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Chapter

NanoBioSensors: From
Electrochemical Sensors
Improvement to Theranostic
Applications
Anielle C.A. Silva, Eliete A. Alvin, Lais S. de Jesus,
Caio C.L. de França, Marílya P.G. da Silva, Samaysa L. Lins,
Diógenes Meneses, Marcela R. Lemes, Rhanoica O. Guerra,
Marcos V. da Silva, Carlo J.F. de Oliveira,
Virmondes Rodrigues Junior, Renata M. Etchebehere,
Fabiane C. de Abreu, Bruno G. Lucca, Sanívia A.L. Pereira,
Rodrigo C. Rosa and Noelio O. Dantas

Abstract

This chapter comments on the advantages of nanobiosensors using nanocrystals

in improving electrochemical sensors’ response and their use as theragnostic tools in
biomedical applications. The use of nanomaterials to modify electrochemical sensors’
surfaces to increase these devices’ sensitivity and their bio-functionality enables
high-quality nanotechnological platforms. Thus, graphene nanostructures and CdSe/
CdS magic-sized quantum dots (MSQDs) were shown to improve biosensor’s sensitiv-
ity. In addition, the use of CdSe/CdS MSQDs and cobalt ferrite nanocrystals (NCs)
as potential tools for drug delivery systems and biocompatible titanium dioxide
NCs in osseointegration processes and their bio-location are also demonstrated. So,
this chapter shows some impressive results on which the group has been working
regarding the applications of nanocrystals to electrochemical sensors and theranostic
applications.

Keywords: nanocrystals, luminescence, magnetic nanocrystals, magic-sized quantum

dots, drug delivery systems, biosensors, biomaterials, theranostic applications

1. Introduction

Nanotechnology allows the development of nanomaterials with controllable

physical, chemical, and biological properties [1–4]. These properties are controlled

1
Biosensors - New Insights

according to the nanomaterials’ size and shape, enabling the development of

new innovative technologies, from new device development to tools in the health
field [4–9]. In this context, nanobiotechnology is a recent field emerging from
science, which establishes an interface between biology and nanotechnology,
evaluating and assigning new functionalized nano biosystems [8]. Thus, this
multidisciplinary research field has great potential in developing improved
medical engineering [1, 10].
Nanoparticles can be amorphous or crystalline (nanocrystals), and this difference
reflects directly on the physical, chemical, and biological properties. Spanó et al.
demonstrated that zinc oxide (ZnO) nanocrystals are more biocompatible when com-
pared to amorphous nanoparticles [11]. Amorphous nanoparticles have a long-range
disorder of their atoms and are more reactive [12]. On the other hand, nanocrystals
show the periodicity of atoms forming crystalline arrangements and consequently
fewer defects and less reactivity [13–15].
Nanocrystals (NCs) are often and successfully applied in several sensors, such
as colorimetric, fluorescence, surface plasmon resonance, and electrochemical
[16]. Regarding electroanalytical chemistry, conductive nanostructured crystals are
interesting for application in electrochemical sensing due to their well-known ability
to improve the catalytic activity, the electron transfer speed, and the conductivity of
the sensors. Furthermore, the deposition of nanocrystals over electronic surfaces can
increase the superficial area and amplify the analytical signal, enhancing the sensi-
tivity regarding the detection of target analytes [17]. Nowadays, nanocrystal-based
sensors have been widely explored in various applications and attracted the attention
of several researchers [18].
Nanoparticle drug delivery can be used to target the tissue, promote the slow-
release, protect against degradation, and diminish toxicity [19, 20]. The pharma-
cokinetic properties of a compound of biological activity are, among other factors,
related to its solubility. The low solubility will result in problems from absorption
until elimination. So, it is essential to search for alternatives, and they can increase the
solubility of drugs without interfering in their pharmacological activity. Several active
compounds are usually poorly soluble in aqueous media [21, 22]. A vast literature
reports the possibility of complexation between lipophilic organic molecules appro-
priately sized, inorganic ions, and other species, with cyclodextrin, dendrimers, and
liposomes. Whether for the drug’s application for pharmaceutical use, the nanocrystal
compounds are essential on the medical and economic side [23, 24].
The development of biomaterials arouses tremendous scientific and clinical inter-
est, given the possibility of replacing, in part or whole, human bones and/or favoring
bone regeneration, both in the craniofacial complex and in other parts of the skeleton.
Therefore, it is expected that the materials have osteoconductive properties (materials
that function as a support surface for adhesion and proliferation of osteoblastic cells,
which promote the formation of mineralized bone tissue), osteoinduction (materials
that contain inductive proteins present in the matrix bone tissue and are capable of
inducing differentiation of undifferentiated mesenchymal cells into chondroblasts
or osteoblasts), osteogenesis (materials that have viable osteoblasts, capable of
determining the formation of the new bone when grafted into the host tissue) and/
or osteopromotion (materials that constitute physical barriers for the anatomical
isolation of the site under repair, aiming at the selection of cells that promote the
restoration, while excluding competing for inhibitory cells) [25]. This chapter book
will comment specifically on titanium dioxide nanocrystals in dental and orthopedic
applications.
2
NanoBioSensors: From Electrochemical Sensors Improvement to Theranostic Applications
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102552

