Chapter 1

What is Biopsychology?

Neuroscience The scientific study of the nervous system.

Biopsychology The scientific study of the biology of behavior; a biological approach to the study of
psychology.

Neuroanatomy The study of the structure of the nervous system.

Neurochemistry The study of the chemical bases of neural activity.
Neuroendocrinology The study of the interactions between the nervous system and the endocrine
system.
Neuropathology The study of nervous system disorders.
Neuropharmacology The study of the effects of drugs on neural activity.
Neurophysiology The study of the functions and activities of the nervous system.

Experiment a series of observations conducted under controlled conditions to study a relationship with
the purpose of drawing causal inferences about that relationship.
Between-subjects design An experimental design in which a different group of subjects is tested under
each condition.
Within-subjects design An experimental design in which the same subjects are tested under each
condition.

Independent variable The difference between experimental conditions that is arranged by the
experimenter.
Dependent variable The variable measured by the experimenter to assess the effect of the independent
variable.
Confounding variable An unintended difference between the conditions of an experiment that could
have affected the dependent variable.

Quasiexperimental studies Studies of groups of subjects who have been exposed to the conditions of
interest in the real world; such studies have the appearance of experiments but are not true
experiments because potential confounding variables have not been controlled for.
Random assignment In experimental design, the assignment of participants or units to the different
conditions of an experiment entirely at random, so that each unit or participant has an equal likelihood
of being assigned to any particular condition.

Case studies Studies that focus on a single case, or subject. Although case studies allow for intensive
analysis of an issue, they are limited in the extent to which their findings may be generalized.
Generalizability The degree to which the results of a study can be applied to other individuals or
situations.

Sources (for all review sheets)

Textbook: Biopsychology by Pinel & Barnes
Textbook: Sensation & Perception by Goldstein & Cacciamani
APA Psychology Dictionary https://dictionary.apa.org/
Chapter 2
Evolution, Genetics, and Experience

Evolve To undergo gradual orderly change.

Natural selection The idea that those heritable traits that are associated with high rates of survival and
reproduction are the most likely to be passed on to future generations.
Artificial selection Human intervention in animal or plant reproduction to improve the value or utility of
succeeding generations.
Species A group of organisms that is reproductively isolated from other organisms.

Homologous Having a similar structure because of a common evolutionary origin (e.g., a human’s arm
and a bird’s wing are homologous).
Analogous Having a similar structure because of convergent evolution (e.g., a bird’s wing and a bee’s
wing are analogous).
Convergent evolution The evolution in unrelated species of similar solutions to the same environmental
demands.

Dichotomous traits Traits that occur in one form or the other, never in combination.
Dominant trait The trait of a dichotomous pair that is expressed in the phenotypes of heterozygous
individuals.
Recessive trait The trait of a dichotomous pair that is not expressed in the phenotype of heterozygous
individuals.

Genotype The genetic composition of an individual organism as a whole or at one or more specific
positions or loci on a chromosome.
Phenotype An organism’s observable traits.

Homozygous Possessing two identical genes for a particular trait.

Heterozygous Possessing two different genes for a particular trait.
Alleles Genes that control the same trait.

Gene A unit of inheritance; for example, the section of a chromosome that controls the synthesis of one
protein.
Proteins Long chains of amino acids.
Amino acids The building blocks of proteins.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) The double-stranded, coiled molecule of genetic material.

Chromosomes Threadlike structures in the cell nucleus that contain the genes; each chromosome is a
DNA molecule.
Sex chromosomes The pair of chromosomes that determine an individual’s genetic sex: XX for a female
and XY for a male.
Chapter 3
Anatomy of the Nervous System

Central nervous system (CNS) The brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system (PNS) The portion of the nervous system outside the skull and spine.
Somatic nervous system The part of the peripheral nervous system that interacts with the external
environment.
Autonomic nervous system The part of the peripheral nervous system that participates in the regulation
of the body’s internal environment. Includes the sympathetic nervous system (associated with arousal)
and the parasympathetic nervous system (associated with relaxation).
Nerves Bundles of axons in the PNS. Afferent nerves carry sensory signals to the CNS. Efferent nerves
carry motor signals from the CNS to the skeletal muscles or internal organs.

Neurons Cells of the nervous system that are specialized for the reception, conduction, and transmission
of electrochemical signals.
Cell body The part of a neuron (nerve cell) that contains the nucleus and most organelles.
Dendrites The short processes emanating from the cell body, which receive most of the synaptic
contacts from other neurons.
Axon The long, narrow process of a neuron that carries a nerve impulse away from the cell body.

Glial cells Several classes of nonneural cells of the nervous system.

Myelin sheaths Coverings on the axons of some neurons that are rich in myelin (a fatty insulating
substance) and increase the speed and efficiency of axonal conduction.
Oligodendrocytes Glial cells that myelinate axons of the central nervous system.
Schwann cells The glial cells that compose the myelin sheaths of PNS axons.
Nodes of Ranvier The gaps between sections of myelin, where ions may cross the membrane.

