Laplace Transform and Applications-R Singh

11
Laplace Transform
and Its Application
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Time-domain analysis is the conventional method of analysing a network. For a simple network with first-
order differential equation of network variable, this method is very useful. But as the order of network variable
equation increases, this method of analysis becomes very tedious. For such applications, frequency domain
analysis using Laplace transform is very convenient. Time-domain analysis, also known as classical method,
is difficult to apply to a differential equation with excitation functions which contain derivatives. Laplace
transform methods prove to be superior. The Laplace transform method has the following advantages:
(1) Solution of differential equations is a systematic procedure.
(2) Initial conditions are automatically incorporated.
(3) It gives the complete solution, i.e., both complementary and particular solution in one step.
Laplace transform is the most widely used integral transform. It is a powerful mathematical technique which
enables us to solve linear differential equations by using algebraic methods. It can also be used to solve
systems of simultaneous differential equations, partial differential equations and integral equations. It is
applicable to continuous functions, piecewise continuous functions, periodic functions, step functions and
impulse functions. It has many important applications in mathematics, physics, optics, electrical engineering,
control engineering, signal processing and probability theory.
11.2 LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION

The Laplace transform of a function f (t) is defined as
∞
F ( s) = L { f (t )} ∫ f (t ) e
− st
dt
0
where s is the complex frequency variable.

s jω
The function f (t) must satisfy the following condition to possess a Laplace transform,
∞
−σ t
∫ | f (t ) | e dt < ∞
0
11.2 Network Analysis and Synthesis
where s is real and positive.
The inverse Laplace transform L–1 {F ( s )} is
σ + j∞
1
2π j σ −∫j∞
f (t ) = F ( s) e st dds
11.3 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS OF SOME IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS

1. Constant Function k
The Laplace transform of a constant function is
∞ ∞
− st
⎡ e − st ⎤ k
L{k} = ∫ ke dt = k ⎢ ⎥ =
0 ⎣ −s ⎦ 0
s
2. Function tn
The Laplace transform of f(t) is
∞
L{t n } = ∫ t n e − st dt
0
dx
Putting st = x, dt =
s
∞ n 1 ∞
⎛ x⎞ dx n +1
L{t n } = ∫ ⎜ ⎟ e − x = s n+ ∫x
n
e x ddx = , s > 0, n + 1 > 0
⎝ s⎠ s s n +1
0 0
If n is a positive integer, n +1 n!
n!
L{t n } =
s n +1
3. Unit-Step Function
The unit-step function (Fig 11.1) is defined by the u (t )
equation,
u(t) = 1 t>0 1
=0 t<0
The Laplace transform of unit step function is
t
∞ ∞ 0
⎡ e − st ⎤ 1
L {u(t )} ∫1 e
− st
dt = ⎢ − ⎥ = Fig. 11.1 Unit-step function
0 ⎣ s ⎦0 s
4. Delayed or Shifted Unit-Step Function u (t − a)
The delayed or shifted unit-step function (Fig 11.2) is defined
by the equation
u (t − a) = 1 t>a
=0 t<a
The Laplace transform of u (t − a) is t
0 a
∞ ∞
⎡ e − st ⎤ e − as
L {u(t a)} = ∫ 1⋅ e st
dt = ⎢ − ⎥ =
Fig. 11.2 Shifted unit-step function
a ⎣ s ⎦a s
11.3 Laplace Transforms of Some Important Functions 11.3
5. Unit-Ramp Function r (t )
The unit-ramp function (Fig 11.3) is defined by the equation
r(t) = t t>0
=0 t<0
The Laplace transform of the unit-ramp function is
t
∞
0
− st 1
L rt =
s2 Fig. 11.3 Unit-ramp function
0
r (t a)
6. Delayed Unit-Ramp Function
The delayed unit-ramp function (Fig 11.4) is defined by the
equation
r (t − a) = t t>a
=0 t<a t
0 a
The Laplace transform of r (t − a) is
as
− st e Fig. 11.4 Delayed unit-ramp function
L r(t a) 2
a s
d (t )
7. Unit-Impulse Function
The unit-impulse function (Fig 11.5) is defined by the equation
d (t) = 0 t≠0 1
and ∫ ) dt = 0
t
∞
The Laplace transform of the unit-impulse function is Fig. 11.5 Unit-impulse function
at
L δ =1
0
8. Exponential Function (eat)

The Laplace transform of the exponential function (Fig 11.6) is
t
− st e t ⎤ 1 0
L e at = at
= e dt = − =
0 0
s a ⎦ s
0
Fig. 11.6 Exponential function
9. Sine Function
1
We know that i
2j
The Laplace transform of the sine function is
1 ⎫ 1 1 ⎡ 1 1
L }
j ⎭ j 2 s s2 2
10. Cosine Function

1
We know that co
2
The Laplace transform of the cosine function is
1 1 1⎡ 1 1 s
L e e } +
2 s s+ s 2 2
11. Hyperbolic sine function
1
We know that − t
2
The Laplace transform of the hyperbolic sine function is
1 1 1 1
= =
2 2 2 s s+ s2 2
12. Hyperbolic cosine function

1
We know that cosh t e
2
The Laplace transform of the hyperbolic cosine function is
1 1 1 1 s
= + = 2 2
2 2 2 s s s
13. Exponentially Damped Function
Laplace transform of an exponentially damped function e−at f (t) is
L e− t dt = − at − st
= t e d s
0 0
Thus, the transform of the function e−at f (t) is obtained by putting (s + a) in place of s in the transform of f (t).
L e t L e t
a a −
s a s a
L e − at co t L
+ −
11.4 PROPERTIES OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM

11.4.1 Linearity
If f F s) then L f t F ( s)
where a and b are constants.
∞
Proof st
f t f t e dt
0
∞
L f t f t e st
d a t e dt ∫ t e dt a ( s)
0 0 0
Example 11.1 Find the Laplace transform of 4t + si t t

.
2 3 1 8 3 1
Solution L t s t t 4⋅ + + +
3 2
+9 s−2 3 2
+9 s 2
Example 11.2 Find the Laplace transform of e 3t .
Solution Lt e e t =Lt − e + L1 6t
2
2 1 1 s
+ +
s 36
11.4 Properties of Laplace Transform 11.5
Example 11.3 Find the Laplace transform of ( )2 .
Solution L{(si 2t − cos t ) 2 } i 2 2t cos 2 2t 2 cos 2t si 2t}

L{sin i t} = L{ } L{sin 4t}
L{1 sin
1 4
= − 2
s s + 16
Example 11.4 Find the Laplace transform of cos ( t b) .
Solution L{cos( t b)} L{cos ω t cos b − sin ω t s b} cos {c ω t} s bL{sin ω t}

c bL{cos
s ω
= coss b 2 sin b ⋅ 2
sin
s + ω2 s + ω2
11.4.2 Time Scaling
1 ⎛ s⎞
If L{ f (t )} F ( s) then L{ }= F⎜ ⎟
a ⎝ a⎠
∞
− st
Proof L{ f (t ∫ f (t ) e dt
0
∞
− st
L{ f ( at )} = ∫ f (at
a )e dt
0
dx
Putting at = x, dt =
a
∞ ⎛ x⎞ ∞ ⎛ s⎞
− s⎜ ⎟ dx 1 −⎜ ⎟ x 1 ⎛ s⎞
⎝ a⎠
L f ( at )} ∫ f ( x) e ∫ f ( x ) e ⎝ a ⎠ ddx = F ⎜ ⎟
0
a a0 a ⎝ a⎠
⎛ s 3⎞
Example 11.5 If L{ f (t )} log ⎜ , find L{f(2t)}.
⎝ s 1 ⎟⎠
Solution ⎛ s + 3⎞
L{ f (t )} = log ⎜
⎝ s + 1 ⎟⎠
By time-scaling property,
⎛s ⎞
+3
1 ⎜2 ⎟ 1 ⎛ s + 6⎞
L{ f ( 2t )} = log ⎜ log ⎜
2 s ⎟ 2 ⎝ s + 2 ⎟⎠
⎜ + 1⎟
⎝2 ⎠
2
Example 11.6 If L{ f (t )} = 3
e − s , find L{ f (3t )} .
s
2
L{ f (t )} = 3
e−s
Solution s
By time-shifting property,
s s s
1 2 − 3 1 54 − 3 18 − 3
L{ f (3t )} = e = e = 3e
3 ⎛ s⎞ 3 3 s3 s
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
3
11.4.3 Frequency-Shifting Theorem

If f ( s a)
Proof f t f t te d
0
− st
Le f )} = t s
0 0
Example 11.7 Find the Laplace transform of e t4 .

4
Solution Lt
s5
By frequency-shifting theorem,
4!
Le
(s )5
Example 11.8 Find the Laplace transform of ( )2 et .

2 2 1
Solution L t+ = t +
s s s
2 2 1
L t+ = 3
+ 2
+
s s 1
Example 11.9 Find the Laplace transform of 4t

in3t .
1 3 3
L t − sin 3t} =
4 4s s
Solution By frequency-shifting theorem,
3 3 3 3 6
Le t} = =
s s 4s s s2 2
− s s 2 − s + 5)
Example 11.10 Find the Laplace transform of cosh at cos at.
e at e at ⎞ 1 − at
Solution cosh at cos at co at e at os at )
2
s
L{ s } 2
s a2
1 −
L osh cos at e s os at}
1⎡ s a s a ⎤ 1⎡ s a s a ⎤
L at at ⎢ +
2⎣ a a a a ⎦ 2 s2 + 2 s as
1⎡ a s as + a s + 2
2 s) s 3
= ⎢ 2
= 4
2⎣ a s s a4
11.4.4 Time-Shifting Theorem

If L{ f (t )} a)} = e
F ( s) then L{ f (t a)} as
F ( s)
∞
− st
Proof L{ f (t ∫ f ( t )e dt
0
∞
)} =
L{ f (t aa)} ∫ f (t a) e − st dt
0
Putting t a = x, dt d
dx
When t a, x = 0
t→ , x→∞
∞ ∞ ∞
− st
)} =
L{ f (t aa)} ∫ f ( x )e ( x)
s(a
ddx e as
as
∫ f ( xx))e sx
ddx e as
∫ f (t ) e dt = e −as
as
F ( s)
0 0 0
Example 11.11 Find the Laplace transform of cos (t a) t > a.

Solution Let f(t) = cos t
s
L{ f (t )} F(( s) =
F 2
s +1
By time-shifting theorem,
s
L{cos(t a)} e − as 2
s +1
Example 11.12 Find the Laplace transform of e t a

t > a.
Solution Let f (t ) = e t
1
L{ f (t )} F ( s) =
F(
s −1
1
L{e t a } = e − as
s −1
⎛ π⎞ π
Example 11.13 Find the Laplace transform of sin t − ⎟ t> .
⎝ 4⎠ 4
Solution Let f (t ) = sin t
1
L{ f (t )} F ( s) =
F(
s2 + 1
πs
⎧ ⎛ π⎞⎫ − 1
L ⎨si t − ⎟ ⎬ = e 4 2
⎩ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎭ s +1
Example 11.14 Find the Laplace transform of ( )3 t 1.