Therefore, this chapter shows the innovative results obtained by the group of
carbon-based, semiconductor, and magnetic nanocrystals that can be used in biosen-
sors and biomedical applications, further strengthening the development of new
tools.

2. NanoBioSensors and applications

This section shows nanocrystals’ results in improved electrochemical sensors and

their use as theranostic tools in biomedical applications. We will demonstrate how
graphene nanostructures and CdSe/CdS MSQDs can improve sensors sensitivity.
In the biomedical applications, we will show CdSe/CdS MSQDs and cobalt ferrite
(CoFe2O4) NCs to drug deliveries and biocompatible titanium dioxide (TiO2) NCs in
osseointegration processes and their bio-location.

2.1 Nanocrystals to biosensors improvement

Graphene has been the nanostructured material most utilized in electroanalyti-

cal applications due to its unique features [26]. Graphene consists of a single layer of
carbon atoms in the sp2 hybridization organized in a honeycomb structure with six-
membered rings, yielding 2D nanocrystals [27]. Some advantages of using graphene
in electrochemical sensors are enhanced conductivity, decreased overpotentials,
increased electroactive areas, and enhanced charge transfer rate [28]. Graphene is
usually synthesized by the chemical reduction of graphene oxide [29, 30].
In this field, the advantages of using graphene-based nanocrystals in electroana-
lytical sensing have been previously demonstrated by several researchers and our
research group [31]. We have reported the modification of a glassy carbon rod elec-
trode (GCRE) with reduced graphene oxide doped with copper nanoparticles (RGO-
CuNP). The synthesis of the RGO used in this work was carried out by the modified
Hummers’ method [32]. This GCRE modified with RGO-CuNP was coupled, for the
first time, to a paper-based electrochemical platform and applied in the electroanaly-
sis of analytes of clinical interest, as illustrated in Figure 1.
The modified sensor was thoroughly studied, optimized, and characterized. The
results showed that the modification with RGO-CuNP significantly improved the
electrochemical properties of the working electrode. In comparison with the unmodi-
fied GCRE, the RGO-CuNP sensor presented lower peak potentials, better sensitivity
(ca. two-fold higher), lower electron transfer resistance (857 vs. 21,497 Ω), and larger
electroactive area (0.067 vs. 0.040 cm2). These improvements are directly related to
the modification with RGO-Cu nanocrystals, which are responsible for enhancing the
conductivity and increasing the superficial area of the GCRE. As proof of concept,
this modified sensor was employed to determine paracetamol and caffeine in real
urine samples simultaneously. These two analytes were successfully quantified in low
levels without matrix interferences, and the results showed excellent concordance
with high-performance liquid chromatography used to validate the method. So, it
evidences some of the advantages of using graphene-based nanocrystal in sensing
platforms.
In this context, quantum dots (QDs) are among the most explored nanomaterials
nowadays. The synthesis and practical application of QDs are among the main focuses
in the development directions of nanotechnology [33]. QDs are semiconductor nano-
crystals with optical and electrical properties that are widely employed in sensing
3
Biosensors - New Insights

