a complete note for LOGIC CIRCUIT prepared by PRALHAD CHAPAGAINa complete note for LOGIC CIRCUIT prepared by PRAHLAD CHAPAGAINEr Prathad chapagerin, L Numericad data in a computer ave written in basic units jof storage wade up cf a fitad number of @nseauive bits The nest cermmoniy uscd units th jhe compelet and communieation industies aye the byte ($ consecutive bits) and word (16 @nseadive bits), and the dasble word (39 @nsecunve bib). A number fs represen ted in ench of these unils by setting the bits accexding to he binary repeeenialion ef the pumiber. By Convention the bite in @ byte ave numbered. from right tp lef +, be ginning wath zen. Thus, the rightmost bit fe bik numba Q and the lef roast bit To umber The rightmost bit % called the least signihont bit ard the leftmost bit f called the most significant bit caual digits and eee symbols symbols in the Jonly where there ae a few represent different values depending on Ye number A vale of each dig)! in a number can be deterroina) using athe digit + The position of the digit in the number a The base of the number spstem position they occurs Number syste and Decoriplien - Binary Number System Base 2, Digit used +0, 4 | | 2 octate number system fr Base # Digit used: 0 1 7 js |Decamal number system I | bed: oto Gexo Deomal Number 545Iern Base 16. Digts used: 0 10 4, Aetters aed = RF rem Analog stem caries signale io the forms of vollaye f continuous time variable. aigna) 10 give | Analog, airrent which are @nlinuous function o| Tin other words analog system proce oe analog output in required analog form Signa) {6 ang Hime continuous signal shee feature of the signa joa vepecsen tation quantity & Sound, Nght. emporars, | An analog psorme hme varying JF some other time varying, poottion ,vadio wave ek | Advantages: P Tr has the potential for an fofinve aman! of Signal resolution: if Prcesoing may be adhered more amply shan digit) | Disadvantages: : + The primny atecvantage of analog signa! 's that To any ie, vardom system if fs completely influence) by noise | | Diaital_sistem, | Th a digital system. each signal ts vepresented by a fr other words digita) systern ave jhosc sequence of numbers « in digital system wwhion process digital input 1 give the oulpul fom. Digital Signals ave digital tepiesentation of dfecrete lime yas Which ave often dexived Hom analog signal @—~% Cait phones. ladaror. digit) camera ee _ Advantages” Ty More immune to noise and it fo whable » Processing of digita) sister fo more flenible and accurate + Stornge of digital system is easy Le modification of digilal system to eas; ant effechve [x Privaag te precenved |* Greater dynamic range [5 Ang ind of information (data, woice, ond video) an be merged 3 emote can be detected and @wecting using @dng 1+ Bardysidth vequivement fe vey high \* Quantization pois affect tbe system [4 Sinchyonizalion fe requived | Dighiad _computer. fig: Block diagram of a digital computer / syatem The _memory_unit: Tr Gtoes programs a6 well as input oviput and imermediate data. ér RAM, Rom | | | | | | |‘Tr performs arrthmen , lagi! and otber data pace ack as speutied by the pregram. f° Mianprocesso¥ The _confyo)_vnit Tr supervises the flow of information beheeen tbe various units. Tt vetiews the Inshucions one by one from the progtam which Te Conta unit informe the processor specified by the insiudion “Input device _ The prosar ard dein ppepand by the WHENS Oe tron sfomed ‘into the memory unit by means of ‘inpet devrees auch as. weyboard , mouse €h fo exeante the operalvon Gurput device yeceives the reault of the the user . 6 Panter , moniter IC + @ectronte colcutotor computation and she weal are presented fo example of digital ampater fs pavoge i cuted a note: | F cy onciosed) in cal fegrade nM igre processor imerfae conn) © ma | 2 A ce Combing) sith Memon and smali- size c@wprter 1s called a micsocompyter loved tn memory. For each testuction |Be Peathad cheprgain: 3 & suber Sistem and Gd as pear] Sina “Cckat ae |i2 [tio eso | Bases Bases | Base 16 ° Dood ° | ¢ 4 1 ae | coos | 2 Joo1o 2 |? la 3 Joost ae | | | | losoo loa 4 } 5 foros! | 6 5 ~ | & |orso | 6 ‘ Tolorsg la 1 B jrovo 10 8 18 hood jou 4 we oo jar a no lpoad | us 8 | jo 1s thiog 15 : > 16 | i E ae gtarats | os ans bond trad roxy 245 2 8rorgsto j +40 Colo), = (10),, ~“N WP Gs) =), ' sy . oS hetontheeean) (O1N92)5 = (to inde and rinde iad fraray = Brar2rs 2 AS 5 0.4345 ¥ 16 1 (01414) = (0.9395) yy iy Goo1so01),- ),, See tnd OnSy ons t442 pixd trond toad tla? 2 B2fOTOr HT O+O 10+ 2 3@10-25 +3825 00011005 )g = G8 25),4 Won OF decimal to Binary Gohy = (Y); : (0) 19 = Goi) y D 55) = (Vo <(255)j9 = (Gg), 0. $00 49 doo od WW (0.6845), = (15 ; ‘ ‘ 09-495) h0 = fntegex —froction —_coefficsent (i t101-004), aggasyg = 4 + o-39sD arn o.33s0xg > 0 104500 aso 0.450048 4 o-S000 ayy 9: sD0Dn2 4 40.0009 ay oy (0-6845 yg = sorts4 pilotesh bre | gad tons! + ong” PRONE RR ORO sage ues On AROnG 2 OBOE O Sot io acguos?- (F65)o + Gots, ip (0-468)y 7 (Dao oe 3 TKR +648 SKB » i+ b Bea = ©. 9485)o | ©.465), +978: | Lenversion of decimal to octal ) Coy = Dy > 2fs2! (oi)2 705 leh S eke) s. si? ) 40 loca (Ds 1d O-Sarkge 2 612 76 | oaaxe 25367 5 OG AS 6.089 G oogny = O64 0 eens 2S129s (0-65 605 Jy 1d @BH) yo = ©6565) |p C65)g =p eshafeonnaran)sSp ang teag + Sng? = (SOU)iy 3 pon yan} Gesh= 14 0. 78 7 to he fssssosos], ela 565) iy @ar-326)y > Ce J 1 ° , 2 DAZ VSALY PAR + AMG FARE HO AT t | | = (98 46461968 7 (as 619688) 59 Poe =(100011141-00103 05.8) , 5 [aug 2 eteragupe 920235084 23 the 0. 335937579 > 0-6T18IS? Fieeely Convert (211110108), 2 weston 3593 47 400 apps” . eas fhig> 1 oossgases = LMS 72 yous 2[B> + o-supasaa = 0689S 70 39005 alan e o-egasx2 = 237572 42010 j]a> ° . pas 20 67 310 120% osasna ae 39-226) (10001115 2p01 10130) 9 oase2 Fle 7d | Conversion of Binary 1 octal ogee = £0 73 a core = 2 70 iy Crooos st oororott)s +O Dy ek ko apstnone” 3 indrordtondt orbit inde and esad rang rants one son? a2) ons te a7 Prony ee cA? pane? Ae + BG gtitdeh rior \ 7 g 32) MR 288 fron. il = (84 167 968¢) 1G419698 RE = 1-9439S-4 70 og ° gPSt | o-auzasea = 24S 72 33577 TBE oqste 2 6G + (434. 126), conversion of hexadecimal to Deamal, > (Ged-01Ae * CDio De ayuda 9Kds BE FOMEE INET 10916 2(9U.0063491 ),,, W (Ao, 7 2)to isnt ionérons® — = (4000),» Qoa)y > Dre (2024),. = H0O)s, | O40) 4 (Dre | O-4soKIE = 120 76 © AD) ,5 GOOG Conversion oft |O GAehg = Ode 3 (PO)g = (4111 10300000), 9.0992.9900 Jz 2 Wool, > (aaoee : % @ fuoo) , ~ (008), ja: Govs-a)5 2 Cro Prong PIS AT OAT = 3-4) y0 Fee GA Doar > Oe | po 4108 Do go aan Ceadaaan 7 6220202 He gent | | ut and spusiphy |b G230), and 24), [aids (29380)y Te 5y Gat 3),> (364)3 and Gi5)y eosin (36353), ceinp comple peration ond for ayia} manipulation? for ach base system, D> the > @mplement D the 0S Complement aye use) To dgihad Cmpuiors for Simplifying He sabsvection There are neo pes of Gmplements 5 The 5_complement. Given a. postive sumnton in bave 7 ath an toriegee parol empernent of ¥ defined a4, / i n digits the 5 { We be NFO 0 for NO & S fird ss cemmpement of 30)46 Avs, 262520 Hae, 11 tos complement = va = 40 @® find 105 complement of (02261) 10 Here, 1-40, 070, N70-3767 tus empement 2v% 5 = 40" 03767 = ORT1 find 10d Gmpkinenl of @s-eaa)io | fees foro, ane weascas | 105 wmpement = Wr = 2025684 = 400-45: 699 . = 1436 4) find the 2 complement of (404100), Hore, 628,07 6 NZ 104100 | ge component =F = (yy Gou100)s = Dro (401200) = Goode) - (4011009 = (04 0300)z a 5> find she sls e@mplement of (0110), Here, 12 9 97 0, N= (0.0110). 25 complement = 9 = Gli ~@ ono), = @a> ost) 9 | en ) 2 The w-198_cmplanent | | Given a positive number in have t ssith on integer parr ef tof 8 BS | dighte and a feoction parr of magit® the @-1)3. cemplemen! Fdefind ag mn fr N70 | aa. Fd 05 empament of | © Gasaohe | vege, ve s0,n 25, m=O G2520)10 \ qs wmplenent = 108-10 - 32520 = 00000 - 1-52820 41499 » © 3261) 5» Mere, Y= 20/97 | ©2616 4 go wempement = 107 19” ©2OD 10 | i oma Ne d. . 0.3264 ioobe =(0. 