Solution Let f(t) = t3
3!
f
s4
3
L t e−s
s4
11.4.5 Multiplication by t (Frequency-Differentiation Theorem)
d
If f t F ( s) then L t f )} = − F s
ds
∞
Proof f t e − st dt
0
Differentiating both the sides w.r.t s using DUIS,

∞ ∞
d d ∂
F s = t e dt
ds ds 0 0
∂s
t t e − st dt − t e − st dt = − L ( )}
0 0
d
L ( )} − F
ds
Example 11.15 Find the Laplace transform of t s at.

a
Solution L at} 2
s a2
d d a 2as
L t in at L at =
ds ds s a 2
2 2
Example 11.16 Find the Laplace transform of t cos 2 t .
1 co 2t 1 1 1 s
Solution L t} = L = }= + 2
2 2 2 s s +4
1 d 1 s 1 1 s − ⋅ ⎤ 1 s2 4
L t os t t =− + =− − + = +
ds 2 ds s s s s s 2
Example 11.17 Find the Laplace transform of t sin3 t .
si t t 1 3 1 3 1 1
Solution L t} L
4 4 s2 2
s +9 4 s2 + 1 2
+9
3 d 1 1 3 −2 s 2s 3s
L t in t t =− =− + =
4 ds s 2 s +92 4 ( s2 + 1 s + 9) ⎦ 2 2
3s s − − 3s s +5 24 s s + 5
= ⋅
2 s 2 ( s s s
Example 11.18 Find the Laplace transform of t sin 2t cosh t .
⎧⎪ ⎛ e t e t ⎞ ⎫⎪ 1
Solution L{sin 2t cosh t} L ⎨sini 2t ⎜ t
i 2t e −tt sin t}
⎟ ⎬ = 2 L{e sin
⎩⎪ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎪⎭
1⎡ 2 2 ⎤ 1 1
= ⎢ 2
+ 2 ⎥= 2 + 2
2 ⎣ ( − 1) + 4 ( + 1) + 4 ⎦ s − 2 + 5 s + 2 + 5
d d ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 2s − 2 2s 2
L{{ sin 2t cosh t} L{sin 2t cosh t} = − ⎜ 2 + ⎟⎠ = 2 + 2
ds
d ds ⎝ s 2s + 5 2
s + 2s + 5 ( s − 2 5) 2
( s + 2 5) 2
11.4.6 Division by t (Frequency-Integration Theorem)

∞
F ( s), then L ⎧⎨
f (t ) ⎫
If L{ f (t )} ⎬ = ∫ F ( s) ds
⎩ t ⎭ s
Proof
∞
L { f (t )} F (s
( s)
F(s ∫ f (t ) e
− st
dt
0
Integrating both the sides w.r.t s from s to ∞,

∞ ∞
∫ F ( s) ds ∫ f (t )e
st
dt dds
s s 0
Since s and t are independent variables, interchanging the order of integration,

∞ ∞ ⎡∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
⎤ ⎡1 ⎤ f (t ) − st
∫ F ( s)ds = ⎢⎢ ∫ f (t )e
st
d ⎥ dt = ∫ ⎢ f (t )e − st ⎥ dt = ∫
ds e dt
s 0 ⎣s ⎥⎦ 0⎣
− t ⎦s 0
t
∞
⎧ f (t ) ⎫
L⎨ ⎬ = ∫ F ( s)ds
⎩ t ⎭ s
1 e−t
Example 11.19 Find the Laplace transform of .
t
Solution 1 1
L{ e t} = −
s s +1
∞ ∞
⎧1 − e − t ⎫ −t ⎛1 1 ⎞ ∞
L⎨ ⎬ = ∫ L 1 e ds = ∫ − ⎟⎠ ds = log s − log(
g s + 1) s
⎩ t ⎭ s ⎝ s s + 1
s
∞
⎡ ⎤ ⎛ ⎞
∞
⎡ s ⎤ ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎜ 1 ⎟ s s +1
= ⎢log log ⎢ ⎥ = log log ⎜ ⎟ = − log = log
⎣ s + 1⎦ s ⎢1 + 1 ⎥ 1 s +1 s
⎜1+ ⎟
⎣ s ⎦s ⎝ s⎠
bt
e e
t
1 1
Solution Le =
s a s b
− − bt ∞
e e 1 1 ∞
L
t
−e d ∫ s a s b
ds = − + s
⎩ s s
∞
⎡a⎤ a
1+ 1+
⎡ s a s s s a s+b
log = log = − og − log = log
s+b b b s+b s a
s 1+ 1+
⎣ s ⎦s s
sinh t
t
et e t
1 1 1
Solution L t =L =
2 2 s s +1
∞
sinh t 1 1 1 1⎡ s 1
L = = − ds log( s − − + = log
t s s
s s +1 2 s +1 s
1 1⎞
1 1
1
= log s⎥ = 1 − og s 1
− log
s 1 1
= log
s +1
2 1 2 1 2 s +1 s 1
1+ 1+
s ⎦s s
cos h2t sin 2t

t
cosh t e t
e ⎞ 1 e2 e t
t
Solution L L sin 2t L +L
t 2t ⎭ 2 t t
2
L t} = 2
+4
n 2t 2 s⎤
L = L t =∫ ds = tan −1 = − tan cot
t s s s + 2 s 2 2 2
By first shifting theorem,
cosh t t e e 1 1 +2
L L +L cot cot
t 2 t t 2 2 2
11.4.7 Time-Differentiation Theorem: Laplace Transform of Derivatives