Medulla Brainstem structure involved in regulating the activities that are critical for survival (e.g., heart
rate and respiration).
Reticular formation Brainstem structure involved in arousal, alertness, and sleep–wake cycles.
Cerebellum Hindbrain structure involved in movement and balance.

Thalamus Forebrain structure that relays sensory information (other than smell) to the cortex.
Amygdala Forebrain structure that plays a role in emotion, especially fear.
Hippocampus Forebrain structure that plays a role in memory formation.
Hypothalamus Forebrain structure that plays a role in endocrine function and motivated behaviors such
as feeding and mating.

Frontal lobe The most anterior of the four cerebral lobes; contains the primary motor cortex.
Occipital lobe The most posterior of the four cerebral lobes; its function is primarily visual.
Parietal lobe One of the four cerebral lobes; it is located just posterior to the central fissure and plays a
role in the sense of touch.
Temporal lobe One of the four major cerebral lobes; it lies adjacent to the temples and contains the
auditory cortex.
Corpus callosum A large tract of nerve fibers connecting the cerebral hemispheres of the brain.
Chapter 4
Neural Conduction and Synaptic Transmission

Membrane potential The difference in electrical charge between the inside and the outside of a cell.
Resting potential The steady membrane potential of a neuron at rest, usually about -70 mV.
Ion is an atom or molecule that has acquired an electrical charge, e.g., Na+, K+, Cl-, Ca++. In resting
neurons, there are more Na+ ions inside the cell than outside and more K+ ions inside than outside.
Ion channels Pores in neural membranes through which specific ions pass.
Sodium-potassium pump A membrane protein that uses energy to actively transport sodium ions out of
a cell against their concentration gradient. It exchanges three Na+ inside the neuron for two K+ outside.

Hyperpolarize To increase the resting membrane potential.

Depolarize To decrease the resting membrane potential.
IPSP Graded synaptic hyperpolarization, which decreases the likelihood that an AP will be generated.
EPSP Graded postsynaptic depolarizations, which increase the likelihood that an AP will be generated.

Action potential (AP) A massive momentary reversal of a neuron’s membrane potential from about -70
mV to about +50 mV. The change in electric potential propagates along the axon of a neuron.
Threshold of excitation The level of depolarization necessary to generate an action potential. Unlike
graded potentials, APs are all-or-none responses that either occur to their full extent or not at all.
Rising phase Quick and steep depolarization of the axon during the AP due to an inflow of Na+ ions.
Falling phase Hyperpolarization of the axon during the action potential due to K+ ions exiting the axon.
Absolute refractory period A brief period (typically 1 to 2 ms) after the initiation of an action potential
during which it is impossible to elicit another action potential in the same neuron.

Synapse The specialized junction through which neural signals are transmitted from one neuron (the
presynaptic neuron) to another (the postsynaptic neuron).
Neurotransmitter (NT) Chemical messengers that can be released by neurons.
Synaptic vesicle Spherical membranes that store NTs and release them into the synaptic cleft.
Exocytosis The process of releasing a neurotransmitter. When stimulated by APs, voltage-gated calcium
channels open and Ca++ ions enter the neuron. The entry of the Ca++ ions triggers a chain reaction that
ultimately causes synaptic vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic membrane and empty their contents
into the synaptic cleft.
Reuptake The drawing back into the terminal button of neurotransmitter molecules after their release
into the synapse; the most common mechanism for deactivating a released neurotransmitter.

Receptors Proteins that contain binding sites for particular NTs.

Ionotropic receptor Receptors that are associated with ligand-activated ion channels. A ligand is any
molecule that binds to another.
Metabotropic receptors Receptors that are associated with signal proteins and G proteins.
G proteins Proteins that are located inside cells and are attached to metabotropic receptors.
Second messenger A chemical synthesized in a neuron in response to the binding of a neurotransmitter
to a metabotropic receptor in its cell membrane.

Glutamate The most prevalent excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system.
GABA The most prevalent inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system.
Acetylcholine A neurotransmitter that is created by the addition of an acetyl group to a choline
molecule; the neurotransmitter at neuromuscular junctions as well as various other synapses.
Chapter 5
The Research Methods of Biopsychology

Positron emission tomography (PET) A technique for visualizing brain activity, usually by injecting
radioactive fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) and measuring its accumulation in active areas of the brain.
Functional MRI (fMRI) A magnetic resonance imaging technique for inferring brain activity by measuring
increased oxygen flow into particular areas. Spatial resolution is better in fMRI than in PET.
BOLD signal The blood-oxygen-level-dependent signal that is recorded by fMRI.

Electroencephalogram (EEG) A measure of gross electrical activity of the brain, commonly recorded
through scalp electrodes by an EEG machine called an electroencephalograph.
Alpha waves Regular, 8- to 12-per-second, high amplitude EEG waves that typically occur during relaxed
wakefulness and just before falling asleep.
Event-related potentials (ERPs) The EEG waves that regularly accompany certain psychological events.
Signal averaging is commonly used in the recording of ERPs to reduce the magnitude of random signals.
Sensory evoked potential An ERP elicited by the momentary presentation of a sensory stimulus.