6132) 10 oO (e6-638) 10 | vere, VF 10, gs complement = 107-18 3.x (45-639)16 | g-949- 95.639 > G4. 3260) a6 ame 3, n= @S-633NI0> (201400)5 Hee, y29, 9 26,me0, N 70100), Yotomprment + US as 01200), 3) 1p ~ G03800)2 = (st itt)y-(orteoda 2 (o 10011), ent of @-0110)y 2 24,020, m2 4, N>(0.0110), 4).4 - 0180), e> the £5 com | EJ. bots) | | were, 16 Gnplement forty -@ ono)y = @-1004)9 wore: > 105 Gmplement of a dec al! least signifitant Zeon least GigniWant digit from 10 and then fugher Signiffiant cligrts from 4. a test siftant > 85 wemplement can be formed vy eave the fr non zew digit unchanged and then repaang her signin digits 5 tn ai other Qh formed Simply YY) be. formed by heaving ing the Firat none fing all oAber a) number Go changed sub al ubsrac zeyoe and vs by 0% and 06 by of @ decimal number f | | | > 96 complement Sabimacing every digit feom 4 > 16 Grmplement of & binary owmber 19 formed simply b/ changing 1s to 0 and 05 10 3'9 oprained from the -1)'3 @raplement feast signi hat digit i > 9 complement can be after the addition of "10 athe [9 Wow con you Had V5 complement voing < Explain uth example ] gubjsacion with > Gmplement The gwbwaction of peo positive pumbors (=n both of | base ¥, may be done as follows p's Complement7 i — rind wie Ginplement of the Subwahend N | Ps objainad in etep + fer an end cany © TF an end cany occurs, discard ib. The rereaining fo He ans | © TR an end camy doce pot accar ,#1aKe the v6 complement of the number obtained in step 1 and place a negative Sign in front that fe a required ansier Sram ples @ ‘sing 119, emplement subtract | @ 42532 - 2280 vee, m2 42532 ad Ne 3280 203280 ‘ . S_og9sd pow, 1's complement of NH , Hs = 1° 03280 96150 2496150 now, Manes = F 2 frog ae? ec 40 it to disaxded Then, the | ove. 1 fend cany voll regained aangivey = 64282 @ aasv = 72532 gasv and n> 12532 05250 vee. ™ now, v5 complement of pes = 108-99882 5 2788 pow, Men's = 03250 tA 7463 | 30718 nee, po end cowy prent 52 Fane 5. empament: Fe 19 CaF yoS- 30738 of (urns) °9 6498? “Thus, required solution - 69289 @ (oror0), - (4000300) m= so10300 , N= 1000100 ‘5 demplement Ne Nr. (1.006100)(1060100), (111100) 5 | Now, MaNYS = 1030300 + 111100 | = {¥oo1o000 discarded . Ther epiived anit | | Hove, a ts end cay 60 iF fs fs, Geoea)s ® (L000100)}, ~ (1010400), Hee, m= 190000 and N= $010300 Jp 00100) now, v's complement af He ah’s = (rocooaee) y -010300),, = (esorooel, (04100) | how, Metts = so00loo tereteew (101100)_, Grostanl, (11100007, yasles 1's complement oF Here, no end conry present 6. : (31) aitoooa) 107 Manes H = (0000000) - 4150), = (10000) 9 Required guion fs, 6 10000) 9 | abeackon using (C1) complement The cubwaclion of Keo pasilive 1y of tase | wmnes moni, both may be done ats fellow © Add the minsend m1 © aspect the wet obtained in step t edd #10 the least Signifcant digit (end (1) emplement of @ If an end cany occurs awnd camy) The want 5 apace r ® TE an end cay cloes not occur, number obtained) tn sips and Examples: sake (-1)5 Gmplement of place negative C79 519°bat asia FITS complement —~ (© 42532 3250 | vere, m= 4959 . N+ 3450 = 05250 = 1p%- 10" 08250 644g now, (r-41'3 Complement of nN. Nora's Mr Naas 2 78532 196449 2 fea2et viere, end cany f present. 6%. Requned answer = 6978 fF and, | e360) @ (1010100),- (000 100), Vere, w= 4010500 and, N= 1000100 194 noo, -1)"s complement of No NODS = & a}, (00100), = (1444144 - 1000100), = @rts01d)y and), mr Nerd (so10100); #111011) = @Booossit 2 Here, end any yo present, $0 Required ooswer fe, 9004 1d) “Go ® 4000100 - 1010100 ere, m+ 1000100 and N= 1010100 G-1)'5 complement of nh, Ne=d)S (1-2), Loboloels = Gstide> (1p.0100)3 | = xovsstly 0191051), Mow, My WEr'S + (ooo1De 10 401014)y = Gaositth, haere, 10 end Comy present $2, (7-2) Gamplement of m+ Mrs Note, “ts? ts, Gray sesrt)s sara 19a) 105111 (Qocee), teeBina cde % the cle used Ym digital computers based on bina oumbor system in which jhore are only $e Pode! ble skis o'and “1 usually called '0FF” and ‘on', TH is pasoible fo awange'n bite to 2" possible hates decimal ede _ Bay cades for dear) digits Jumevous different des an be obtained ats tm 10 (ten) distinc! possible combinalions The weights n the Bcd Gedes are an_G required a mmpirmun a 4 bils by amanging 4 oF more bcp fe 4 straight agagnment cf bina equivalent GB 424 Te Binary conwension oF 15 19 ath @cp is 90010041 5045210 co Sana [ecb Times ) «Taken | Biquir iquinayy digit Bu 24 | : ° Yooss ° 1 ODORS OE lekeiele 2 fooae Jose jpoosee 3 oost jor ro 01031000 y | | lols 0000 jroo fossa 5 | te 0000 jo rod jpeoo f | 1000010 ‘ 116 Loot | o1rtt hore 1000100 8 4000 boys 1001000 | yo100co eee ree Livi ut the coding of dedna}he Reflected code) ° r an unweighted cde The adantage of the gay ede lover fame binmy cede % Thal a number in he gray cade charges iY only one bit as it proceeds from one number to the next A ‘pical appliaation of the gray code occurs When the analog dara are represented by & @otinueys darge oF a position alent) —conexsion. Binary to Gay, ® (0110) 7 Jacay Wor, ont bo > te discard ao ON te Gosto)y = (1110! )gyay 5 © oth at i © Gray to Binary 1100 : -0 1101 : © G1 108)ay, * C2 Vanes | ueye | | 10 Jrit0 ra 4 \ ° r pe v ly lout : | |} 43 100s | }1000 4 | (61102 Jonoy = 018 0) is code “A decimal ade that has been used in come old Computer ts ‘Whe excess-3 cade. This fs an unweighted dade; its ede assignment fs obtained fiom the corresponding value of &¢D after the addition of 3[ 3 tale to Saf - Gmplementay ade, 7@ the gs aa af the decimal number fo easily obteuned by the changing 1'5 1205) and C's to I'S Poor: excess code OF Bly 1S O10 ees © | Now, 95 complement of 9 15, >My \ = 10% -10%2 40-3 | 4) €mess ' 7 | wow, (4), HEA Goro), 5 @ TH Ke ob\ained 4's complement of @, ve 9¢h | 15. Complemon: | (oso), , —*Kemplement__, Go10),,. 5° © } 48, Equation © ard @ are equal, Tr rans hol vs | Complement of @ number expressed in excess 3 cede 15 equivalen! to Gs complement of decimal number itel f. 60 6xc0ss- 5 de Fy Considered wo be sat Complementary cede. note: the 9,4,2,2 and the &4, cedes. (Prof yaneesp ) _detechon code : Any external noise ineduced medium changes bik values from © to 1 ov vice versa An fren Jeteclion fe Ye ably 10 deter the presence of errors cous impaiyments during Wansmission from ransmiter can not be Gwected) , bor its <1 are alao Seif complementeny ino a physical community toy notse or other to receiver. The detected enor presence ts indicated Methods Pavity eit i = checksum Gycitc Recndany check~ oxihy_ Bar : : - ; | Parity Bit % a be (Ao 0) that 5 added to ensuve tbat the | number of its usth he value one (2) in a Set of bits fs even or |oad. Th ts used as simplest form of crwer dest defect ng ede. \Trere are too types of panity bit | even panty bit | > odd paity bit Deven parity bit iden using even pavihy, the pasty old »maving He enhive bit fs cet 101 if the i [number of 1'5 in a given set oF bits is | Sets of bik (’s)even | 7 _odd_pasity bit | when using odd panty, the panty bit wen is ser 104 iF | 5 j the number of 1's in a ginen er of bits iS yanking the entire [sets of bit (1's) odd a Using even parity A 01101 9B | 5, 00 of 1's fe edd. We chould) ade) + te make ever pant | 60, enor deteciing cde (ec) sos s | oniginal de parity bit | B receives, o1s01l (cower Signal) | ossast | Thar means reveives, 01111 Shh hag odd pasty BaF | yocans inconect signal fs weeelved | Aitation nahon of The pavily method detects Yhe presence cf any odd combs | enor. An even lambination of ener |S undetectable [wore : Tip paily : £oun of any exror checking oF the bit used for parity chectingfae fewiNy? Tov OF nfemalion dato we gnly check shone the pail | bit {5 aloays 0; otherwise an enby has occured form of information data inteeqity chet here the pew! ty cm pasty: othensaize an enor nas occured. | bit fe ahoays 4 Trehruction code: Tan ‘instwudion cade fo @ grupof bits that inctucrs the comput Tr fo divided inte keo parte: op coo? to perform the specific operation and operand: The mast basic part of an Snctuchion wade is its operation | p-cede! The operation cade of an ioghuction 19.4 g%4P aiion add subivact routtiph divide & ade of an inghuction ble in the computer for given 2” par 1 caned as ‘Of op Wits dhat defines pariioular oper’ The number of bite required for tbe operaher depend on the 4otal number of operation avav' The operation cede rust consist of atleast 9 bits distinct opexaiovs Consider a computer with 64 aisinct opeasion Che oF therm f6 add operation. The operation code consist of Sin (6) bit with the bit configuration ‘y10010° assign 10 the add penvior. when this operation fe dewde in the contro) unit. the Computer Fosue cen! signal t° read aged operand from memeng and add operand 1° the processor reeistance i | | | 6 a pincny cole oF 09m | ipha- numeric cade The 2G letters of i ishing of ten decimal dii*s of special 4! in an alpha of elements ns alphabet and certain number geic- The to4al number of elements fs greater than 36 Tr must be ceded with the minimam of 6 bits) Toe mnosty used alpha~- pumeri¢ are mbol, arch a5 #, | numeric cle nscit cede and FBcDICFhe American siandard cede for Infermaton Interchange (accas) fs a widely used alpha- ranmber numeric cade Tres [basically a 4-bit cde Since, Ht can create sng bit The pace canbe used $0 entede both the loner ase “patios | and upper case characters of alphabet and some oymbals #."F As65 o> 4B ana plann > 32 2 Eevee | | | The Exkeded Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Gde CE wc DIC) [is en g-bit alpha numeric cade It cn cresae 2 = 256 oilfaent [ik pomtoms. EBCDIC cade can encede ail the sfmbol and character ‘found in Ascat cede. Tr also encedlas mony oiher spmbols eich | Fave not enceded by nocit cede. Tnfach, many oF the bit paiterns Fin Cacarc ede are unacsign A7195 a7 329 @ > oO | tara, > 68 64 # determine yhe value oe Base * f ¢ Yet (152), / / a ec usd santas co an etinet tf De (395), (OAD: . sah agpis Ree GIST TEMS é 2 evened ve eget Oars: Hoo 70 sowing, eg? ve act 2s beBookan Algebra and deqic gates ‘fi Prathed chapagmin 4a he act of chemenis scr oP opera and. number oF poshuates It is developed by eomge Bacle in 13s and ens eonsideved as Qoolean algebra. Tn Boolean algebwo 444% 4, where as in ordinary, binary algebra Let = 10. Binary operator: ; ‘A birony operaier defined on a cet SOF dlements ica we tat acsigns te ech pair of Glements fram 's! 4 woique element fiom S (& Thlapes and | ces arb 6 ' Then, » 154 banany operator |Bleotaan tase: | There are three types of awe she cavany operation which sa eto a cenmatchve error M5 whe fetissing, expression & de fb Aenaily the cemmutahue 'ao Giaks Wat changing be Cinguts). does not rave any effect on whe CORAL of a logic cxet quan of We variables ates that dhe ex8ex tn which she tegic operations are Tis wr means thar we have ferformed fo iwekvant a6 Heit effet he ane Tis fot pa(ered + (AtB)4 6 how 8 Be = HALE | ProokABO gc) = (PBLE Garic ; 2 ts The Disinbutive law states that. fas: (one) =m BHME | fava: (18) (are) = PIB “a Tale [oo ope o jo 1 | of fo | | | | | A jo ye i i rte fo | 1 | In we ssi vowabie. )__Algets Gra). (pre) = AFB Boolean algebra cexiain WES are folloion. They are caprial eters for represcntating vaviable and fanchen ofrs ‘able pitch by a bar oni a here, 8 Tre tegital ‘nny fanchon of Roo voviable te wepresented by det") 4 Te logit ‘oR opeahon of Hoo Voiabie (a wepresented by (pls (1) 5 The odditon of vaiables in boolean algebra ‘involves the variable ober a ‘zew' a ‘one’ oro 4 orket, troza, aed [6 Mulhphakon in @oolean algetsra flows the came baste wes thar are in dinayy operations | . | @ 0020 ,o120, 1070. 4474 betosR LD areas Ar Daa oa ° Pao Aton ‘Ay Tmporiant property of Boolean algebra FEF states that in a too valved Rooker algebra the dua) of an algebric empresn Gan be ‘cbtained simply 6y interchanging OR and ANID operators and by replacing | isby 0% and 05 by 16 [> Gr has severed apphahons i digital systems | dually Theor ‘According 10. the dualily theorern, the flown Genversions ave. posible fn a gwen Boolean expression: 3} We an change each AND operation 1 an OR operaor 1 We can charge each OR operation 10 an AND opexttion We can component any 1 0° appeating ia che expression Ls duality theorem fo domelimes usefiu in creahng new expressions from she | a excean exprecsions Gampie: find the dual of following Boolean expressions1 pr AB =A daria -Ar® sonri od 1 (A4B) BIE) = TBE . a 8 | Gen expression Dual oF given expaession 1 ar eBen Pea e IPB (MBIA 2 nr ABs are A(AtB) = 88 Bari xt aa o 4 |@r@)inrg= MiBc Aarne: Aro D POrRE tRdclABte) = Rat Ae radcam rABee bs AacD+meD: 7 + A@r+AC TOV ABC Ben cen Aer nde Ae oPeD nerde) 8% O nprayz rye vive niarorse [+ orbc= are] expend rz 42 per act ae _ y C8) + We OD Rora fo acrn ary aa yoxte) > (PIB)cate) = nsBe WD (1B) Care) Cte) = PE cA (Atm) (Are) CRS (4a) (HTB) CHO = AP rACt BAT EC = (0498 erm BE) (HO = AtACH BAT BC + [a(1181 Bro) are) >» AUHOTBA 186 = AGO = ALB) T86 Ata) TB spare = nree ore Rn ncWAC TAGCTABL ~ ALB 1D) ATA Are 4N6 oct Ase HABC bis. prie + BC(Bra) + AB? B.A TAB ner ne é auras ie ACcr ee) arnerig Seno = Ar Bim Ad es are = RMS LOGE Geetes digital system Th Logic. gates ore the basic tuilding bocks of ory ts an elechonic Grust having one or more than ene inpsels and only ane rs e Ts based ona auput The relations bekoeen she npat are) the ould certs 1ogic logic gates pt | Basie gates universal Qotes special purpose gates 4 L 1 8 Nor gate npn gare » fa-oOR ate > pm gate iis RoR gee B FroNow gate ii) OR gate | fig: Gossificahon of gates | Euth table . < e The cperation of a logic gate an be best understood with a ck @ fable. ile) Twth rie The truth table concssis of all the awe | combinations of the inputs and the eresponding state of expr “aie Boolean expression Re relationship bekocen te inputs and the upuss of a qatecan [be expressed mathematfaty by means of the Boolean expresaion> Tae wae NoT gate pevforms logic eperation cemplemenh Tries ene ip — ° 4 Dad gate: (1c 1403) | The pnd gate performs logic operation multiphahon Tr my | fave Koo oF more input and one ovlpuh one o/p togie_sgmbo) « Fuh table tojic_symbot ‘Tuth table BOR gate (ac 4434) The oR qate performs !agic eo or more Soput and one auput. operahon adition Trey hove Jtogie simbol: Fuh tableD> NpND gate (F< yao0) The MAND gate performs combination of ‘NOT’ and ‘pwd’ operahe Tr tts hwo ov more Topuls and one ouput fogie_symbot 2 wor g NOR gol T6 @ ~mbiralion of Wor and OR operadon, Trae aot two" input ond one ouput foute Truth able 1g exclusive "op! gate. Tr has fee or move Truth tablex Nok’ Gate (.¢ 94266) To aloo cailed enthiswe NoR gare Sk has 40 & more input b and Siogle utput fi _ xe fogic gate: ji Le Truth table KOy = AER Y say } Simplify the expression men honed below and draw logic craeh fer Srmplified expreosion ty Bacs nee + Abe thac tnBd +AK 2 BE (Arp) +A C(B1B) % RACE) = porAc+AR foe LPN, gcrner0s <= D-8* ie wut ‘epee of Simplified expression fig. togte dec iP pact GBC emBd + Rw = aacrnad ) BacT AS nacere}+ ACRE HR) ase > 081 BABE - ALarB y+ Age nee Fig weyic drawt implementadion "Gimnpified expression46 [De- Morgan's theovem: . De- Morgan Suqgesttd two theovens that forms ‘important part oF Boolean algebra De- Morgan's 15" law: ae + As the complement of @ product ts equal to the Gmplement * Tush Jabie AMS > RS De- wergan's oto: “The Gomplement of aim is qual to the pieduct of the ‘edvidual complement” ie AFB = AHdeg) Tuah rable oe Les = Rw po Intoduchon to_universal_aates « “The NPND ard NOR gates are called as universa) Gates bene it 1 possible tty implement any boolean expression with the help oF embinahoral only AND ov ony NOR gates. Hence, a usex can build any 6 civwut sith the halp of anly wAwDd gates ov only NOR gates. Wi. grat adankage because @ user will ave 1 make a sivcK of only VAND isis a ov WOR gate tes ANAND gate f expressed mathematically as 2F8 a a yore =p Henve, we have te bring he given Boolean expression into Hus