If f t F ( s) then
f − f( )
2
f − sf −
In general,
f t s ′′F s −
Proof
L f′ t f ′ t e − st dt
0
Integrating by parts,
f t f t e − st s t e − st dt = − f s∫ t e d (0) + sL { t }
0
0 0
Similarly,
f t ′ + sL{ f t} s − f t f′ + f )}
−
In general, L fn t n
−
sin t
Example 11.23 Find L f (t ) and L f ′(t ) of t .
t
Solution
∞
sin t 1 ∞
L f t L = ds an −1 s ta −
s −
s
t s
s s +1 s 2
1 si t
L ′ = − − lim s co s
t →0 t
Example 11.24 Find L f (t ) and L f (t ) of the following function:
t 3 0 t 5
0 t 5.
5 ∞ st 5
− st e −3 − −5
Solution f e t dt = d t= + = − =
s 0
s s s
0
3
f t = − 0 = ⋅ (1 − e − − = − s
s
Example 11.25 Find L f (t ) and L f ′(t ) of f(t) = e −5t sin t .
1
Solution L f t Le t}
s +1
1 0 s
L f′ t − ⋅ 2
s + + 26 + 26
Example 11.26 Find L f (t ) and L f ′(t ) of the following function:

t t 0 t 3
6 t 3
3 3 ∞
e − st ⎤
3 st
st e e
Solution L f t e t dt e t dt e dt ⋅ t⎥ +6
0 3 ⎣ −s ⎦0 s2 ⎦0 s
3
−
3 1 3 1
=− − + + = 2 −
s s s s s s s2
1 3s 1
L = f ( 0) = + e 3
s s
11.4.8 Time-Integration Theorem: Laplace Transform of Integral
t
F s
If L f t F s L ∫ t dt
s
0 ⎭
t t
Proof − st
L f t t f t dt
⎩0 0 ⎭
Integrating by parts,
∞
t t
⎛ e − st ⎡ e − st d
t ⎞ 1 1 F
L f t t f t t
s ∫⎢ dt ∫0
t dt dt =
s
=
s
L f }=
s
0 0
t
−
Example 11.27 Find the Laplace transform of ∫e t 3 dt .
0
3! 6
Solution Le t 4
= 4
s s
t
1 6
L e− t L e −2 t 3 = 4
0
s s s+2
t
Example 11.28 Find the Laplace transform of ∫ t cosh t dt .
0
et e t⎞ 1 1 1 1 ⎤ 1 2 1 s2 + 1
Solution L t cosh t L t = te = =
2 ⎭ 2 2 ( s 1) ( ) 2 −
t
1 s 1
L t cosh t dt t cosh t
0
s ss
t
∫ te
4t
Example 11.29 Find the Laplace transform of the sin 3t dt .
0
Solution
d d 3 6s
L t in 3t L t =− 2
ds ds s s
6 4 6 4
L te in t}
[( s + s
t
1 6 s+4
L t e− t dt −
=
0
s s s2 + s + )2
t
Example 11.30 Find the Laplace transform of e t sin 3t dt .
0
d d 3 6s
Solution L t in 3t L t 2
ds ds s + s
t
1 6
L t sin 3t
0
s s +
t
6 6
L e −4 t ∫ t t
0 [s
11.4.9 Initial Value Theorem
If f t F ( s) then lim ( = lim ( s)

s→
Proof We know that,
f − f( )
∞
sF s L f t )} + t e − dt +
0
∞ ∞
lim ( s) lim f′ e − st dt + lim[ t dt + (t )
s s →∞ s →∞ t →0
0 0
11.4.10 Final Value Theorem