Figure 1.
Representation of the modification of the GCRE with RGO-CuNP, coupling of the modified sensor to the paper-
based electrochemical platform such as used in work, and voltammetric responses of unmodified and modified
electrodes in the simultaneous electroanalysis of paracetamol and caffeine.

applications. Another exciting feature of QDs is that properties such as size, shape,
composition, and structure can be controlled and tuned. It allows obtaining QDs with
unique properties according to the desired application [34, 35].
Although, promising, conventional QDs have some drawbacks that include
moderate stability, limited luminescence spectra, and large size to some applications.
At this point, the magic-sized quantum dots (MSQDs) are a class of nanocrystals that
show smaller particle sizes, broader spectra, and more excellent stability than conven-
tional QDs [36]. Among other applications, the MSQDs are a promising nanomaterial
for electrochemical sensing use. The small size (in nanometric scale) and the electri-
cal properties of these nanocrystals can significantly increase the surface area and the
conductivity of the sensors.
Our research group recently explored, for the first time, the application of MSQDs
for the modification of electrochemical sensors [37]. This pioneering work proposed
a simple and inexpensive paper electrochemical device (PED) whose carbon-based
working electrode was modified with CdSe/CdS MSQDs. The three-electrode setup
(working, counter, and pseudo-reference) was fabricated on the paper substrate by a
simple pencil-drawing method. At the same time, the CdSe/CdS MSQDs were synthe-
sized according to the method described by Silva et al. [36, 38, 39]. This PED was modi-
fied with CdSe/CdS MSQDs to demonstrate the analytical feasibility and applied for
clinical quantification of dopamine in biological samples, as represented in Figure 2.
Electrochemical and morphological techniques investigated the miniaturized
CdSe/CdS MSQDs-based PED. This modified PED presented improved analytical
signal (ca. 46% higher), lower charge transfer resistance (32 vs. 169 Ω), and larger
superficial area (0.28 vs. 0.14 cm2) in comparison with the unmodified PED. It can
be attributed to CdSe/CdS nanocrystals in the sensor, which was also confirmed by
microscopy analysis. The electroanalysis of dopamine in real human blood serum
samples was successfully carried out, and the limit of detection obtained was lower
than other recent reports that utilize more complex electrochemical platforms for
detecting the same analyte. In this way, MSQDs have been shown as a promising
nanomaterial to be explored in electrochemical sensing.
4
NanoBioSensors: From Electrochemical Sensors Improvement to Theranostic Applications
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102552

Figure 2.
Picture of the paper electrochemical device containing the pencil-drawn carbon electrodes used in work,
representing a modification of the working electrode with CdSe/CdS MSQDs, and the voltammetric dopamine
response regarding the unmodified and modified electrodes.