fom ® MoT gate using when, Jnput, n= @ vee eR Pp, Y= Put, Pee A fq Not gate using NAW D gate “Te Booiein exprescion for on any pee le Taking double “version of @uS, y > Aw * OODes e (4 AND qate using AWD gate © OR gate using awd gate The Boolean expression for oR gate yr ern Tawing double “inwrsion on RIS. we ge year, sing, De mergan’s jheorem, are aa y: Be aye G4. OR gate using WAND gate Poon gate using NAW gate The Roolwan expression for wor gate is. according 10 De mogan's thecrem. Y= ARB = Tauing double inversion of pus. fig NOR gate implementation of WanD gate © son gate using wawD gate only The oolean eeprecsion fer x-oR gett Y> now = Aerne Tawing double foversion of aus, we get e1Aausing De- mergan's theorem AB. 0% > fiarea zy “pat Ser fig HOR gate using AIAMD gate PA NOR using NAN D gate only Fe Boolean expression fer x- Nok To giver br. y= nOB= BHTHR Taxing double fnversion of ANS. 2 BarAS pee 7 fey MOR USN WAND gote gate OS universad gate The Boolean expression of the given logic dul mast be fro a— « Gemverted nto the wor fomat, | arg ® NoT gute wang noe. hen, in pt apt ye ByB = AFA reas fay wor gate using HOR gaTe ye| L on apie using wow gate | Boolean exprrsion Bt an oR yale 15. y =n Taking coobie ‘aversion of RNs Year arr HE no i> Tig: oR gate using non, gate oO A gate using Nor gate Pookean @xseosion for an arin gate 7s, Taking double ‘inversion of Rus Using de-monaris Therefore, acre D RAND gate yong NOR gate Boolean expression for an Nawp gate TS 5ING, De-maqan's Ihecem Tauing double inversion on aus ODE at a pip ape Gy Mend gere using voR, gate ee]> OR gate using MOR gate Poolean expression for x-oR gale Fs, ¥> ROB= ABTA Taking double inversion on 2 ARF AB = B+ ATO Taxing double inversion on Rus hg. x OR gate using wR Ge 1) A9bR ys using Nom gate Boolean expression fer n- Nom gate fs, ; ye 908= Aaron Ep py 2 ie sarse fg: x wor gak usng sor gate ive fig: % woR aise t49 i Nigh i» to ard 1) Rah impedance, (hi~e sate Fe cuit gon sg wee Loo S Ga we Lane aa | ay o°F ioe oo { east 10 beet Gow (Grane) . @ ster: High (Gove) Sp we wort | of +0 (éante) A advittona) input called ovsput enable (oe) ts iwhodaced. Sand 83 Fe jaye byoce diagrain of de gull up and pu down Aransiairs: Te OMB siage and Pde peer Ts shawn in figure above When, OF =A. he imverler operates 05 4 ponnal inverter. Tf input i sister Gy wit be ON 0 then ourpst wil be 1 uaa). The pw) up an Similarly with oF = 4 cand inpur wont), He output esi! be Yor because the pur down fansishor Ba wit be ON Nigh Linpedanve Sta TP the enableciapur of + 0 (770), then TrespechVe of the Sialtis OF input both the transistors git veindin off ao shen Jor figure. 5 state oF operation £5 cated as Hugh Impedance (oh-2) site: Ibs gjnte the outpat terminal ts eosentany open dict re, not cone) anywherecunprER YH Simpl fitaion OF Boolean funchon * Mie’ conann Se A Boolean function 19 an oxpression foamed csith wo binary operabors ‘oF &'AND', the unary oporalor binmy vanables, function the output @n be “Mor, “equat” sign. for a given Qoolean ether 0 ort &xample: fi = YF The funchon fa is 1 when the mput x24 yet and 270 fon of Boolean funchon 4s'g Gare 7 A Boolean funchon may be qransterned from an aleebre into a togic diagram: Composed of AND! op and * wor" an inert cit, for every xa” jable expreesion gic, The wogic diagrom indudes present in its @mplement form pe Rye NEO Example § aye eT 3 IgE IT 3 Te - es _Ageosic_Moripelation of @ golean Fenction A tite is primed or unprimed Boolean fanchon is implemented uath logic gates ere .ard each terms io implemen jerals and the number oF vayiable when the cach tera © designates to. ‘AND 9} gate. The aminimi zation of a umber oF Ii forms regis ina Grawt wath less equipments fn a apolean fincon can be minimized >) aigebsie. manipalaion Bi gaoty = Grey rd) saxty) = 9d xy ayGmplement of fanchion / The Gomplement of a function F is ¢' and fs obtained om an inter change oF 03 fox 1's and 1's for ds in the value of £ Fe cmplement ef a function may be derived algebricatty thrash Je Morgan's theorem. The genoalizel form oF De Morgan's theorem skates shat the amplement of 4 function Ye obtained by ‘wterchanding awd nd 0B operators and complementing each Were) jlement A simpler procedure fev denwing abe Bponcer of a farcton 5 fo jaxe the dual of the funchion and templement each Wteral Tis nethod follows fam the generalized De Megan's theorem Example + Le fy x'ya'e ye The dual of Fi fo (wage e') (#42) Complement each literal ¢ Gore) Onn 2> A ven Diagrarn: Br is used to chow rwlahonship among the Variables of the boolean expression. The diagram lensist of a wetangle Tnsde ef whith owrlapping cides are drain t fer etch vavables fig Venn dragrain vere, x andy ave REO overlay?! 5 0 x-only and x'Y belongs 1 4- ing Girdles in which xy areas ave fommmon 16 both, x3! areas belong onty XY avea Fs area not belonging 70 any Grcle Venn diagram 13 also wed fo iMistrate the postulates of bocleana algebra and 10 show the validity of theese Epomple x tay = xa = Test vectors : . Test veclor ts a set of inputs pevided to 4 sistem io oer to test that system standard form and _cavonnicad | Ganoni@l_fosm: Canons form ave of to types © mon term © Bin form ® mon term_ —— ‘or’ wgi c of 1 Fach max 4erm is oblened from an Variables, With each Vanable bang anpime if the comespording bit 15 zenoujand ee if pne (1) z y te man ton ayra | 2eGi 0.1 8 lo grgee Me ° ° ‘ xryez! ms ° . ° xagaz me ° ‘ pages! Ms , ° ° wagte % : a ‘ giade?! as , , ° pha dat % oh ‘ 2 , * wry +2) Fach min term ‘e obtained fiom aad ‘AND logic of the i’ avabies with each variable being prime if the Cowresponding bit F the bina nuraker Sa zes0 and unprime if reo Ty [Rinne yy | sina ° 2 8 xy! [me ° o 3 Roz m jo L © x 92? on ° 1 ‘ wey Ys ‘ ° o ba . xv2 4 * awe Ws 1 ‘ ° yt! Me c 5 4 xyz ma Stardard_form Tn atandard fom the toms that form the fencton may jeral/ variable. There are eo types Gentaun one , wo oF any amber of of standard form ® Sum of product [sop] > Product of Sum [POS] % sum of Product _f sop) Sop Yo @ keolean expression Gnfaining 70x79 wth ‘ap’ wgic ef | or more literals €q ayer yet *Y'Z vin (pos) The Pos fs @ Boolean expression Containing temsa with "OR iogc oF one oy move Interalé &: Grrst2) Gg 72) Congte2) Boolean funchon expressed interme of sop and pos o% Coin terms) Obs xyes wyzr aye ny'z? 2 Mp tM gem TMS = (0.3.4, 8) @® f+ arae = ACAI Cre) + Be Cara) = @Brnw) (C+) + Beas Rae ec's nee! . > pacenachs Aalc+ plac ABCH ABC's AAC+ ABe’+ ABC + OC TOME hg Ege My ts time 2 Maa Mgt Mee My ME = ENG ss) procedure D Use dishibuhve tan i) Then, ang migsing variable in cach srr Fo oped with 20%! 1f is missing O pene 2 ery) tz) = Geargeze’ )Cargyle2) = betyt BC aye Z') (mtg eZ) Crys 2) = Mo. My. Mo Ma 2 Mo. Ma. a fe (04,2)D pa xetye oe ay) Crete) = G44) ore) Cmrz)izre) = Gry) (yt2) C2490) shesez2') (aoledt2) (Les0) = edz) Cette!) (org 42) C8442) (209120 (2444) £ enst2) GOdd2) (unyten) CEeIIZ) CIEE) Cee) e Moe Mae Mg Met MA Me MMe M3 Py FT (0,183.4) mm berocen G@nenical fev: woonica) form te ancthen inte To convert from one change the Simbel ie E39 noe aepd Agr Wose pumbey missing from the original fom F2E (04.7) fe 8 Cds weap Evora map ke map 15 regarded 96 4 Aiagranetic ov prctovia) form of a tnih table. The map * @ diagram made up of squows. ch jorm The mop represents 4 visuel cliagear Square represents one min of an possible ways ef furchon » may he expressad in sland form,s Three (3) variable “oh OP : There ae tin terms for binary variables A mop Fhe min ere are cnvangad nor in a bent ajay tede” The chevetoushes changes fem one Sequence const of 9 SqMares Sequence st in Sequence ‘ermoilon ¢0 of the sequence fs that only one bit io te arother Simphifiation cy fe Ze maim) FEE a) camer 2 2? 