Intracellular unit recording Provides a moment-by-moment record of the graded fluctuations in one
neuron’s membrane potential. It is difficult to keep an electrode inside a cell of a freely moving animal.
Extracellular unit recording Provides a record of the firing of adjacent neurons but no information about
the neuron’s membrane potential.
Electrical stimulation The stimulation of neurons by electrical energy.

Transgenic mice The genetic material of another species is introduced into mice.
Gene knockout techniques Procedures for creating organisms that lack a particular gene.
Gene knockin techniques Procedures for creating organisms that have one or more additional genes.
CRISPR/Cas9 method A popular gene editing technique. It allows researchers to edit parts of the
genome by removing them, adding to, or altering the DNA sequence.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) A widely used test of general intelligence that includes subtests
that assess cognitive abilities including memory and language.
Digit span A common test of short-term memory; the longest sequence of random digits that can be
repeated correctly 50 percent of the time (most people have a digit span of 7).
Explicit memories Conscious memories, e.g., semantic memories are for general facts or knowledge and
episodic memories are for the events and experiences of one’s life.
Implicit memories are expressed by improved performance without conscious recall or recognition.

Pavlovian conditioning paradigm A paradigm in which the experimenter pairs an initially neutral stimulus
(conditioned stimulus) with a stimulus (unconditioned stimulus) that elicits a reflexive response
(unconditioned response); after several pairings, the neutral stimulus elicits a conditioned response.
Operant conditioning paradigm A paradigm in which the rate of a particular voluntary response is
increased by reinforcement or decreased by punishment.

Radial arm maze An array of arms (usually 8 or more) used to study foraging behavior in rats. In one
version, the same arms are baited on each trial, and the rats must learn to visit only the baited arms
once per trial. Since the arms are identical, rats tend to orient themselves based on external room cues.
Morris water maze A pool of milky water that has a goal platform invisible just beneath its surface and is
used to study the ability of rats to learn spatial locations.
Chapter 6
The Visual System

Pupil The opening through which light enters the eye.

Iris A circular muscle that gives eyes their color and controls the pupil’s size.
Cornea The eye’s major focusing element, accounting for about 80% of focusing.
Lens A transparent focusing element that adjusts shape for object distance.
Accommodation The ciliary muscles change the shape of the lens to bring objects into focus.

Retina A complex network of cells that covers the inside back of the eye.
Horizontal cells specialized for lateral communication; synapse with receptors and bipolar cells.
Bipolar cells Receive input from the visual receptors and sends signals to the retinal ganglion cells.
Amacrine cells specialized for lateral communication; synapse with bipolar cells and ganglion cells.
Retinal ganglion cells Retinal neurons whose axons leave the eyeball and form the optic nerve. The area
on the retina where the bundle of axons exit the eye is the blind spot, which has no receptors so the
brain fills in the blind spot with information from nearby receptors and information from the other eye.

Photoreceptors The receptors for vision in each retina (about 120 million rods and 6 million cones).
Fovea A small area in the human retina that contains only cone receptors. The fovea is located on the
line of sight, so that when a person looks at an object, the center of its image falls on the fovea.
Cones The visual receptors in the retina that mediate high acuity color vision in good lighting. Acuity
means the ability to see the details of objects. Longer wavelengths of light are on the red end of the
visible spectrum and shorter wavelengths are seen as blue. Humans have three different types of cones
that are maximally sensitive to light of different wavelengths (short, medium, long).
Rods The visual receptors in the retina that mediate achromatic, low-acuity vision under dim light.
Neural convergence Synapsing of a number of neurons onto one neuron. Cones have less convergence
than rods, so although cones have less sensitivity they also have more acuity, especially in the fovea.

Lateral geniculate nuclei (LGN) The six-layered thalamic structures that receive input from the retinas
and transmit their output to the primary visual cortex. The magnocellular layers are composed of
neurons with large cell bodies responsive to movement. The parvocellular layers are composed of
neurons with small cell bodies responsive to color, fine detail, and stationary objects.
Receptive field Area of the visual field where it is possible for a stimulus to influence neural activity.
On-center cells Visual neurons that respond to lights shone in the center of their circular receptive fields
with firing and to lights shone in the periphery of their receptive fields with inhibition.
Off-center cells Visual neurons that respond to lights shone in the center of their circular receptive fields
with inhibition and to lights shone in the periphery of their receptive fields with firing.

Primary visual cortex (striate cortex) The area of cortex that receives direct input from the LGN.
Simple cells Neurons in the visual cortex with rectangular receptive fields that respond best to straight-
edge stimuli in a particular orientation and position.
Complex cells Visual neurons responsive to straight-edge stimuli in a certain orientation moving or
located in any part of their receptive field. Complex cells have larger receptive fields than simple cells.