2.2 Nanocrystals to biomedical applications

In the last decade, several nanostructured systems for the delivery of chemothera-
peutic agents have been developed to eliminate tumor cells. However, most of these
systems cannot reach specific tumor cells without adequate control of these drug
release processes, resulting in serious side effects [40, 41]. It is necessary to direct
efforts to improve ideal drug distribution systems to release stimuli and selectively
target cancer cells. Thus, quantum dots, liposomes, magnetic nanoparticles, and TiO2
nanocrystals have enormous potential.
Quantum dots have been the subject of extensive investigations in different sci-
ence and technology areas in the past years [42, 43]. There are few studies of MSQDs,
even though they exhibit features such as tiny size, higher fluorescence quantum
efficiency, molar absorptivity greater than traditional QDs, and highly stable lumi-
nescence in theranostic, which refers to the simultaneous integration of diagnosis and
therapy [36, 39, 44, 45].
Our group investigated the first study about the core-shell MSQDs by analyzing
the electrochemical behavior of CdSe/CdS MSQDs immobilized on a gold electrode
modified with a self-assembled cyclodextrin monolayer using cyclic voltammetry
and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy techniques [46]. The work showed
a good interaction between the thiol group from thiolated cyclodextrin and CdSe/
CdS MSQDs (Figure 3a). The proposed method was successfully applied to encap-
sulation studies of Mangiferin, a natural antioxidant compound, and cyclodextrin
associated with the CdSe/CdS MSQDs, and the response was compared with that of
the modified electrode without MSQDs. The fluorescence study revealed that CdSe/
CdS MSQDs emit blue light when excited by an optical source of the wavelength
of 350 nm, and a significant increase in fluorescence and absorbance intensity is
observed from the core-shell CdSe/CdS MSQDs when quantities of Mangiferin
are added to the solution containing thiolated cyclodextrin. CdSe/CdS MSQDs are
optically and electrochemically sensitive and can be used to detect and interact with
compounds encapsulated in cyclodextrin and can be applied in theranostic.
Because of their reduced size, lipophilic nanoparticles of less than 100 nm can
cross the brain-blood barrier by diffusion, allowing the drug delivery directly to
the Central Nervous System (CNS) [47]. Neurodegenerative diseases (ND) such as
Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, strokes, glioblastoma, Huntington’s, amyotrophic lateral
5
Biosensors - New Insights

Figure 3.
(a) CdSe/CdS MSQDs immobilized on a gold electrode modified with a self-assembled cyclodextrin to
encapsulation studies of Mangiferin, and (b) illustration of liposome with MSQDs (top panel) when MSQDs are
(i) inside or (ii) outside and optical image the scale bar is 1 mm (bottom panel).

sclerosis may be treated differently with this approach [19]. Just like liposomes,
polymeric nanoparticles may be environmentally sensitive to drug release, such as
temperature change, pH change, among others. These systems may be combined
therapy, delivering two or more drugs, allowing different therapy combinations.
The group has also been developing liposomes containing CdSe/CdS MSQDs
aiming at a new luminescent tool for drug delivery. Figure 3b shows the illustration
of liposomes with MSQDs (top panel); when MSQDs are (i) inside or (ii) outside
and optical image, the scale bar is 1 mm (bottom panel). Therefore, we demonstrate
that CdSe/CdS MSQDs can be used in drug delivery systems, which serve as photo-
stable fluorescent reporters. A combination of MSQDs with liposomes is a powerful
6
NanoBioSensors: From Electrochemical Sensors Improvement to Theranostic Applications
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102552

theranostic tool since it is possible to monitor their location via luminescence in