2 ancy) 8% fps eye Os? pase ede four vaviable_&-map: Fore ave 16 mn terms for 4 binary variables A map tonsiss of 26 squaresFicah on: 1 One square” represents one min tems, giing @ term of four literals Simpl ox Two adjacent equare “ represents a form of three titerals 4 3 fous adjacent square Box represents q tenn of to Werals 4 Fight adjacent squave box reprecen!s 9 form of one Werals 5 Gixten adjacent square bok represents a function expe) te one F-2(o 4,2,12,13,34,15) BME AONE Mg 8 Mag Mt Masd a” _cendihon: Tee are some combynahon of anpuls fox which output fo not specified and such output does not affect jhe whole sjstem, which ae non as Bayt @re cendihon. The Dont core 7" jerms axe denct by x’ Sign Simpl. E Gaxd2) = £13,411, 13) and the dont are condihon a (sagizds © (0.88) 7 g Simplify He Blowing expreosion wang K-™4P ancl implement usig wanp gate ont F Gapny.2) = (4307-14015) dbs?) ~ 5 (0.2.5) wom Were, F(wnzd= marmatm 1m 45 dueaan2) = Meena Meinpiavenehon using NAND gate only nO rane dosble sep. Note: Taue Wren Om yarn! , This 16 required NAAD Implernentaion —— p) <3 (34,6828 PUwIS A poplean funchon gwen by £ CA. B,E.D) =2 oe Aww Dd) =F (0.2). Simplify 42,14) and don't cre condor . ite only ve using a> map and implement using Nand 9! Sh Here, pA BCD) eZ (3-4.6.8, 40, 12 IND dno, Gp)= 2 (02) FEB.) > BRB D+ Pateao NOW, To implement using NAND gate only. Taking double inversion, K-map for jpaoduct oF sum Design wos BP Peoduc of sums design uses jhe Same principtes; hut apple to the zeros of the funchon EsemPE eexs.2)2 5 (1) F(0,9.3,5,9)Chapter’ Gombinational dogic ae Basicaily. the digitad cirwits are one of the following types: > Gmbinahonal crests iy Sequential crawls Geuit may be defined as @ logic orcust deperds only upon jhe tembonalion of inputs the ouipat of which past vuue of tnpars or aps The output does pot deperd on the Therefore , ambinaliona crcuits do not need 4 ——JA Gems] > Yt fogs Vonal cant fe omtpels a ia ot fig Blocx diagram of 2 cemanohona diva A combnahonal drut operates Gn following three Steps > Tr accepts n- different inputs iy The combination of gates operdes °° fre inputs Wim difforent ovlputs ave produced a6 PP requirement any memory of a sequential Grant clepends upon the prcent € in which the {> output Hemery =y dou, SULT fig Bled dugam of a sequent dwtTn oder fo provide the provicus inpul or ouput we require a meme Jement. Thevefove, @ sequential Graut requires @ memory element Combinational logic design procedure The various steps tavowed Th desigmng prctedure of a amboinalional logic may be heted as under » We it be given a problem / Problem ie stated > Verermine the number of Tnputs and ostpas and assign letter Symbols to input and output variables > The truth table that defines ‘inpsls and aupuls relationship is demved » Drow K- map for each owtpet and obblwn the simplified Boolean expression for €ach output > Last, draw the hogle diagram [ @mbinahona) avawt ] A. prachcle design metheds hnuld have to consider Corin @nstrainte as 1 Minimum number of gates ¢ Minimum number of inpuls 40 gate 5 Hinimum propagation jime of the sigral thiogh the caret 4 Minimum number of interconnection Gample: A cheeuit has four inputs and Noo ouiputs, One of ihe ouspets is hugh when majonty of inpurs are high: The second output Ts high only ona) circuit shen ait inputs ave of some pe Design the com binaiona) circus cor tet the four inpals be A+B, C.D and the WC oubpels be Ys and.10, a 8 aaTilustrahon of bpgte diagram bg Binary addets moy be of wo Npes a> Half adder > — full adder lagic crust with neo inpuls for addition of 1 Haif adder lor £5. Combinationa) and 5870 Wolf adel and wo ousputs. Tt fe te dasie build! Single bit numbers. ng, block iis ciecuit has too carpals nameht coum ae + sumn(5) xcs fig Block diagsam fig) huth tablewe map for sum A@e Combinational drut FS be gum = 998 Ly es 08 fg An pat adder Grewt ‘pif adder using _baote gates: Limitahon: form by using an half = The addition of ibree bi adden circuut ts fs not possible fe pa e the dranbaut, of an waif adder dieu t, we develop fart adden i overcom: a 3 single bit adder cireut called Fase Adder, Basically. a three input and 10 spel embmahional cect A- fu —> Sum re fe Ru “ deer fp—> Camy (CD Out fa. Blom disaram6 = AR Cint ABGN* ASG > A@Ln = A@ BECn w-omap for cy out lG) Tl fig A fa adder caxcwut Ful adder using nail adders wap Adder - + want - odder-2 Hitt bps fig. ful adder using Jooo haat addersBsa: “ Here, Sum = (0O8)OCn = NOBB Cin Ths fo Same as that obtained for a fant adder. Now, = (NOB) Gnt AB = @Bt ne) Gynt 98 > ABGnt AA Gr Aw = ABGnt AAG y+ OOC1¢Gnd = NBG ‘ Bn tARGn + ABTA. = Bin (n'y A) +ABGntNe 8G : Ght ABGyt AALGR) = BGn t ABGnTABr AAG, * Blin *ARY AGH( AYA) > ABT BG, + RG Ths 1s came as phat ebldined fer a ful adder Aephiahon : "A fat adder acto a9 the baste buslding boos of the 4 bt/ bit binavy [@cD adder ICS such 2% 1633 # Bnavy Subtwaclors wor be classified as » An Naif subtactor 2 A fait subteacioy an Subsader Walp subwacer may ve dehined asa Combinational aneat with noo inpure and Reo ouspuss (1¢ difference and bors J. 30 gubtrociion (8). A ts cole as minuend bit and BF Sub4sahend bit colle 49 sableKemap for borreW ojp D> AorAg = Rew fogic diagram Tope pe ae fq. An hak gsbhacor orcurt LE 5 fag Haaf aebeaUDA SubTeges using basic gakes tea combynationa) circus ws) Hh Free pus reve, 89 the manuend. 875 A. and Bin ard 10 ovtputs D and Bo pe the cabnaherd Bin wo the romoi produced by the prions Gaye difference Ovlput and Bp v5 she bowew ouput30 1 ° ° 1 ° 4 a ‘ 7 . * e ° ° ey 2 L . map. For difference D= AABine 6 BGin + OBBint ABBin = Bin(AdrAp) + Bint Har AA) = BinG = ROBE Bn SB) + Bin (ABB) o_fwl_subtractor ogte_dfagram_ Bint AB +BBin faq Inverahion of Legfe diagram fer 0 font exbtrocton “Gnchwclion of fait subweder using Malt PbNEGMa Rea ree Wolf Sabato 2 fig) Goretuchon of a fur Sebwoutor using half ‘oubie Lior S D> A@COBn bp = GBA)Gint he > HHrHB) Pmt PO = @ArAA)Bint BB ~ BEBin TOAB» 19% = BBBinr ABAnt OALIt Bind 2 BG Rmr ABBnr ABT ABPin = AB Bint BRin(ATAI TAB > 86 Bint BBnt AB > AGBmt BAint HA(1t Bin) = BGOmr BBint BBs ABA in = Bain (G HAITOBint HB ABint BBmt OB The design Speafialion of a required Boolean funclions oF a legle Grail {6 comenhat the verarse process diagrum and cuminades with a set oF Boolean funchons, a truih Fa cembrahonal dewt stale fom the verbal funchion ard culminates saith a Ser of abipud diagram The analysis of a combinahora) Th tars sath a gnen fable gx a verbal explarahon of the Gray + operation To obinin the attpil Boolean functions froma logi« diagram, ed as folowe:ab 1 Fabal with arbitrory Symiolo ait gate oulpats that are a fanction of He inst vavishies. Oblain the Asolean functions for each gate 4 take) wlth other arbitrary S¥miols those gates which axe a function oF inpst variable and/or prevwusly labeled gates find the Boolean fienchin for these qaks 3+ Repeat the process ovtfined in skp 2 unk! the cwpals of We Grout are obtained 4 By repaakd oubsshbhon of premousty defined functions, obiain she OMpAt Boolean fanchore in fms of input vavianies enby esemple: co u — ie fe = @rccarn? Gaye + bared he im * + Re AO GO 4B + ACD TTD = parecns BE > parncdt adNeve Mop dreuts Proceas 10 obiain mmulltevel AND diagyam fom Boolean expres: fiom the gnen algebric expression, draw the lagte diagram seth fwd, oR and NoT gates Assume that bok He romal and camplemt inpats ae available » Draw a second togic diagram ss Hh the eipuvalent PAD Toye any #00 cascaded Fnvex ers from jhe diagram Since logic fiunction- Remove verte t the. conespording 2 Remove double tmvexsion does not perform a lemected to éingle oxen) inputs and corner input variable. the new eyic diagram gbrained i the required waWd gate implementation ° ~ (Fe) ~ er® om = AlercD) rac? >—D- oo A— 4) pxpfoe. implementationa2 fag: WAND nplementasiOn . pies fia, Tmpementation of F = caren) rac! oath HANDS Muttilevel NOR ts: - process te obtain mublove noe. diegramn from Boolean erfrs wen algetnic expression gic dtagram from Ye 4 1 Draw the AND-oR 10% and the amplement Aesume that both the nowna) 2 Dry a Setond wyfe diagram ath equivalent NOR logic for each AND,OR and Nor gate 3 Remove pairs of castaded