If f t F ( s) then lim ( lim ( s)
t s →∞
Proof We know that
f − f( )
∞
sF s L f t )} + t e − dt +
0
st
lim ( s) lim f′ e dt + lim f ′ e st
d = t dt +
s s→ 0
0 0 0
t 0
+ + f (0 im (
t →∞ t →∞
t
Example 11.31 Verify the initial and final value theorems for t + 1)2 .
Solution f (t ) = e −tt (t ) 2 = e t (t
(t 2 t )
2 2 1
F ( s) = + +
(s ) 3
( s )2 s +1
2s 2s s
sF ( s) = + +
( s 1) 3
( s 1) 2 s +1
lim f (t ) = 1
t →0
⎡ 2 2 ⎤
⎢ 2
⎥
1 ⎥
lim sF ( s) = lim ⎢ s 3 + s + =1
s →∞ s →∞ ⎢ 2 1⎥
⎛ 1⎞
⎢ ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎛ 1⎞ 1 + ⎥
⎜⎝1 + ⎟⎠ s⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ s ⎠ s ⎦
Hence, the initial value theorem is verified.
lim f (t ) = 0
t →∞
lim sF ( ) = 0
s→ 0
Hence, the final value theorem is verified.
Example 11.32 Verify the initial and final value theorems for e t (t 2 + cos3t).
Solution f (t ) = e − t (t 2 cos 3t )
2 s +1
F ( s) = 3
+
(s ) ( s )2 + 9
2s s( s )
sF ( s) = +
(s )3 (s )2 + 9
lim f (t ) = 1
t →0
⎡ 2 ⎛ 1⎞ ⎤
⎢ 2 ⎜⎝1 + ⎟⎠ ⎥
s
lim sF ( s) = lim ⎢ s 3 + ⎥ =1
s →∞ s →∞ ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢ ⎛⎜1 + ⎞⎟ ⎛ ⎞
1 1 9
⎜⎝ 1 + ⎟ + ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ s ⎠ s⎠ s 2 ⎥⎦
Hence, the initial value theorem is verified.
li ( 2 cos 3t )e − t = 0
lim f (t ) = lim(
t→ t →∞
⎡ 2s s( s + ) ⎤
lim sF ( ) = lim ⎢ + ⎥=0
s→ 0 s→ 0 ⎢ (
⎣ )3 ( s + 1)2 + 9 ⎥⎦
Hence, the final value theorem is verified.
Example 11.33 Find the initial and final values of the function whose Laplace transform is
2s+ 1
F(s) = .
s3 + 6s 2 + 11s+ 6
11.5 Laplace Transform of Periodic Functions 11.15
2s + 1
Solution F ( s) = 3
6 s 2 + 11s + 6
s + 6s
2 1
+
2s2 + s
s s2
f sF ( s) = lim 3 = lim =0
s →∞ s →∞ s 6 s 2 11s 6 s→∞ 1 + 6 + 11
6s 1
+
6
s s 2 s3
2s2 + s
f sF ( s) = lim 3 =0
s →0 s → 0 s + 6 s 2 + 11s + 6
s+ 6 .
Example 11.34 Find the final value of the function whose Laplace transform is I(s)
s =
s(s+
( 3)
s+6
Solution I ( s) =
s( s )
s+6
I( ) li s ( s) = lim =2
s→0 s→0 s+3
11.5 LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF PERIODIC FUNCTIONS

A function f(t) is said to be periodic if there exists a constant T(T > 0) such that (t T ) f (t ), for all
values of t.
f (t T ) f (t T T ) f (t (t T ) = f (t )
In general, f (t nT ) = f (t ) for all t, where n is an integer (positive or negative) and T is the period of the
function.
If f (t) is a piecewise continuous periodic function with period T then
T
1
L{ f (t )} = ∫ f ( t )e
st
dt
1 − e −Ts 0
∞ T ∞
− st − st
∫ f (t(t ) e dt = ∫ f (t )e ∫ f ( t )e
st
Proof L{ f (t ddt dt
0 0 T
In the second integral, putting t x + T , dt dx
d
When t T, x = 0
t→ , x→∞
T ∞
L{ f (t ∫ (t )e − st d
f (t dt + ∫ f ( x T )e − s( x T)
dx
0 0
T ∞
= ∫ f (tt))e st
dt e −Ts
d T
∫ f ( x )e
sx
dx
0 0
T ∞
= ∫ f ( t )e st
dt e −Ts ∫ f (t )e st
dt
0 0
T
= ∫ f (t )e − st dt + e Ts
L{ f (t )}
0
T
( Ts
) L{ f (t )} = ∫ f (t )e − st dt
0
T
1 − st
L{ f (t )} =
1 − e −Ts
∫ f ( t )e dt
0
Example 11.35 Find the Laplace transform of the waveform shown in Fig. 11.7.
f (t )
t
0 T 2T 3T
Fig. 11.7
Solution The function f (t) is a periodic function with period T.
At
f (t ) = 0<t <t
T
T
1
L{ f (t )} = ∫ f (t )e dt
st
1 − e −Ts 0
T
1 At
= ∫T
st
−Ts
e dt
1− e 0
T
1 A
te − st dt
T ∫0
=
1 − e −Ts
T
⎡ e − st e − st ⎤
A
= ⎢t − 2 ⎥
T (1 e −Ts ) ⎣ − s s ⎦0
A ⎛ e −Ts e −Ts 1 ⎞
= −Ts ⎜
−T − 2 + 2⎟
T (1 − e ) ⎝ s s s ⎠
⎡ Te −Ts 1
A ⎤
= ⎢− −Ts
+ 2 (1 − e −Ts ) ⎥
T (1 − e ) ⎣ s s ⎦
−Ts
A Ae
= 2−
Ts s(1 e −Ts )
f (t )
t
0 1 2 3
Fig. 11.8
Solution The function f(t) is a periodic function with period 2.