addition to drug delivery.
Since the 1990’s Liposomal Amphotericin B has been available in the market, being
one of the oldest and most clinical used nanoparticle formulations in the treatment
of leishmaniasis. In 1978, Alvin et al. proved that the use of liposomal leishmanicidal
drugs could enhance 700 times the efficacy [48]. Liposome functionalization is
another advance that can enhance circulation time and release drugs according to
temperature change and pH change; magnetic prepared liposomes can be target-
directed by applying a magnetic field, and ligands in the lipidic bilayer can actively
target cellular types [49]. Thus, the group has been working to develop drug systems
containing liposomes and nanocrystals.
The study of bioactive substances by electrochemical and UV-visible spectroscopic
methods is already very conceptual. The association of magnetic nanoparticles has
emerged as a new bias of these techniques. We group reported the interaction between
the molecule LQM10, a derivative of guanylhydrazone, with the CoFe2O4 NCs coated
with polyamidoamine dendrimer (PAMAM), generating a nanocarrier to benefit
LQM10 (Figure 4). The PAMAM dendrimer has empty spaces that change according
to its generation. In these places, as well as cyclodextrins, “guest-host” interactions
can occur, where the hydrophobic molecule can interact with dendrimers by hydrogen
bonds, ionic bonding, or hydrophobic interactions, being possible interaction with
LQM10 due to the tert-butyl group attached to its ring, which gives it a hydrophobic
character, as well as with CoFe2O4 NCs. In addition to this type of interaction. PAMAM
can make covalent and non-covalent bonds through its primary and tertiary amine
groups, which would also be possible by observing the structure of LQM10. Both
interactions can occur in an isolated or simultaneous way, making it possible for a
single molecule of PAMAM to interact with several other substances, which enables its
association with CoFe2O4 NCs, producing a better nanocarrier for LQM10 [50].
The magnetic properties of CoFe2O4 NCs and each nanocarrier were confirmed by
a vibrating sample magnetometer and field-effect calorimetry. LQM10 showed good
interaction corroborating with the results of UV-visible and electrochemistry data.

Figure 4.
Illustrative scheme of the nanocarrier composed by the PAMAN molecule, the black spheres represent the CoFe2O4
NCs and the LQM10 molecule.

7
Biosensors - New Insights

The heat generation by magnetic hyperthermia of CoFe2O4 NCs in the presence of

PAMAM G3 and LQM10 was observed, demonstrating the association of promising
nanocarriers (PAMAM G3 and CoFe2O4 NCs) with anticancer substances and their
applicability as magnetic hyperthermia [50].
The implantation of material inside biological tissues must meet a minimum
requirement, called biocompatibility, defined as a biomaterial’s ability to perform
the desired therapeutic function without triggering any undesirable local or systemic
effect, generating the most cellular or tissue response. Therefore, optimizing clinical
therapeutic performance should be as beneficial as possible [51]. After applica-
tion, an interaction occurs between the host’s immune system and the implanted
biomaterial, leading to a specific cellular reaction to the biomaterial [52]. Proteins
play a crucial role in the interaction between biomaterials and cells or tissues. Thus,
the absorption of proteins on the material surface is the first event of this interac-
tion, which is decisive for the subsequent cell growth processes, differentiation, and
extracellular matrix formation [53].
The deliberate, accidental implantation of any foreign material into living tissues
causes a response, and it is not the response itself but the extent, intensity, and duration
that define biocompatibility. The ideal response of biological tissues to a biomaterial is
when the initial inflammatory response resulting from the surgical procedure is quickly
resolved, without the presence of a chronic inflammatory infiltrate or the develop-
ment of an immune response. Thus, the biomaterial must be biocompatible and have
characteristics that include predictability, clinical applicability, absence of transopera-
tive risks and minimal postoperative sequelae, and acceptance by the patient. It is also
expected that this biomaterial is not carcinogenic, that it presents adequate chemical
and biological stability, mechanical and elastic resistance, and has low cost [54].
The biomaterial is a natural or synthetic material intended to interact with biological
systems to assess, treat, augment, or replace an organism’s organ, tissue, or function [51].
The primary function of biomaterials is to replace damaged tissue and passively assume
its function, selection, and manufacture, based on the imitation of the chemical and
physical properties of natural tissue, causing minimal response as a foreign body [53].
Since the early 1970s, various synthetic bone substitutes have been developed to
minimize the difficulties inherent in using autogenous bone grafts and homogeneous
and heterogeneous bone implants [25]. The main advantages of grafts created from
synthetic materials through bioengineering are biocompatibility and good reabsorp-
tion [55]. The alloplastic materials most commonly used in the medical-dental field
are metals or metal alloys, ceramics, polymers, composites, and bioactive glasses [25].
Despite the wide variety of organic and synthetic materials capable of replacing bone
tissue or stimulating reparational osteogenesis, there is still no material that meets all
the desired requirements.
Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is a semiconductor that absorbs and emits in the ultra-
violet region with numerous applications in biomedical fields such as cosmetics,
medicines, and pharmaceutical products [56–58]. This material has three crystalline
phases: anatase, brookite, rutile, and physical and biological properties [59]. The
anatase phase is more electroactive than the rutile phase, having greater genotoxicity
and photocatalytic effects [60–63]. The TiO2 NCs have shown great potential for use
in implants due to their excellent physical, chemical, and biological properties, such
as high specific surface area, ability to provoke positive cellular response and stability
in body fluids, is suitable for the propagation, proliferation, and differentiation of
osteoblast cells [56, 64]. Thus, will show exciting results obtained by the group using
TiO2 nanocrystals as well as their luminescence bio-location.
8
NanoBioSensors: From Electrochemical Sensors Improvement to Theranostic Applications
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102552