Dorsal stream ‘where’ visual pathways from striate cortex to the dorsal prestriate cortex to the posterior
parietal cortex; most visual cortex cells respond to object location or movement direction.
Ventral stream ‘what’ visual pathways from striate cortex to the ventral prestriate cortex to the
inferotemporal cortex; most cells respond to characteristics of objects such as color or shape.
Chapter 7
Sensory Systems, Perception, and Attention

Outer ear The visible external part of the ear is the pinna. Air vibrations go through the auditory canal.
Tympanic membrane (eardrum) The membrane located at the end of the auditory canal that vibrates in
response to pressure changes. The vibration is transmitted to the ossicles in the middle ear.
Middle ear The air-filled space between the auditory canal and the cochlea that contains the ossicles,
three small bones: hammer, anvil, stirrup (malleus, incus, stapes) that amplify and transmit vibrations.
Oval window The membrane that transfers vibrations from the ossicles to the fluid of the cochlea.

Cochlea The long, coiled tube in the inner ear that is filled with fluid and contains the organ of Corti.
Organized tonotopically with higher frequencies processed at the base (closer to the oval window).
Organ of Corti includes the basilar membrane, the hair cells, and the tectorial membrane.
Basilar membrane The membrane of the organ of Corti in which the hair cells are embedded.
Hair cells The sensory receptors of the auditory system.
Tectorial membrane The cochlear membrane that rests on the hair cells.

Cochlear nucleus (CN) Brainstem area where the auditory nerve from the cochlea first synapses.
Superior olive (SO) Brainstem area receiving input from CN and projecting to IC via the lateral lemniscus.
Inferior colliculus (IC) Midbrain structure that receives inputs from the SO and projects to the MGN.
Medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) Part of the thalamus that receives input from IC and transmits to A1.
Primary auditory cortex (A1) tonotopically organized sensory receiving area in the temporal lobe.

Merkel receptor A disk-shaped mechanoreceptor in the skin associated with slowly adapting fibers and
the perception of fine details. There is a high density of Merkel receptors in the fingertips.
Ruffini cylinder A receptor structure associated with slowly adapting fibers that detects skin stretching.
Pacinian corpuscles The largest and deepest cutaneous receptors, which are sensitive to sudden
displacements of the skin (fast-adapting) and responsible for sensing vibration and fine textures.
Dorsal-column medial-lemniscus system The division of the somatosensory system that ascends in the
dorsal portion of the spinal white matter and tends to carry signals related to touch and body position
(proprioception) to the ventral posterior nucleus (VPN) of the thalamus.
Primary somatosensory cortex (S1) Area in the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe that receives signals
from the body and stimulation of the skin. A visual depiction of the somatotopic organization of S1 is
called a somatosensory homunculus; it shows disproportionate cortical space allocated to face/hands.

Olfactory receptor neuron (ORN) where olfactory transduction occurs; located in the olfactory mucosa.
Each ORN has 1 out of the many types of olfactory receptor protein molecules in humans.
Glomeruli Structures in the olfactory bulb that receive signals from similar olfactory receptor neurons.
All of the olfactory receptor cells with the same receptor protein project to the same glomeruli.
Olfactory bulb contains glomeruli that receive signals directly from the ORNs. Their output goes
primarily to the amygdala and the piriform cortex (primary olfactory cortex) in the temporal lobe.

Basic tastes Taste transduction for sweet, umami, and bitter is mediated by metabotropic receptors;
transduction for salty and sour is mediated by ionotropic receptors.
Taste bud A structure located within many papillae on the tongue that contains 50-100 taste cells.
Papillae Ridges and valleys on the tongue, some of which contain taste buds.
Nucleus of the solitary tract Brain stem area that receives taste signals and projects to VPN.
primary gustatory cortex receives signals from the VPN (specifically, the ventral posteromedial nucleus).
Chapter 8
The Sensorimotor System

Association cortex An area of cortex that receives input from more than one sensory system.
Posterior parietal association cortex An area of cortex involved in the perception of spatial location and
guidance of voluntary behavior. This area receives input from the visual, auditory, and somatosensory
systems and projects to dorsolateral prefrontal association cortex and secondary motor cortex.
Apraxia A disorder with bilateral symptoms in which patients have great difficulty performing
movements when asked to do so out of context but can readily perform them spontaneously in natural
situations. Associated with left hemisphere damage to posterior parietal association cortex.
Contralateral neglect A disturbance of the ability to respond to stimuli on the side of the body opposite
to a site of brain damage, usually the left side of the body following damage to the right parietal lobe.
Dorsolateral prefrontal association cortex An area of the prefrontal cortex that plays a role in the
evaluation of external stimuli and the initiation of complex voluntary motor responses. Neurons here
may respond to the characteristics and/or locations of objects or they may fire in anticipation of motor
activity. This area receives projections from the posterior parietal cortex and sends projections to parts
of the secondary motor cortex, the primary cortex, and to the frontal eye field.

