of arranging the backfill of the trench, compacting of the material, leveling and reinstating the surface materials and to remove any surplus material. Layers of backfill material must be rammed manually or by using machine if required. Q The backfill and reinstatement requirements include restoration of the trench and any associated surfaces, such as driveways, paths, lawns, flowerbeds and tiling, etc.SOME COMMON PROBLEMS WITH EXISTING FOUNDATIONS Foundations are in regular contact with the ground which usually is in extreme conditions. Therefore the physical conditions of the surrounding affect the foundation in a great extent. There are several such problems which deteriorate the condition of foundation some of which are to be followed: Causes of foundation failure: Unequal settlement of the sub-soil Unequal settlement of masonry. ‘Unequal load distribution. Sub-soil moisture movement. Lateral pressure tending to tilt or over-turn the structure. Lateral movement of sub-soil. Shrinkage due to withdrawal of moisture from the soil below the foundations. Atmospheric action (i.e: sun, wind, rain, frost action) See eeeSOME COMMON PROBLEMS WITH EXISTING FOUNDATIONS: (a) Unequal settlement of sub-soil: Unequal settlement of sub-soil may be due to + Non-uniform nature of sub soil throughout foundation + Unequal load distribution on the soil strata. + Eccentric loading. + Consolidation of soil particle. + Reduction of moisture content. + General earth movement. (b) Unequal settlement of masonry: The portion of masonry situated between the ground level and concrete footing has mortar joints which may either shrink or compress, leading to unequal settlement of masonry. (©) Sub-soil moisture movement: When water table drops down, shrinkage of sub-soil takes place, due to this lack of sub-soil support to the footing while crack. During upward movement of moisture, the soil swells resulting in high swelling pressure. (@) Lateral pressure on the wall: The wall transmitted the load to the foundation may be subjected to lateral pressure.SOME COMMON PROBLEMS WITH EXISTING FOUNDATIONS: (€) Lateral movement of sub-soil: This is applicable to very soft soil which is liable to move out or squeeze out laterally under vertical loads, especially at locations where the ground is sloping. (Weathering of sub-soil due to trees and shrubs (g) Atmospheric action: The behaviors of foundation may be adversely affected due to atmospheric agents such as sun, wind, and rains. (8) Nearby building construction.SOME COMMON PROBLEMS WITH EXISTING FOUNDATIONS: BLACK COTTON SOILS Building a foundation in black cotton soil is a risk and is to be avoided. The shrinkage and swelling of black cotton soil has become a severe problem for the entire construction industry. The swelling and shrinkage of expansive soil cause the differential settlement of building. When dry, it is very hard, but it loses strength completely when wet. It therefore results in the development of the cracks in house. O Good for agriculture and bad for the structure construction O High shrinkage value due to the change in moisture content. O Volume varies as 20 to 30 % of the original volume. O Develops very wide and deep cracks due to excessive shrinkage O Very weak in saturation Q Problematic for the foundationSOME COMMON PROBLEMS WITH EXISTING FOUNDATIONS: BLACK COTTON SOILS Safety precaution should be taken while constructing a building in those types of soil is as follows: Q To limit the load on soils to 5 tones/m?, O To take the foundation to such a depth where hard stratum is met. O To provide the reinforced ties or bands all round. O The bed of the foundation trench should be made firm or hard by ramming it well. Q For important structures raft or mat foundations should be provided. O Under reamed pile is recommended in black cotton soils. Sing undeceom plesAny Question? (ask, don’t Google)