(t ) = t 0 t < 1
= 0 1< t < 2
2
1
L{ f (t )} = ∫ f ( t )e
st
dt
1 − e−2s 0
1 ⎡ 1 −stst 2 ⎤
= ⎢∫ + ∫ 0⋅e
st
−2s
te dt
d dt ⎥
1− e ⎢⎣ 0 1 ⎥⎦
1
1 ⎡ e − st e − st ⎤
= ⎢ t− 2 ⎥
1 − e−2s ⎣ −s s ⎦0
1 ⎛ e−s e−s 1 ⎞
= ⎜ −s − 2 + 2 ⎟
1 − e −2 s ⎝ s s ⎠
1
= 2 −2 s
(1 − e − s − se − s )
s (1 − e )
f (t )
t
0 a 2a 3a 4a
Fig. 11.9
Solution The function f(t) is a periodic function with period 2a.
t
f (t ) = 0<t a
a
1
= ( a t) a t < 2a
a
2a
1
L{ f (t )} = ∫
st
− 2 as
f (t ) e dt
1− e 0
1 ⎡ a t st 2a
1 ⎤
− 2 as ∫ a ∫
= ⎢ e dt + ( 2a t ) e st dt ⎥
1− e ⎢⎣ a a
a ⎥⎦
⎧ ⎡ e − st a
e − st ⎤ ⎡ e − st e st ⎤ ⎫⎪
2a
1 ⎪
= 2 as ⎨ ⎢ − s
t− 2 ⎥ +⎢ ( a t) + 2 ⎥ ⎬
a(( ) ⎪⎣ s ⎦0 ⎣ −s s ⎦a ⎪
⎩ ⎭
⎛ − as −2 as − as ⎞
1 e 1 e e
= −2 as ⎜
− 2 + 2+ 2 − 2 ⎟
a( e )⎝ s s s s ⎠
−2e − as + 1 + e −2 as
=
as 2 (1 − e −2 as )
− as 2
( − )
= 2 − as − as
as ( − )( +
)( )
− as
1− e
= 2 − as
as ( + )
as − as
e2 −e 2
=
⎛ as − as ⎞
as 2 ⎜ e 2
a e 2
⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ as ⎞
tanh ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
=
as 2
f (t )
t
0 a 2a 3a 4a
−1
Fig. 11.10
Solution The function f(t) is periodic with period with period 2a.
f (t ) = 1 0<t a
= −1 a t < 2a
2a
1
L{ f (t )} = ∫
st
− 2 as
f ( t )e dt
1− e 0
1 ⎡ a st 2aa ⎤
= − 2 as ∫
⎢ e dt
d ∫ e − st ( ) dt ⎥
1− e ⎢⎣ 0 a ⎥⎦
⎧ ⎡ e − st ⎤ ⎡ e − st ⎤ ⎫
a 2 a
1 ⎪ ⎪
= ⎨⎢ ⎥ +⎢ ⎥ ⎬
1 − e − 2 as ⎪ ⎣ − s ⎦ 0 ⎣ s ⎦ a ⎪
⎩ ⎭
− as −2 as
1 ⎛ e 1 e e − as ⎞
= ⎜ − + + −
1 − e −2 as ⎝ − s s s s ⎟⎠
(1 − e − as ) 2
=
s(1 + e − as )(1 − e − as )
1 − e − as
=
s(1 + e − as )
as as
−
1 e 2 −e 2
= ⋅
s ⎛ as − ⎞
as
2 +e 2
⎜ e ⎟
⎝ ⎠
1 ⎛ as ⎞
= tanh ⎜ ⎟
s ⎝ 2⎠
f (t )
p t
O 2p 3p
w w w
Fig. 11.11
2π
Solution The function f(t) is known as a half-sine wave rectifier function with period .
ω
π
f (t ) = a si ω t 0<t<
ω
π 2π
=0 <t<
ω ω
The function f(t) is a periodic function.
2π
ω
1
L{ f (t )} = ∫
st
f ( t )e dt
⎛ 2π ⎞
−⎜ ⎟ s 0
⎝ω⎠
1− e
⎛π 2π ⎞
1 ⎜ω − st
ω
⎟
= ⎜∫ ω + ∫ 0⋅e
st
2π s
a si t e d
dt dt ⎟
−
1− e ω ⎜0 π ⎟
⎝ ω ⎠
π
a ⎡ 1 ⎤ω
= 2π s ⎢ 2 ⋅ e − st ( s sinn ω t ω cos
cos ω t ) ⎥
− ⎣s +ω 2
⎦0
1− e ω
a 1 ⎡ −πs ⎤
= ⋅ ⎢ e ω (ω ) + ω ⎥
2π s
− s 2 + ω 2 ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
1− e ω
⎛ −π s ⎞
aω ⎜1 + e ω ⎟
⎝ ⎠ 1
= ⋅
⎛ −π s ⎞ ⎛ −π s ⎞
s + ω2
2
⎜ 1+ e ω ⎟⎜ 1− e ω ⎟
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
aω 1
= ⋅ 2
⎛ −π s ⎞
s + ω2
ω
⎜1 − e ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Example 11.40 Find the Laplace transform of

f (t ) = t 2 0 t<2
if f (t ) = f (t ).
Solution The function f(t) is a periodic function with period 2.

2 2
1 1 − st
L{ f (t )} = ∫e ∫e t 2 dt
st
−2ss
f ((tt ) dt = −2 s
1− e 0 1− e 0
2
1 ⎡ 2 ⎛ e − st ⎞ ⎛ e − st ⎞ ⎛ e − st ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢t ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ − 2 t ⎜ 2 ⎟ + 2 ⎜ 3 ⎟⎥
1 − e −2 s ⎢⎣ ⎝ − s ⎠ ⎝ s ⎠ ⎝ − s ⎠ ⎥⎦ 0
1 ⎛ e −2 s e 2s e −2 s 2 ⎞
= ⎜ −4 − 4 − 2 + 3⎟
1 − e −2 s ⎝ s s2 s3 s ⎠
=
1
(2 − 2e −2 s
− 4 se 2
4s2e 2s
)
( − e− s
) s3
Example 11.41 Find the Laplace transform of