Secondary motor cortex (M2) An area of the cerebral cortex that receives much of its input from
association cortex and sends much of its output to primary motor cortex. These areas are activated both
before and during voluntary movements. Areas of M2 are thought to be involved in the programming of
specific patterns of movements after taking general instructions from the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.
Premotor cortex The area of M2 that lies between the supplementary motor area and the lateral fissure.
Supplementary motor area M2 area within and adjacent to the longitudinal fissure in the frontal lobes.

Mirror neurons Cells that fire when an individual performs a particular goal-directed hand movement or
when they observe the same goal-directed movement performed by another. Mirror neurons have been
found in various species including several areas of the macaque monkey frontal and parietal cortex.

Primary motor cortex (M1) The cortex of the precentral gyrus, which is the major point of departure for
motor signals descending from the cerebral cortex into lower levels of the sensorimotor system.
Motor homunculus The somatotopic map of the human M1. It has a disproportionate representation of
parts of the body that are capable of intricate movements, such as the hands and mouth.
Stereognosis the ability to recognize objects by touch.
Astereognosia A deficit in stereognosis that may result from M1 damage.

Cerebellum A structure that is involved in, e.g., motor coordination and motor learning. It is estimated
that over half the neurons of the brain are in the cerebellum. Effects of cerebellar damage include loss
of the ability to precisely control movement, adjust motor output to changing conditions, maintain
steady postures, exhibit good locomotion, maintain balance, speak clearly, and control eye movements.
Basal ganglia A collection of subcortical nuclei (e.g., striatum and globus pallidus). The basal ganglia are
thought to have a modulatory function integrating and coordinating the activity of sensorimotor areas.

Neuromuscular junction (NMJ) The synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber.
Motor neuron A neuron whose axon connects directly to muscle fibers.
Acetylcholine (ACh) A neurotransmitter that is created by the addition of an acetyl group to a choline
molecule. In the peripheral nervous system, ACh mediates muscle contraction.
Motor end plate The receptive area on a muscle fiber at a NMJ that contains ACh receptors.
Chapter 9
Development of the Nervous System

Stem cells Cells that have an almost unlimited capacity for self-renewal and the ability to differentiate.
Totipotent Capable of developing into any type of cell; the first cells to develop are totipotent.
Pluripotent Capable of developing into many, but not all, classes of body cells.
Multipotent Capable of developing into cells of only one class (e.g., different kinds of blood cells).
Unipotent Cells that can develop into only one type of cell.

Ectoderm the outermost of the primary germ layers of a developing embryo.

Neural plate A small patch of ectodermal tissue on the dorasal surface of the vertebrate embryo, from
which the neural groove, the neural tube, and ultimately the mature nervous system develop.

Neural tube The tube formed when the edges of the neural groove fuse and that develops into the CNS.
Ventricular zone The region adjacent to the ventricle in the developing neural tube; most cell division in
the developing neural tube occurs in the ventricular zone.
Neural crest A structure situated just dorsal to the neural tube. It is formed from cells that break off from
the neural tube as it is being formed. The neural crest develops into the PNS.

Migration The movement of cells from the ventricular zone of the neural tube to their target location.
Tangential migration Movement of cells in the neural tube in a direction parallel to the tube’s walls.
Radial migration Movement of cells in the developing neural tube from the ventricular zone in a straight
line outward toward the tube’s outer wall.
Somal translocation When an extension grows out of the neuron and draws the cell body up into it.
Radial glial cells Glial cells that exist in the neural tube during the period of neural migration and that
form a network along which radial migration occurs. Some radial glial cells are stem cells.

Growth cone Amoebalike structure at the tip of each growing process that guides growth to the target.
Filopodia A very fine, tubular outgrowth from a cell, for example, from the growth cone of a neuron.
Pioneer growth cones The first growth cones to travel along a particular route during development.
Fasciculation The tendency of developing axons to grow along the paths established by preceding axons.

Synaptogenesis The formation of new synapses; it seems to depend on the presence of astrocytes.
Astrocytes Large, star-shaped glial cells that play multiple roles in the central nervous system.
Sensory deprivation The reduction of sensory stimulation e.g. rats raised in darkness have fewer synapses.
Enriched environments Laboratory environments designed to promote cognitive and physical activity. In
comparison to the cortices of rats reared in enriched environments, the cortices of rats reared by
themselves in barren cages have fewer synapses per neuron.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) A complex neurodevelopmental disorder with an onset typically
occurring by age 3 and more common in boys. It is characterized by a reduced capacity for social
interaction and communication and restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities.
Children diagnosed with ASD are also likely to display intellectual disabilities.
Savants Individuals with developmental disabilities who nevertheless display amazing and specific
cognitive or artistic abilities; savant abilities are sometimes associated with ASD.

