Tema 40: Estrategias de Comunicación.

Definición y
Tipología.

I. Introduction:
In this topic, I will deal with the Communicative Competence, the communicative
strategies, their definition and typology.
The ability to use language is the most distinctive characteristic of human beings, and
yet most people take their language ability for granted, never considering its richness and
complexity. Language is so built into the way people live. Without language, we could not
specify our wishes, our needs, and the practical instructions that make possible cooperation.
Without language we would live isolated, condemned to learn only from our own experiences.
There are other species that communicate too, but not through language. However, sometimes in
a way that seems almost human.
According to Lehman, we may consider language as the “system for the communication
of meaning through sounds. More precisely, language, viewed as a system, consists of three
subsystems or components: one semantic, one syntactic and one phonological.” However, these
three subsystems, which form language, are always influenced by the communicative function
they are trying to fulfil, within the context of discourse.
Chomsky (1957) defined language as a set of finite sentences. An able speaker has a
subconscious knowledge of the grammar rules of his language, which allows him to make
sentences in that language. However, Hymes thought that Chomsky had missed out some very
important information: the rules of use. When a native speaker speaks he dose not only utter
grammatically correct forms, he also knows where and when to use these sentences and to
whom, Hymes, then said, that competence by itself is not enough to explain a native speaker´s
knowledge, and he replaced it with his own concept of Communicative competence.

II. A brief history of Communication strategies:

P. Corder: introduced the “Error Analysis Approach,” which is the study of systematic
errors to discover patterns in second language learning. W.Wemser develops the concept of
“Transitional Competence” It concluded that second language learner move along a continuum
from zero to native speaker´s proficiency.
L. Selinker is important his concept of Interlanguage come to establish one of the main
lines of actual research in Applied Linguistics: the stages a learner passes through one stable
form learner to learner and constitutes a unique system with their own rules. He gave a step

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beyond product analysis, he introduces Product Analysis, and he introduced Process Analysis
(PA). He identified five central processes in language learning:
1. Language transfer.
2. Transfer of training.
3. Strategies of 2nd language learning.
4. Strategies of 2nd language communication.
5. Generalization of TL linguistic material.
During the 70s it was generalized the shift form IL as a linguistic system- product
oriented- to IL development- process oriented. Thus, the focus on the learning process led to the
description of IL communication as a set of receptive and productive procedures. Later, M.
Canale and M. Swain, established several competences as responsible for learner’s level of
communicative competence. One of these subcompetences is strategic competence, which
implies the use of Communicative strategies.

III. A taxonomy of communication strategies:

Communication is the exchange of meanings between individuals through a common
system of symbols.
According to language elements: several distinct types of communication strategies
involving phonological, morphological, syntactical, and lexical elements of language:
 Transfer from first language.
 Overgeneralization.
 Prefabricated pattern.
 Overelaboration.
 Epenthesis.
 Avoidance.
 Appeal.
 Paraphrase.
 Message abandonment.
 Language switch.

The amount of risk that the learner can assume in a specific situation also has to do with
communicative strategies. Personality plays an important role in determining which strategies
the learner will adopt in a specific situation.
According to the nature of the problem: It has been distinguished two different ways in
which learners might behave to cope with a problem in communication:
a) Avoidance behaviour. b) Achievement behaviour.
Deduction strategy. Achievement strategy.
Change of goal. Develop alternative plan.

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 Classification of communication strategies according to types of problems, types of
behaviour and types of strategies:
1. Formal Reduction Strategies:
Learner makes use of a “reduced” system in order to avoid pronouncing non-fluent or
incorrect utterances by realising insufficiently automatized or hypothetical rules / items.
- Levels: phonological, morphological, syntactic, and lexical.
- Optional items: redundancy avoidance.
- Obligatory items need achievement strategies to compensate reduction.
2. Functional Reduction Strategies:
Learners reduces “communicative goal” in order to avoid the problem detected in the
planning or in the execution phase.
3. Achievement strategies:
Learner attempts to solve communication problems by expanding his communicative
resources. There are two types:
a) Compensation strategies:
- Code switching --------- using the Spanish word.
- Interlingua transfer ------ using a L1 rule.
- Intralingua transfer ----- rules generalization.
- IL based strategies:
 Generalization: apply L2 rule to new contexts.
 Paraphrase: explain with other words.
 Word coinage: create a new word.
 Restructuring: Use L2 formula.
- Cooperative strategies: ex: asking for clarification, repetition…
- Non-linguistic strategies: mimes, drawing…
b) Retrieval (recuperacion) strategies:
- Waiting for the term to appear.
- Appealing to formal similarity.
- Retrieval via semantic fields.
- Searching via other languages.
- Retrieval from learning situations.
- Sensory procedures.

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IV. Oral Communication theory: systems constraints and ritual
constraints.
It has been proved that all kinds of human communication suffer form a given set of
“Universal constraints” that affect all languages. Many of the constraints will often depend on
the communication channel, which is being used at each moment. Goffman divide these
communication constraints into two types:
 System constraints: The difficulties, which affect the basic components, required for all
communication systems.
 Ritual Constraints: the difficulties that influence the social features that smooth social
interaction and make it easier for the participants in a communicative event.
These two constraints help the process of communication and provide a systematic framework
for the description of language.
System Constraints: There are eight system constraints that Goffman claimed to be universal in
all human communication.
1. Channel open / close signals: The channel open/close signals will differ according to the
channel. These signals may be “non-verbal” and “verbal.” The important thing about these so-
called “routines” is that they largely depend on sociolinguistic factors such as the degree of
intimacy with the other speakers, the cultural habits of the linguistic community, or the degree of
formality required for the situation.
2. Backchannel signals: There must be signals that show the message is getting through. These
signals can be paralinguistic, like for example eye contact, head nods, smiles, and body position;
as well as linguistic, like “uhmm, These signals differ from the setting.
3. Turnover signals: In communication, there must be a set of signals that allows for a smooth
exchange of turns. Sometimes these signals are ritualised. Even thought turns are usually clearly
changed, sometimes overlaps appear. Overlaps are different from interruptions, because the
former show position with the speaker and the latter show disagreement with his/her opinion.
4. Acoustically adequate and interpretable messages: If any part of the communication system,
or any of the surrounding factors, fails to work properly, communication breaks down. For
example, the suitable use of the register.
5. Bracket signals or side sequences: In communication, there must be signals to show that parts
of the message are not right on-line with the message of the moment. These kinds of devices
frequently appear in casual and highly dynamic conversations in which the speakers have many
things to say and comment to each other.

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6. Non-participant constraints: It is necessary to keep other competing messages out of the
channel. When the noise level is too high, for example, we should block non-participant noise
form the communication channel.
7. Pre-empt (adelantarse) signals: there also have to be ways for participants to interrupt an
ongoing message when they want to disagree, or add more information than that which is being
provided. Interruptions are often felt to be impolite in most situations, because the interrupting
speaker defies the knowledge of the current speaker.
8. Gricean norms for communication: the cooperative principles are relevance, quality, quantity,
and manner. All of them are important for effective communication.
Ritual Constraints:
The second system of universal constraints on communication is that of ritual or social
constraints. They are important because they smooth social communication, and interact with
the system constraints.