inveriers comected fo eingle extema) inpuls ard complement the conesgonding, inputs ave avaible eure che) from the dicaram- Remove inver Psinput variable — i> 1 Re me a 4 mB + wor gp >Re ok fig: SubsYituding equivalent oR, finchons33 fig. ep implementait en Posity Generation and checking emma") Paty bir Fe an extra bit Yncuded with a binary MESAIE jo make the number of 1° ether cad or even The message singuging the parity bit, is jranemitted ane) then checked a the receiving end for if the checxed parity does pot correspond aut hat generates the pavly bir the Grwut Hol omors fin omer Fo detected fo the one transmitted. The dr tn the tanemittex fs cailed a parity genexalor - chews the panty in the receiver ts caned a panty aecter > Panty Generator Gwen panty generaloy C3 bd “Truth table oo oye ofr fe 5 — a © eye barge tHE Lt fo ° 4 tye *E y eye yet ° se cge nye) te 2) yt fe o = x (yoz) 12 382) ee 1 xOYOZ= eet Logic for even panty generator fig - Connationd » Parity checker: x © jo ror) ven pavily checker (a bad ee nee sein) o fh fe of fs o ff fe 4 jo fo 1 lo 1 fb fs 1 a 1 ou jo iL 1 fo h nl s | Fase © Ae ' 02 8 Pye YZ Py 4 AE Plt © Ny 2Pg + KY gt AIFS + 1 y'2'Pg 4 97 Py : Py (x izle alga #78! tog7! + o seyiz) + 098 (oye tHyRtTT mete") B = 0g ( xGyb2) * Ps) (4OSO?) 1 = KO9O2 Oly oO 1 ‘4, Fee PY O2 O fy fy. Gmbinahona) 409" ¢ for even pan ty checker Gde_enversion :4) Binary to Gray Gnversionfey combinatonad toghc Graut t& @mvert Pinan) cae © gray wee wis One of the ourpuds cetend ostpat 1s hgh cry g A duit bas for inputs and #0 Outpl ahora) Grav high when majonty of Tnpurs ave high The when el) inputs ave oF same NPE Deagn the @mbi X [¥1~ pactemsanoencn No= 4851 n8CD) Design a combinationas crust whose input ts a foor bt number and at the culput we obtain the hoo's cemplement of che inpat- £6 A: c me 4 = As (Pet )4 6m (O30 Ma). Br = O2Olhot AL) , Bs > HO He eA,yp NOTE @ ise K- map to Simplify the gwen Boolean funcion 14 pos and mplement the simplified function using NoR gate only. F(AB.6D) = 2 (438,912, 18,24,45) and don't care dinvecgy2 £18120) sof: In Poe foun FAB, 6.D) = THOS re, F391 4448, 14, 45) 418,00) LOR F, 10) 2D [Gr sfc L 4 * we map (oral) (vero) (0 4B oe) Ivoto/ af Flma.e.p) = (Av erp) (wane re) (040149) (Ala arelrB) for NOR. implementation Fin 8.69) fig: NOR. gute implementak ana! t Sum £9, cerory=0 Sum 6 9, cry +4 Siam», CON 4 4 L hs we add @ fe the Sum we add @ te the sum TP yhe @neet answer Ansoon 16 correct get No Conechon fs te get correct answer requived fromple Add (669), and (68°F); tn OCD ve S69 o10OL 01s oO’ 1008 +687 tooo joist Taee Zoe Irueweer angen valid 8D invalid invalid eo POD uth omy te add(oite)y #2 only the invalid GED numbevs 4 ger coment anger fowert answer &28);6 0001 0010 o101 0110 (12506 There, 665), 614 Nie subswouion “camper, OLEH 88 tompenent porformm (23), -l25 )yy Using the a5 Compkment method so g's complemen of at is, 47 Now, (ga, 1000 9044 WAS),01s4 soon “Crt ord + Rest 15 in imatid 8D form —~“FETE 105 @mplement of 4. WD ent We add (eu) Jao ame) 10's complement of @ Dre Cho 0103 0100 40's Complemens of (42) 4g oui t L000 Discard final cony 3 Answer fe positive ard isin tue Bcd formnas, al (0110), 4 each Tavalid Bey numbor ad 1° “eo F L i vegult fs pootlive ands tn Li ginal cany is 4 hich Fadiindes that the reawll 7 Pe Iie hue Fovm NO gout 15, 0140 Gok cole ing answer Fs josie and vn its tue form Therefore, 63 )40 G4), = (64 ay Eramplen: Perform (64) 15 -Ga)yy vein 4's complement Pr } First, we obteun a's womplement of ©4)4. a's complement of WI); 5 * 99-69 = 10 ii) Thon, we add 64)44 and g's Cmplenent of @3)1y Bus, yp. 01 o 040 aco of 15 e064 6090 9s tomplemnt of 6)s, Final camy 150, 50-4he sm 15 -ve. P MoWE, we fake g's omplement of S10 beet 1 er wo wag + | eiihonns, final on seer Trorefere, S446 - 6y_ 2° Oty Qusing 10 complement Cnnples gn PMBIM Stig “2Iyy To Bed uaing 40% emplement net, fF Us obtain 10's emplomnt of #9. @5 complement of 99, 99-227 4We designute the hughes level by H and the Wwer level byl, There are wo choices fo logic. value assignment [ti one Sgrat value degic value signa) value — eB ” j . |. 43 positwe wsic 1 | ty Negative 104i¢ | Choosing the high-level H 40 represent logic 4.0% shown In figlas. | defines a posi tve- logic system Choosing the fot -Ievel 1 TO Kpresonk eghc- 1, a5 shown I gle defines a negahie- logic system It 7s not signal polarity that determines the Wype of tog le ah rather the assignment of leg’ yale acierding 40 tbe wela hve Jamphitudes of the signals {Digitel_ciuwte i Digits) systems ae quite easy B design than analog |sjotems, because digitd design Involves logic desgn which does not que specia) maths stull's and its beheviow may #2 viswalired port —by- part To visualize the bebavious of analog aystems i quite diffar JAduealy, ib requires the cpecia) insighls about the analog comporents Suh as capau tors, inductors and transistors used in she analog System some other factors + = Relialontity and’ Reprodua bility of Results ~ Fiexibinty = fancn onal ty = Paogrammabr ty = Device speed |- €cnerny in manafactoring | upgrading ‘ebndlosy: ; 2 a % 3 “alle consti the yaks. L a Feacibin ty and ecromy of pacduong the gare uth physical | ' components, The possibility of exterding the gale 10 more than 0 inputs: | The basic proporhes of the binary operabey such as @remulativity and assouadii Y The abilily of tbe gate © implement or 9 njuchon wlth other gates 5 alone, Bookan function Ger Gad ABET ABC a To tmplement using Newd gate ane double inversion _ C+ ABET PACT ABCOMPIER: 6 Ms 3 Rib Msi and ust GoMPOMERITS TN COMBINATIONDL MOuTE DE Hy Binary Paatel sever: A fail addlex t cpable oF adding ony “too Single bat digit bine NY numbers along saith 9 amy input But-in Praclise sie need to ald Ny; ic binary numbers shih are much longer than gust one bit Te add too n-bit bil rebit binary numbers, 122 need t use the n-bit pavattel adder. ¢ full adders ‘in asoae. The cary Tr mates use of a umber o} comectta to the camy mpak oF oudpat of the previous full addesr fs he next fa adder Ase ie_ Boning Pratl fdr: Tnpat Cary Se 4 3 Augend pos fs ‘ Aadend arr 3 sum ToT os 3 output cary EEE & A Binary paratie) edder To 4 digital function tah pres 6h gr consishel = the avthmelf'c sum of boo binary numbers 10 pore! 7 acres, cascode ssh Ihe Mpa cany fro fF the next ful adder. fu adders ennected 1 ed fo the Spur camy © one full adder @onech as ee AD 155-5 de commenter “erample. Qesign a ep 10 3 equivalent code fan be obtained from T's addition cn be exsily implement) excess. jhe BD code by the addihon of binary 0044 by means of 0 4> bit full adders ghuen in figure below msn crewt 4exess-5 code convertor fig: Beato HOME: Hecign a -bit adder using three fast adders ard one hai adler the loos diagram of He required obit acer cor Figure elo shoe The walt oddex *6 use) in jhe an} Go. The three full adders teas? Signiiant position to add Ao: ave used thereafter. ®& © f BoM a Ms > fe 64 Ss s 9 fat adders and half addon using 9% Complement « A abit parallel Subbtea cer Using 44-bit paral —— ~ 1e) adderr 5 shaon tn figure belolo- The pumbex 10 be Subtvachel (8) ie hrst passed thmgh 1's cemplement. Then 1 fo added # ts imerters fo obtain 1 Thus Ke chitin the 29'S complement of B. bj making Cin=Geniplamén€ of B. The hit adder then adds” A and 3 ere OF B to predue the subtracion Also, $550515e represent ihe reuth of bina subtrackon (m-@) ond cary Output Gut vyepresents the gf AB then Gyr 20 and the west is in polarity: of the result 4 and the resut is 17 he jue bina form bur If <8 then Gout = #5 complement Fag op og os ym Le — 31 3's complersent “oF. oo ss s A= bit parallel subdracior ior 4-bit Binary Parattel Adder | Subhea The addition or substatl GE too abit binavy numbers (an be obtainal using the same Gecwt shoon in figure below ‘The operation performed by is Crewt (Addition oF substraution) depends on the state of the mode select input Mere the number @ ts applead i the add Exo gates. One inpul