Williams syndrome A neurodevelopmental disorder caused by a mutation of a gene on chromosome 7 and

characterized by intellectual disability, accompanied by preserved language and social skills. Despite
general thinning of the cerebral cortex in most cases of Williams syndrome, the thickness of the cortex of
the superior temporal gyrus is often typical.
Chapter 10
Brain Damage and Neuroplasticity

Tumor (neoplasm) A mass of cells that grows independently of the rest of the body. Benign tumors are
surgically removable with little risk of further growth in the body. Malignant tumors are difficult to
remove or destroy and continue to grow after attempts to remove or destroy them.
Glioma Brain tumors that develop from glial cells; the most common form of malignant brain tumors.
Meningiomas Tumors that grow between the meninges, the three membranes that cover the central
nervous system. Meningiomas are almost always benign tumors.

Strokes Sudden-onset cerebrovascular disorders that cause brain damage. Strokes can be caused by
cerebral ischemia (an interruption of the blood supply to an area of the brain) and by cerebral
hemorrhage (bleeding in the brain). Symptoms depend on location, e.g., amnesia, aphasia, paralysis.
Infarct An area of dead tissue resulting from obstruction of a supplying artery. The dysfunctional area of
brain tissue around an infarct that may recover or die in the following days is called the penumbra.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) Serious damage caused to the brain by a blow to the head.
Closed-head TBIs Brain injuries produced by blows to the head that do not penetrate the skull.
Contusions Closed-head injuries that involve damage to the cerebral circulatory system, which produces
internal hemorrhaging. Contusions are often produced by the brain slamming against the skull.
Mild TBI When there is a disturbance of consciousness following a blow to the head and there is no
evidence of contusion or other structural damage.
Chronic traumatic encephalopathy The dementia and cerebral scarring observed in boxers, rugby
players, football players, and other individuals who have experienced repeated blows to the head.

Down Syndrome A disorder associated with the presence of an extra chromosome 21, resulting in
disfigurement and intellectual impairment.

Epilepsy A neurological disorder characterized by spontaneous recurring seizures in children and adults.
Seizure A discrete episode of uncontrolled, excessive electrical discharge of neurons in the brain. Focal
seizures do not involve the entire brain. Generalized seizures involve the entire brain.

Parkinson’s disease A movement disorder with onset in middle or late adulthood associated with
degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Symptoms include tremors, muscular
rigidity, slowness of movement, and a masklike face. It is more common in men. The symptoms are
temporarily alleviated in some patients by injections of L-dopa, the chemical precursor to dopamine.

Huntington’s Disease An inherited progressive fatal disorder of motor and intellectual function with
adult onset caused by mutation of a dominant gene, huntingtin, on chromosome 4. Symptoms include
severe dementia and involuntary jerking movements. All who have the gene develop the disorder.

Multiple Sclerosis A progressive disease that attacks the myelin of axons in the central nervous system.
The first symptoms typically appear during early adulthood. Symptoms include ataxia (poor muscle
control), weakness, numbness, tremor, and poor vision. It is more common in women and Caucasians.

Alzheimer’s Disease The most common dementia in the elderly. Stages: preclinical: no symptoms;
prodromal: mild cognitive disturbance; dementia: memory loss, irritability, confusion, death. In the later
stages of Alzheimer’s, the brain is noticeably shrunken due to significant neuron loss.
Chapter 11
Learning, Memory, and Amnesia

Retrograde amnesia Loss of memory for things learned before the amnesia-inducing brain injury.
Anterograde amnesia Loss of memory for things occurring after the amnesia-inducing brain injury.
Medial temporal lobe amnesia Pathological loss of memory associated with bilateral damage to the
medial temporal lobes; its major features are anterograde and retrograde amnesia for explicit
memories, with preserved intellectual functioning.

Implicit memories are expressed by improved performance without conscious recall or recognition.
Mirror-Drawing Test The task is to draw a line within the boundaries of a star-shaped target by watching
your hand in a mirror. Improvement can occur without conscious recollection of performing the task.
Incomplete-Pictures Test A test of implicit memory measuring the improved ability to identify
fragmented figures that have been previously observed.

Explicit memories Conscious memories.

Semantic memories Explicit memories for general facts or knowledge.
Episodic memories Explicit memories for the particular events and experiences of one’s life.

Korsakoff’s syndrome A disorder caused by thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency that is common in
alcoholics and whose primary symptoms include memory loss, sensory and motor dysfunction, and, in
its advanced stages, severe dementia. Brain damage is diffuse (widespread) in this condition.

The Delayed Nonmatching-to-Sample Test An object recognition test in which the subject is presented
with an unfamiliar sample object in the sample phase and then, after a delay, is presented with a choice
between the sample object and an unfamiliar object in the test phase, where the correct choice is the
unfamiliar object. There are performance deficits of monkeys with large bilateral medial temporal lobe
lesions at all but the shortest interval.