f (t ) = e t 0 t < 2π
if f (t ) = f (t ).
Solution The function f(t) is a periodic function with period 2p.
2π
1
L{ f (t )} = ∫e
st
− 2π s
f (t ) dt
1− e 0
2π
1 − st t
=
1 − e − 2π s
∫e e dt
0
2π
1
∫e
( s)t
= dt
1 − e − 2π s 0
2π
1 ⎡ e( s )t ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥
1 − e − 2π s ⎣ 1 − s ⎦0
11.6 Waveform Synthesis 11.21
1 ⎡ e(1−s ) 2π 1 ⎤
= ⎢ − ⎥
1 − e − 2π s ⎣ 1− s 1− s⎦
e(1−s ) 2π − 1
=
(1− e −2π s )(1 − s)
Example 11.42 Find the Laplace transform of the function shown in Fig. 11.12.
f (t)
t
T 2T 3T 4T
Fig. 11.12
Solution The function f(t) can be represented in terms of Heaviside unit step function.
f (t ) = [u
[u(t − T ) u(t 2T )] + 2[u
[u(t − 2T ) u(t 3T ) [u(t
(t T ) u(t
u( t t )] + … ∞
= u( t − T ) + u( t − T ) + u( t − T ) + … ∞
L{ f (t )} L{u(t − T ) u(t 2T ) u(t − 3T )
L{u }
1 1 1
= e −Ts + e −2Ts + e −3Ts + …
s s s
1
= ⎡⎣e −Ts + e −2 + e −3Ts + …⎤⎦
s
e −Ts
=
s(1 − e −Ts )
11.6 WAVEFORM SYNTHESIS

Any waveform can be constructed with unit step, unit ramp and unit impulse f (t )
functions, etc. We know the Laplace transforms of these special functions.
Hence, we can find the Laplace transform of any function in terms of Laplace
transform of these functions.
A
There is another way of synthesising the waveforms. Any function can
be expressed in terms of a gate function. The gate function is shown in
Fig. 11.13. t
0 T
This function can be expressed in terms of unit-step functions.
f (t ) = Au(t
Au(t ) Au(t T ) Fig. 11.13 Gate function
Example 11.43 Find the Laplace transform of the unit-doublet function.

f (t )
Solution The unit-doublet function d ′(t) is shown in Fig. 11.14.
d
δ() δ( )
dt t
⎧d ⎫ 0
L{{δ ( )} ⎨ δ( )⎬ sL{δ (t )} = s( )
sL s
⎩ dt ⎭
Fig. 11.14
Example 11.44 Find the Laplace transform of a rectangular pulse shown in Fig. 11.15.
f (t )
t
0 T
Fig. 11.15
Solution The rectangular pulse can be constructed from two functions as shown in Fig. 11.16. This function
is known as gate function.
f2 (t )
f1 (t )
1 u (t )
0 T
t −1
0 −u (t − T )
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.16
f ( t ) = f ( t ) + f ( t ) = u( t ) − u( t T )
1 1 T 1
F ( s) = L{u(t )} L{u(t − T )} = − e −Ts = (1 − e −Ts )
s s s
Example 11.45 Find the Laplace transform of a sawtooth waveform shown in Fig. 11.17.
f (t )
t
0 T
Fig. 11.17
Solution The sawtooth waveform can be constructed from three functions as shown in Fig. 11.18.
f1(t)
A r (t) f2(t) f3(t)

T
A
t t t
T 0 T 0 T
0
A
−A u(t − T )
− A r (t − T )
T
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 11.18
A A
f (t ) = f (t ) + f (t ) + f (tt)) =
r (t ) − r (t T ) Au(t T )
T T
A A A A 1 −Ts A −Ts
F ( s) = L{r (t )} − L{r (t T )} − AL{u(t − T )} = 2 − e − e
T T Ts T s2 s
Example 11.46 Find the Laplace transform of a triangular waveform shown in Fig. 11.19.
f (t )
t
0 T T
2
Fig. 11.19
Solution The triangular waveform can be constructed from three ramp functions as shown in Fig. 11.20.
f1(t ) f3(t )
f2(t )
2 r (t ) 2 r (t −T )
T T
t t t
0 0 T 0 T
2
−4 r t −T
T 2
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 11.20
2 4 ⎛ T⎞ 2
f (t ) = f (t ) + f (t ) + f (tt)) = r(t ) − r t − ⎟ + r(t T )
T T ⎝ 2⎠ T
Ts
2 4 ⎧ ⎛ T ⎞⎫ 2 2 4 − 2
F ( s) = L{r (t )} − L ⎨r ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎬ + L {r(t
(t T )} = 2 − 2 e 2 + 2 e −Ts
T T ⎩ ⎝ 2⎠⎭ T Ts T
Ts Ts
Example 11.47 Find the Laplace transform of a trapezoidal pulse shown in Fig. 11.21.
f(t )
t
0 a 2a 3a 4a
Fig. 11.21
Solution The trapezoidal waveform can be constructed from four ramp functions as shown in Fig.11.22.
f1(t )
f2(t )
1
a r (t )
t
0 a
t
0
− a1 r (t − a)
(a) (b)
f3(t )
f4(t )
1
a r (t − 4a)
t
0 3a
t
− a1 r (t − 3a) 0 4a
(c) (d)
Fig. 11.22
1 1 1 1
f (t ) = f (tt)) + f (t ) + f3 (t ) + f (t ) = r ( t ) − r ( t a) − r ( t a) + r( )
a a a a
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 − as 1 1 −3as 1 1 −4 s
F ( s) = L{r (t )} − L{r (t aa)}
L{ )} − L{r (t 3a)}
a)} + L{r (t 4 a)}
a)} = − e − e + e
a a a a a s2 a s2 a s2 a s2
1
= 2 (1 − e − as − e −3 + e −4 as )
as
Example 11.48 Find the Laplace transform of a sinusoidal waveform shown in Fig. 11.23.
f (t )
t
0 T
2
Fig. 11.23
Solution The waveform can be constructed from two functions as shown in Fig. 11.24.
f1(t ) f2(t )
A
t t
0 T T 0 T T 3T
2 2 2
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.24
⎛ T⎞ ⎛ T⎞
f (t ) = f (t ) + f (t ) = A si ω t u ( t ) + A si ω t t − ⎟ u t − ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
2π
where ω=
T
Aω ⎛ − ⎞
Ts Ts
⎧ ⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ T ⎞⎫ Aω Aω −
F ( s) = A L {sin ω t u(t
(t )} AL ⎨si ω t ⎜ t − ⎟ u t − ⎟ ⎬ = 2
u((t + e 2 = 2 ⎜1 + e 2 ⎟
⎩ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎭ s + ω 2 s2 + ω 2 s + ω2 ⎝ ⎠
f (t )
t
0 1 2 3
Fig. 11.25
Solution The function f (t ) can be expressed as sum of four step functions.
f (t ) = u(t ) + u(t ) − u(t
( t ) − u( t )
F ( s) = L{u(t )} L{u(t )} − L{u( u(t − 2)} { ( 3)} = 1s + 1s e − s − 1s e −2 − 1s e 3s