The porous structure of TiO2 nanotubes increases bone regeneration and repair,
presenting good osteointegration, being used as a graft and biological fixation ele-
ment for implants [57, 65–70]. In an experimental study carried out by our research
group using TiO2 NCs, adequate osteointegration in bone failure in the calvary of rats
was evidenced, with the presence of a large amount of newly formed tissue, suggest-
ing effective osteoinductive action, as can be seen in Figure 5.
Despite the promising findings with TiO2 NCs, it is essential to report that there
may be a high contamination rate and post-surgical infection since, currently, the
spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria is a worrying threat to human health.
In this context, it is essential to establish new antimicrobial strategies, in which
the idea of coating device surfaces with active antimicrobial metals is considered one
of the essential strategies. Therefore, bimetallic corrosion is inevitable, in which TiO2
photocatalytic nanomaterials, in the anatase form, offer more significant advantages
for antimicrobial purposes [71]. Still, the photocatalytic activity of TiO2 under
exposure to ultraviolet radiation results in disinfectant properties, mainly related to
the generation of reactive oxygen species [72].
In this perspective, the sensitive and accurate detection of biological analytes in
low concentrations is another application of TiO2 nanostructures that is beneficial
for biomedical research and clinical diagnosis. There has been significant interest
in applying TiO2 detection in biosensors [57, 67]. Therefore, those reported in the
literature point out that TiO2 nanocrystals are inert and safe structures when exposed
to the human organism, thus contributing to new promising nanotechnologies with
the biomedical application.
Luminescence is related to some materials’ ability to light emissions. This excita-
tion energy (absorbed energy) can be obtained from different sources: photons
usually in the ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum (emission called
photoluminescence), electrical energy (electroluminescence), electron beam (cath-
odoluminescence), physical impact (gives rise to triboluminescence) and heating the
luminophore (results in thermoluminescence) [73, 74]. Photoluminescent materials
are often called phosphors or luminophores [73]. Efficient luminophore requirements
are efficient absorption of light in a suitable spectral region; chemical stability of the
excited electronic state populated after light absorption; high conversion efficiency
to the excited luminescent state; a long lifetime of excited state luminescence; high
luminescent efficiency [75].
Photoluminescent materials require a host crystalline matrix, such as TiO2, as
well as an activating ion, such as lanthanides. Lanthanide ions are known to have

Figure 5.
Histological section of rats’ calvaria: (a) fibrous connective tissue (asterisk); bone tissue (arrow); and (b) TiO2
NCs (arrows), bone tissue (arrow), and neoformed fibrous connective tissue (asterisk) (hematoxylin and eosin
staining, 400×).