of fach Esra gaHe 15 connec a ‘oa {Hh - rede select (4) ye © Addition “are lor threagh a seh OF sed) 30 the male select input iM: ) ore tener L _ + HE yy a ae Re 3 me ped > Subtraction lat = fp 4 bik bina adder esa sam of Af a output adden | sobtrocet fs. a aebit binay paruie)Motking opesahion as Adder Cm The mode select (|) input fs comected te ground: serefore m= 0, Since, #20, Gn 20 ond the culput of the CA-oR ace wail be toe aie namiber B appled et thelr impuls mee couse 0@0 20.and DOL 7% HenLe, ByrBe: Bs and By os PASS changed Ybrevgh the Cx-oR gates. The adder then adds 1a Gn= oY spas, with Hz0, edition wl fame place At & since Gm jorking operation as sbivacts (= The mode Select (M Since 1421, Gn 21 and one input of €ach A-OR gale Fsnow X-OR gale acts a9 an inverbr. Ths % becuse, 160 > 1 and Hence. cach bit of word B te wvertd by the x-o8 invertors. Thus,we et the s'6 complement of umber ® at the oxtpar of n-0R acs The inverts! umber ® adds with Gn =1 t give tho v's comperent of 8: Hence, he dor usitt od) A s8iHh the 43'S emplement of B and the reat (5 achelly he aushaction m= @. ene, with M4, Hhis crrcut worms a9 2 3°9 emplement —gubbeadtoy input fe connevted t© Vee. Therefore m1 Hence, each 19170 dex Dd adder f5 a ret that ackls too aco digits tn parasel 4 bit BD anc) produces a eum digst alee im @cD Sipposes 230 apply No acd ahgits 10 4 4 A-Ait binary ae Fe adder will form the cum in brary and puch a result lich may range ham 0 to 14, Tee bina ambos ove aed in THE bel? ard ove Ibe) ny Symbols K, Za, 27a. 24 KIS amy he fable for Birmy Sum te ACD sum Gnverter fs 1 Binoy bee ' eo eee aw Peat ee | G @ ee eo fe tio D tole 0 20 (0 |b 1 0 e]e 04 'oo fo liye jo jo joe a plo [oft fo je fo folate it go jo 4 4 50 Ojo |b tO ° 3 ° c w:olsjaig io 't 4 hoo [40 i200 1 jb co o (a feleiso isto ja ia a it |Lbojols tt Ho 4d f 0 FOL oO © tee is ads (a ck je tod Trorefore, The cerdibon far a correction and an owpe & expressd by the boolean fancion Ce Kt Bey Hee my fon be ih is necessary ® orld 0110 & Ke binary sum tathen, ¢ = and provide an aulput cam for the next singe 3B— avy & 5 fig: Blocw diagram oF & aco adder vgnrhcke_ compete A magnitude comparalot is @ @mbinational Breut that jhety relative smagnitides compares feo numbers » 9 and 8 and cletormines binary variables The ostwme of the Gmparision ie specified by Hee ak indigte ebetber oneidex #20 number, o f= ah 2 A Bo @ ~ Os87 Bre pg Arar ace rad) Bast four dite caeh cose ase TKe np numbers ave @qual if amt pairs of sigmficant ligits se if ys Ba ond R27 By and Ars Gs ard ae. The aqualy apa ylation of ch pale of ble cam be © sed) togitally esith an epsivalne furch on xe = PBN FAH BF F083 herr, on <4 epky if the parry of bids in position / ave equal. ie if both ame a's or beth are 08for equal 2 . } equahly condilions Yo enigh, all Xi Variables mish be ¢ : ctates an AND operaiton ef ali variables mae (AaB) = %3%2%1 Xe The binary vaviable (a78) 15 @qual f only if ant pairs of digite of the two pum bers TE equal ase 2 ASB or AB determine if 8 fe greater than or Tess than B, WE qoitucle of purs of significant aigste starting Tf the boo digits ave eal, = The & Comparision inspect the relanve ™ fiom the most signrfia? position of digs reached TE the covcespordng ge sf the + <8 Compare the next owes signi hion F pat of unequal digits 9 corcude that > we have tha cen hnues anh! a po digt of a fg onc Hat of BO 0, we cenrespording digh of B13 9 and Hot of BSH The sequenhal em, ced) toquealy by PE foo Boolean fanch ons pansion ao PE expres: fonwwo1ng (A>®) ~ AsBs 45 A289 + 4502 A,B tH 3t2%Ca Pe Be) (n <8) > PA’ Bs + *3 98 By 1X92 AB 32273 Pe Be NOTE for abit os ape rr Be fords et (P=B) = Xie (78) = As Bit Hs Pom! 28) . ee 6s + 4 e'BoFigs A-tst mogm tude comparator pears ‘ombinahonal clreait that converds binary nko A decoder is o nes (2 a maximum of #7 unique oMtput hipes. mation from 1 mnput has unused or dont are crmbinahons, Te the o-bt deeded infermako the decoder cuiput silt have lees tan 3” ouipuls (gfo g bit decoders The thee inputs are decode) inte of of the 3 -inpul variables. Sn crcler te clecerte ight oulpats. each ourpub pee senling one of dhe mintenme ai! pocsivle combination of @ bit, 3 deteder gaieo oe repaired 6.9938is ype oF dewder fo commonly Dit Dat DsDy me — a» % » » ds Pe BAS éneder a fay. cepmd to inary eneeder fy 543 eneadey‘MealTs Pu Hulhplening moane fransmting a Yange numbor of In fennaken nite ovet a smaler number of channels ov tines. A digta) mlnplexer is a embrolional circast that selects binary information from one of many mput line? and directs it 10.4 Single cusps line. The Fer Teeth table (ap thsoagh 14). he select MPS Se Frere ove in alt ejghl dates inputs and éj of bow 4:4 muihponers are cnnecte Fo genie) omens a9 9 shied select wnput S342 used for emabing one mulnplesey at a hime. Example 3° Fenplawent @ 16-4 multiplexer wang ust mulhplever: peveriplion DeccripHom Teo select input 5S, and Se OF the mulliplesers 4:9. 2and «ave connected toqelter, Be select inputs 53 and $2 are applied 10 the select input 1 and So Of Max-S. The cutpa Ys. Yo.tay are apphesl te thedata inputs fe, f4,fa and $4 OF mun-$ 45 shown in fig below:ost | ux select YeRead ay mremery em) a . A por 5 cesentiaily a memory [or storage) donice in which a fixed ae of binay information ie: slowed) The birayy information must firot be specified bj the usex ard Ys then embedded in the nih yo form the required interconnection fattem- Once a paitern ie establiched for a ROM. it yemains fixed even when power ined off and then on again ar pracy diogiaar of ROM Ts shown In fiqnre below. It ines ond or ovipat Koes. Gach bit Combination word. The number of bits per’ jines_m. An address Is ecseohally of v1 variables Te Gengists of on inpat of the input variable ¥6 called %5 equal to the number of OUpH @ binary number that dencteo ce of the minterm number of disfinck addresse® poosibbe with input variables word con be selected by % nique dies 51 aed since gon, there are a di uni The word available O° whe 5 value apple f soar a ig 20 Ain otipitt ghing WOR Shere ove oP distinct addresses in @ aid to be gota in the cana gnen me depen rs chavacterized by are auipst lines at fo the inpuk nes: the number of nds on the addres: yhe number 0) 3 and empl: Bene fom 97M pom Fovemnaly he pom a cembinaional cdr? with wp qoies connecttol 46 0 deieder and @ pumber op yates equal 10 the number of outputs tn ghe unit vo inputs fea Rom block diagramfe t ie Ss fy a aun ROM fig: fogie @nehuchon of Tmpementaion of ROM & Implement we rave 4 words se ats n= 9 inputs ip yy a ey I ahi wt ao"Programmable fogic Away (pea) ° 4 PIA ie similar ta ROM in concept , owerer jhe pen doce not provide tut decoding of the vaviables and does not generate ail the minterms as in the Row Ia pin. the decoder fs seplaced by a guup of AND gates cach oF which can be programmed generate @ pregeee produck term of te fopat variables. The AND and OR gales inside the pen ave inihally fabriatd sith nm among them. The specific Bodlean faenchors are. tpplemented fn sum of — product frm by eperding appropriate ings and teaving the desired denneckiens chown in figure OOM fp block diagram of ae Pc ve_preduct ferena, and m 27 puis, m owtpsls 0 goup of AND gales Tr consists of 9 1) joms. The product ferme conek Me and the sam derma —G@nghtue a gup of m OR gale + The sire of he pea fs spec fred by the rum ber of inputs the mummber of predict terms ‘and the number ofours A Typo) pin has 16 Binputs ug product germs, and 8 oufpels- The number of pregrommes). fink fs an¥K ream? thal of a ROM is ana my, where¥s yh per = Som p> tenes tens 2 J (oe oy fumes | gute) eps ¥ fig pen vvox diogyom [Bi ee Tnpemeniation repo _ " oe Toplement Fe = AB 1NE S i fre nesBe using PEAApclean _funchon implementation oF be Fem meg = ESE? 2. £ (10,69) > £013 9.945) sof. of vaonies = 3 fee nrds $s sor woof vonene geen so, saieciton ne 2 go steno woes 4 tose Now. G Implementation table 1 penentaon fg: Mubplexee