Mumby box Apparatus that is used in the rat version of the delayed nonmatching-to-sample test. Rats
can perform the delayed nonmatching-to-sample task almost as well as monkeys at retention delays of
up to a minute or so. Lesions of the medial temporal cortex, but not of the hippocampus and amygdala
combined, produced severe deficits.

Place cell Hippocampal cells that fire when an animal is in a certain place in the environment.
Place field Area of the environment within which a neuron fires.
Grid cells neurons in the entorhinal cortex that fire when an animal is in a particular place in the
environment, and which have multiple place fields arranged in a grid-like pattern.
Concept cells Brain cells, such as those found in the medial temporal lobe, that respond to ideas or
concepts rather than to particulars. Also known as Jennifer Aniston neurons.

Long-term potentiation (LTP) The enduring facilitation of synaptic transmission that occurs following
activation of synapses by high-intensity, high frequency stimulation of presynaptic neurons.
NMDA receptors Glutamate receptors that play key role in LTP at glutaminergic synapses.
NMDA-mediated LTP If the postsynaptic neuron is not depolarized when glutamate binds to its
receptors, the NMDA receptors permit the influx of only a few calcium ions, and no LTP is produced. If
the postsynaptic neuron is depolarized when glutamate binds to its receptors, the NMDA receptors
permit entry of many calcium ions, which induce LTP.
Chapter 12
Hunger, Eating, and Health

Fat A mixture of lipids. Most of the body’s energy reserves are stored in the form of fat.
Proteins Long chains of amino acids.
Glucose A simple sugar that is the breakdown product of complex carbohydrates; it is the body’s
primary, directly utilizable source of energy.
Glycogen Formed in the liver from glucose and stored in the liver and other body tissues as a primary
source of chemical energy. It is easily broken down into glucose molecules as needed for energy.

Cephalic phase The metabolic phase during which the body prepares for food that is about to be
absorbed. This phase is triggered by the sight, odor, or taste of food, or just by thinking about eating.
Absorptive phase The metabolic phase during which the body is operating on the energy from a recently
consumed meal and is storing excess as body fat, glycogen, and proteins.
Fasting phase The metabolic phase that begins when energy from a meal is no longer sufficient to meet
the immediate needs of the body and during which energy is extracted from fat and glycogen stores.

Free fatty acid The main source of the body’s energy during the fasting phase; released from body fat in
response to high levels of glucagon.
Insulin A pancreatic hormone that facilitates the entry of glucose into cells and the conversion of
bloodborne fuels to forms that can be stored. High levels during cephalic and absorptive phases.
Glucagon A pancreatic hormone that promotes the release of free fatty acids from adipose tissue, their
conversion to ketones, and the use of both as sources of energy. High levels during fasting phase.

Conditioned taste aversion An avoidance response that develops to the taste of food whose
consumption has been followed by illness.
Cafeteria diet A diet composed of a wide variety of palatable foods; produces a substantial increase in
the caloric intake of laboratory rats and a significant increase in their body weight.

Satiety The motivational state that terminates a meal when there is food remaining.
Cholecystokinin (CCK) A peptide released by the gastrointestinal tract thought to be a satiety signal.
Neuropeptide Y A gut hunger peptide found in the brain, heart, and adrenal glands.
Ghrelin A peptide secreted by endocrine cells in the stomach that binds to growth hormone receptors in
the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary, stimulating appetite and the release of growth hormone.

Prader-Willi Syndrome A neurodevelopmental disorder that is characterized by insatiable appetite and

exceptionally slow metabolism. Despite being obese, patients behave as if they are starving.

Leptin A hormone normally synthesized in fat cells; it is thought to act as a negative feedback signal
normally released by fat stores to decrease appetite and increase fat metabolism.
ob/ob mice Mice that are homozygous for the mutant ob gene; their body fat produces no leptin, and
they become very obese.

Anorexia nervosa An eating disorder associated with distorted body image and underconsumption that
results in health-threatening weight loss; in about 4 percent of diagnosed cases, complications from
starvation result in death and there is a high rate of suicide among persons with anorexia.
Bulimia nervosa An eating disorder associated with distorted body image characterized by periods of not
eating interrupted by bingeing followed by purging. The mortality rate for bulimia is about 4 percent.
Chapter 13
Hormones and Sex

Testes The male gonads that produce sperm, plus hormones including androgens and estrogens.
Ovaries The female gonads that produce ova, plus hormones including androgens and estrogens.

Sex chromosomes Those that determine an individual’s genetic sex: XX for a female and XY for a male.
Zygote The cell with 23 chromosome pairs formed from the combination of a sperm cell and an ovum.
Ova have 23 chromosomes including an X. Sperm have 23 chromosomes and may contribute X or Y.

Hormones Chemicals released by the endocrine system directly into the circulatory system.
Androgens Hormones released in large amounts by the testes; the most common is testosterone.
Estrogens Hormones released in large amounts by the ovaries; the most common is estradiol.