9
Biosensors - New Insights

Figure 6.
Fluorescence microscopy of mesenchymal stem cells treated with europium doped TiO2 NCs: (a) culture medium
with 50 μg of mesenchymal stem cells; and (b) culture medium with 100 μg of mesenchymal stem cells.

characteristic luminescence (high color purity). Among lanthanides, the europium

ion (Eu3+) is one of the most used for biomarking due to its intrinsic electronic
spectroscopic properties in the visible region under excitation in the ultraviolet region
[76, 77].
Compounds with trivalent europium ions emit red light, with emission spectra of
thin bands of approximately 614 nm. Therefore, it has been applied to investigate the
properties and functions of biochemical systems and the determination of biologi-
cally active substances. In this context, we find reports of its application mainly as
spectroscopic probes in the study of biomolecules [78]; in biological tracers to follow
the path taken by medicines in the human organism and animals; as markers in
immunology (fluoroimmunoassays) [79], as well as contrast agents in non-invasive
diagnosis of pathologies in tissues by nuclear magnetic resonance imaging [80].
In a study carried out by our research group with TiO2 NCs doped with Eu3+, in
the culture of mesenchymal stem cells, isolated from bone marrow cells, the presence
of these nanocrystals was observed in the cytoplasm of the cells after 24 hours of
incubation, not being found in the cell nucleus, suggesting the absence of cytotoxicity
and genotoxicity (Figure 6).

3. Conclusion

Therefore, this chapter showed nanocrystals inserted in biosensors and their use
in drug delivery tools or biomaterials. Graphene and magic-sized quantum dots into
biosensors enable an increase in sensitivity and specificity, making the development
of nanotechnological platforms in biological diagnosis possible. In theranostic applica-
tions, magic-sized quantum dots, magnetic nanoparticles, and TiO2 nanocrystals can be
innovative drug delivery tools and dental and orthopedic applications. Thus, the fabri-
cation of nanomaterials with interesting properties makes it possible to generate several
potential tools to improve electrochemical sensors and in theranostic applications.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by CNPq, CAPES, FAPEAL, and FAPEMIG.

10
NanoBioSensors: From Electrochemical Sensors Improvement to Theranostic Applications
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102552

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Author details

Anielle C.A. Silva1,2*, Eliete A. Alvin1,2, Lais S. de Jesus1, Caio C.L. de França3,
Marílya P.G. da Silva3, Samaysa L. Lins3, Diógenes Meneses3, Marcela R. Lemes4,
Rhanoica O. Guerra4, Marcos V. da Silva4, Carlo J.F. de Oliveira4,
Virmondes Rodrigues Junior4, Renata M. Etchebehere5, Fabiane C. de Abreu3,
Bruno G. Lucca6, Sanívia A.L. Pereira7,8, Rodrigo C. Rosa9 and Noelio O. Dantas1

1 Laboratory of New Nanostructured and Functional Materials, Physics Institute,

Federal University of Alagoas, Maceió, AL, Brazil

2 Programa de Pós-Graduação da Rede Nordeste de Biotecnologia (RENORBIO),

Federal University of Alagoas, Maceió, AL, Brazil

3 LEMAN, Institute of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Federal University of Alagoas

Maceió, Maceió, AL, Brazil

4 Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Parasitology, Institute of Biological

and Natural Sciences, Federal University of Triângulo Mineiro, Uberaba, MG, Brazil

5 Clinics Hospital, Service of Surgical Patology, Federal University of Triângulo

Mineiro, Uberaba, MG, Brazil

6 Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul,

Campo Grande, MS, Brazil

7 Laboratory of Cell and Molecular Biology, University de Uberaba (UNIUBE),

Uberaba, MG, Brazil

8 Professional Education Center, Federal University of Triângulo Mineiro,

Uberaba, MG, Brazil

9 Department of Structural Biology, Institute of Biological and Natural Sciences,

Federal University of Triângulo Mineiro, Uberaba, MG, Brazil

*Address all correspondence to: acalmeida@fis.ufal.br

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0),
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.
11
Biosensors - New Insights
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