soplmentefenCHMPTER. J SEQUENTIAL 40426 5 , . iPad chapogpin, “ \ bloc diagram of a sqenifal cicat 15 shou Im fine Wein. Tk Consists of @ Cembinalional Grat te which memay elements are connected to form a fewbarx path ‘Inptle ————f Gmbinalione Graut i fag Bloods There are two main types of sequential Jagiom of a sequen Nal Craue Gucaite Theit dassif cation depends on the Hmm of helt signals » Synchwnous sequential Saw 2 Asjnchrencus sequential ore by definition 2H diseete ingants 2) Synchronous Sequential cleat A synchronous sequential 14 jhe memory elements onky at ie oyster employ signals that affect 7 of ie Sncirenizaion te achowed i 8 ming device calied ae i ve pun of cock, pulses: Tene coax qrreretes chic qrreraies a pemoaic Ne a inns of -memey omen dicewit that use cleck prises in the Te memery elements usclio deere) sequen Hal are aie) doce! sequential cuwh cuted Flip-flops sequential Geass are 4 Poynchwnous Sequential veut The behavior oF an asynchyenous upen the order in which its npar signals chacge and on be affeded at any instant of time. The memoy cements commonly used in aiyrct- sequentiad Grau ts are Hime delay devices Tre memory capabiily oF time for the zequenWal Sri} depends nous atime delay device ie due to the fact that at takes @ finite Sgr} 1 papagate though the device ‘ie ts a wmbol signal that poviodi@lly makes a Feansition from zee pas fe zen0(P) again. se usually denote the clock by one (ote i) and thon a a on ip akFlip= Flops The memory elements vee in clowed sequential cits are sata} pip-fhps. ese Geuuts are nary «ails capable of stenny ne bt of infomation. A flip-flop Craik hay Wo outputs .one fer the emplement value of he bit sore he norma) value and one for mit Bireny inforrmahon aan enter a fp-Fop ip 4 vaviely of ise be different types of Pip Fiops A thp-Flop Geewt can maintan a binary otle indefinitely as wong as power fs delivered jo the Gruut) antl directed Py can inpat fe rmjor difference amreng various pes oF in the memer 5. 4 fack which gives 7 signal fo suutch — sietes. Flip-flops are in the number of impute they posses and 0 whith Ye inpuls affect the binay state ree 6 Flip-Flop _deaut ] ip- Flop circeut con be cenahucte) from fo NAND or flip Flop upon which oher more NoR gates. fich Srwt fms a bos! cemplifated Wypes on be butt: The cat6s- wupled c@nnechon rom the caiput of Gne gite Jo the inpal of the other gle Gnshimars fend bax path. fer thio reason, the cirecute ave classified @5 asynchweneus sapenal cls Fach Flip-Flop hae fo ouput, 6 and @, and eo inputs, Set and yeset hig Hype oF Sip Flop F samehmes caved a clivect -@uprea RS flip-Piop of 9R latch nk - - ) 2 Lp See) —~y we lors Doa-* TLS f>- ar Rowe > 1-3! een fia ncaive bugh inpat 98 4ah fia. eve 10 anpur 36 eha Is fae! os 2 a fos oa feo soa fe Tah Table for 5 Flip Pop using AND peop oh No xed no M9 PAP Bj adding gates te He Inputs of he basic Gircait, the flip-fep pat lovels ding the occurance of a cloak pase fe © Graphic oymbo! can be made 10 respond 19 10} acess +OR° Gapdaradenist’e quater Figo chavactonstic table eg: docked As FAP“ FOP _D_fup Foe The D- fip Flop shown in figux betow fe a modification of the dorxed ps Pup-Flop yipnd gales + and 9 form a bast: Flip-Flop and gates 3 and 4 modify vt anid a doce) 6 Fhp- Flop. The Dinput goes direcHy to the S ipJe @ 5k nd 145 @mplement . thigh gute 5,15 applied to the R input pe, oft! HA} 4) apvadoristie equator © dhavadierish’e table fig: dood > FP flop 1% flip Flop. A 3K Flip-Flop te a refinement of the RS Flip-Flop in tha he indafet winake late of the Re NPE te defined in the am HPO Inputs and k behaves KE npule Sand R Yo cet and ceav she flip Plop (nek thst fn Th flip-flop. the letter Tio for set and the letter is for dear) Uihen inputs are applied © both tand K simultaneously. the Pup: flop complement stare. ve IF &=# it cusithes 10 @ = 0, and guviches 10 its vie versa when bor 5 enty ~ she one wahase input % ennected 10 the Fip-Hop ovtpal 1, the oulput of she upper and & are 1 he dock pulse Ts tanemi fred Hhuough one AND aa gariten which 16 presently equal fo t- The, if ae pup gales betemes + upon apphialvon of @ clock pulse , and the flip- flop ro cleave! 1f @’> 4, the output of the loner pnp gale becomes a 4 and the flip-flop * set8 Trwent of. Vito not changed eT — sto ke oo gir) = a'r rar vps a set og 2 Inver F > chaverctorishic equaah' on © chavactoushe table fea: Cocned 3K flip- FOP Flip Flop The 1 flip-flop % a Single mp worsion of tbe sx flip: flo p Te T Chp- Flop % apjained feo a 3K HYPE if both inputs ave jied tegeltor. toggle’ oF age The designalion T comes feo he ability oF the flip-Flep 1° giate Regardless of the present gyate of the Pip Fle? jib aesumes the hen dhe lok pulse occurs sin complement state white input & vege Job ae bo fF 4 - Se + ce &} bnophic symbolgerm) = at ) chavactorish¢ table 3 choroutenst’e equation fig. clowed 1 Flip Pep Triggering of Flip-Flop. Tre aja of a fhp-Flop ts susitehe) by ? momentary change in Yhe input signa) Ths momentary change fe calla) a Mager ond the fronsition it causes Te gaud te trigger the Fip-Fop Popnchyo nous Fup Flops require ar inpat rigger defind) by 4 change of sigpal Level docued — Flipflop ave triggered PY pulses Thee are oo types of tragering 1. Dulse nedth biggeriog 4. Gdge Triggering agening: Tn pase swiath Miggering ogre 1 ard flop charges its state tale iohen ghe FP ol 5 shen clock pulse £5 equal $0 does nor Cenge lous fulse 15 equal to 19te & fel Figs palse silt Taser a_gdae_ragering A dock pulse may be either posilive or negaive The prise qpea Yhrnugh ko cigra) transitions: fiom ow 1 and we return from 1 to 0. The positive Tansition vo defind as the poutive edge and the negahve transition as the negative alge. An edge tsagenng flip flop changes ifs slate either of : , © ef bo de pouhve edge ov as the -v exlge. fag Aefiredion of douSester-slve flip Flop A master-slave flip-flops Conshucted) from oo separate flip- Hops. One cawt senes as o magier and the other a6 a slave ond the overall druwt % vefewad to as a master-slave Fip flop clave Hip-Hop: dh sab fig Logic. diagram oF master : r slave when cp =o. The maciey flip-flop fe aj and the slavi psequel lip: flop +5 enabled and culpur @ 1s equal 10 Y anle @ she information shen at the ‘external Rand 6 mpuls The clave flip-flop. however, 1s 4 whon cp ot ie franamiyted 10 the master Flip-Flop: isolated ao long as the pulse fs at ile + 0, the master flip fp ic clad . shen prevent: the externa) pds from affehng +b The slave flip-flop then qocs te the same cate Jencks when the pulle ven as the master flip-flop ep _ gs——__f fig’ fiming relations p in a roaster slave flip flop Edge Trigg evel Flip-Flop Another ype of changes cing a dock pilee tu flip-flop thal smchwwoles the slate Jge~ tei qgered flip iho is the| op in hs ype of Plip-Flop, cuipat wansilions occur at a spac evel of the clock pulse when the pulse input level exceeds His hieshoid evel, the tnpuls are Jowed out and the flip-flop is horefore unresponsive fo farther changes in inputs uplil the coos) ule yelurne io 0 and another pulse occurs. Some edge- miggered lip-Flops cause @ franehon on the positive edge of the plse, and thers cause a transition on the negalive edge of the pulse Analysis of clocned i Gives Te analy ol sequ a iable or a dfagram for we Hme sequence of inputs ,oxiputs anc! fied dewwits Consists of obbaing ntemal tates. Tr fo lsd possible to write Gioleun expressions shal describes the behaviour oP sequenWwa) circuits wy Gtample of a ocwed sequen hal crew Yor analyors. 06 first drow psiare Fable The ime sequence of inpals cups enumerated in a consicis of ‘ fabaled precent stale, next stale ard output. the \present state desig: rates the state of flip-flops befow the occurrence of clock puke. jhe ‘next otate? aroos the states of Nip flops after the apphokn of a clo pulse and the ouput Section vers jhe values of the Per eiput yavables diving the preceu ut and flip-flop states wow ction mo rate tonne shove