Pituitary gland The “master” gland that dangles from the, and is controlled by, the hypothalamus.
Posterior pituitary The part of the pituitary gland that contains the terminals of hypothalamic neurons.
Anterior pituitary The part that releases tropic hormones that affect the secretion of other glands.
Gonadotropins Pituitary tropic hormones that stimulate the release of hormones from the gonads.
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone The hypothalamic hormone that controls the release of gonadotropins

Wolffian system The embryonic precursor of the male reproductive ducts.

Müllerian system The embryonic precursor of the female reproductive ducts.
Sry gene A gene on the Y chromosome that triggers the production of Sry protein.
Sry protein A protein that causes the medulla of each primordial gonad to grow and develop into testis.
If no Sry protein is present, the cortex of the primordial gonad develops into an ovary.

Secondary sex characteristics Body features, other than the reproductive organs, that distinguish males
from females, e.g., breasts in females and a deeper voice in males.
Puberty The stage of development when the genital organs reach maturity and secondary sex
characteristics begin to appear, signaling the start of adolescence.

Intersexed persons A term used to refer to a person who is born with sexual anatomy that does not
clearly fit into typical definitions of male and female sexual anatomy.
Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) Results from a mutation to the androgen receptor gene that
renders the androgen receptors unresponsive and leads to the development of a female body.
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) A congenital deficiency in the release of cortisol from the adrenal
cortex, which leads to the excessive release of adrenal androgens.

Sexual orientation one’s enduring sexual attraction that emerges around age 10 in Western cultures.
Sexual orientation may be heterosexual, same sex (gay or lesbian), or bisexual.
Fraternal birth order effect The probability of a human male being gay increases as a function of the
number of older brothers he has.
Maternal immune hypothesis The hypothesis that mothers become progressively more immune to some
masculinizing hormone in their male fetuses; proposed to explain the fraternal birth order effect.

Transgender Having or relating to a gender identity that differs from the biological sex assigned at birth.
Gender dysphoria The distress that can occur in people whose gender identity differs from their sex
assigned at birth or sex-related physical characteristics.
Chapter 15
Drug Use, Drug Addiction, and the Brain’s Reward Circuits

Drug tolerance A state of decreased sensitivity to a drug that results from exposure to the drug.
Dose-response curve The line graph has magnitude of drug effect on the y axis, and drug dose on the x
axis. The initial dose-response curve is a gradual upward curve. The dose-response curve after drug
exposure is a similar upward curve but is displaced farther along the x axis.

Withdrawal syndrome The illness brought on by the elimination from the body of a drug on which the
person is physically dependent. Example symptoms: anxiety, nausea, insomnia, mood alterations.
Physically dependent Being in a state in which stopping drug use will induce withdrawal reactions.

Nicotine The major psychoactive ingredient of tobacco; binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.
Smoker’s syndrome The chest pain, labored breathing, wheezing, coughing, and heightened
susceptibility to infections of the respiratory tract commonly observed in tobacco smokers.
Buerger’s disease A condition in which the blood vessels, especially those supplying the legs, are
constricted whenever tobacco is smoked. The disease can progress to gangrene and amputation.

Depressant A drug that depresses neural activity. Example: alcohol.

Cirrhosis Scarring of the liver, which is a major cause of death among heavy alcohol users.
Fetal alcohol syndrome A syndrome produced by prenatal exposure to alcohol and characterized by,
e.g., brain damage, intellectual disability, low birth weight, retarded growth, and/or physical deformity.

Cannabis The plant which is the source of marijuana. Marijuana has been shown to block the nausea of
cancer drugs, stimulate appetite, decrease the severity of glaucoma, and reduce some forms of pain.
THC The main psychoactive constituent of marijuana.
Endocannabinoids Neurotransmitters that are chemically similar to the active compounds of marijuana.
Anandamide The first endogenous endocannabinoid to be discovered and characterized.

Stimulants Drugs that produce general increases in neural and behavioral activity. Examples:
amphetamine, methamphetamine, cocaine.
Cocaine A stimulant that exerts its effects by altering the activity of dopamine transporters.
Dopamine A neurotransmitter that has an important role in motor behavior and is implicated in
numerous mental conditions and emotional states.
Dopamine transporters Molecules in the presynaptic membrane of dopaminergic neurons that attract
dopamine molecules in the synaptic cleft and deposit them back inside the neuron.

Opioids Drugs that relieve pain and produce euphoria; bind to opioid receptors, e.g., morphine, heroin.
Endorphins A class of endogenous opioids.

Self-stimulation paradigm A paradigm in which animals press a lever to administer reinforcing electrical
stimulation to particular sites in their own brains.
Drug self-administration paradigm A test of the addictive potential of drugs in which animals can inject
drugs into themselves by pressing a lever.
Conditioned place-preference paradigm A test that assesses an animal’s preference for an environment
in which it has previously experienced drug effects relative to a control environment.
Nucleus accumbens Nucleus in the ventral striatum that receives dopamine projections. Lesions to the
nucleus accumbens reduce the rewarding effects of systemically administered drugs.