=
1
s
( +
11+ − 2
− 3
)
Example 11.50 Determine the Laplace transform of the waveform shown in Fig. 11.26.
f (t )
t
0 1 2 3
Fig. 11.26
Solution The function f (t ) can be expressed as sum of four functions as shown in Fig. 11.27.
f1(t )
r (t ) f2(t )
t t
0 0 1
r (t − 1)
(a) (b)
f3(t ) f4(t )
u (t − 2)
1
t
0 3
t
0 2
−2
−2u (t − 3)
(c) (d)
Fig. 11.27
f (t ) = f (t ) + f (t ) + f3 (t ) + f (t ) = r (t ) + r (t ) + u(t
(t ) − 2u(t
( )
1 1 − s 1 −2ss 2 3s
F ( s) { ( )} {r(( )} {u( )} {u(( )} = 2 + 2 e + e − e
s s s s
f (t )
1 2t 2
2(4 − t ) 2
t
0 1 2 3 4
Fig. 11.28
Solution The given parabolic waveform can be constructed from three functions as shown in Fig.11.29.
f1(t )
2t 2u(t ) f2(t ) f3(t )
t t t
0 2 0 2 0 4
− 16 r ( t − 2 )
−2 ( t − 4)2 u(t − 4)
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 11.29
F (t ) = f (t ) + f (t ) + f (t ) = 2tt 2 u(t
u( t ) 6r(t
(
(t
r(t ) (t
(t ) 2 u( t )
2 1 2 4 16
{t 2 u(t )} − 16L{{r (t 2)} 2L{(
F ( s) = 2 L{t L{(t 4) 2 u
L{( u((t − 4)} = 2 − 16 e −2ss − 2 e s
= (1 − e −4 s ) − e 2s
s3 s2 s3 s3 s2
Example 11.52 Find the Laplace transform of the waveform as shown in Fig. 11.30.
f (t )
t
0 1 2
Fig. 11.30
Solution The given waveform can be constructed from four functions as shown in Fig. 11.31.
f1(t ) f2(t )
3r ( t )
t
0 1
t
0 3r ( t −1)
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.31
f3(t) f4(t)
t
0 1 0 2
−1
−2
−u (t − 1) −2u (t − 2)
(c) (d)
Fig. 11.32
f (t ) = f (t ) + f (t ) + f3 (t ) + f (t ) = 3rr((t ) − 3r (t ) − u(t
(t ) − 2u(t
u( t )
3 3 1 2
F ( s) = 3L
L{r (t )} 3L{r (t − 1)}
)} − L{u(t 1)} 2L{
L{u(t − 2)} = 2
− 2
e − s − e −ss − e 2s
s s s s
Example 11.53 Find the Laplace transform of the periodic waveform shown in Fig. 11.33.
f (t )
t
0 1 2 3 4
−1
Fig. 11.33
Solution The function f (t ) is a periodic function with period 2.

The function f (t ) can be constructed from three functions by waveform synthesis.
f (t ) = u(t ) − 2u
u(t 1) + u(t 2)
1 2 − s 1 −2 s
F1 ( s) = L{u(t )} 2 L{u(t − 1)}
1)} + L{u(t − 2)} = − e + e
s s s
The Laplace transform of periodic function f (t ) is
1
L{ f (t )} = F1 ( s)
1 − e −2 s
1 ⎛ 1 2 −ss 1 2s ⎞
= ⎜ − e + e ⎟⎠
1 − e −2 s ⎝ s s s
1 ⎛ 1 − 2e − s + e −22 s ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
1 − e −2 s ⎝ s ⎠
(1 − e − s ) 2
=
s(1− e − s )(1 + e − s )
1 1 − e−s
=
s 1 + e−s
s s
−
1 e2 e 2
=
s s −
s
e2 e 2
1 ⎛ s⎞
= tanh ⎜ ⎟
s ⎝ 2⎠
f (t )
t
0 T 2T 3T
Fig. 11.34
Solution The function f (t ) is a periodic function with period T.
The function f (t ) can be constructed from three functions by waveform synthesis.
A A
f (t ) = r (t ) − r (t T ) Au(t T )
T T
A A A A 1 −Ts A
F1 ( s) = L{r (t )} − L{r (t T )} − A L{u(t T )} = 2 − 2
e Ts − e − Ts
T T Ts T s s
The Laplace transform of the periodic function f (t ) is
1 1 ⎛ A A −Ts A −Ts ⎞
L { f (t )} = F ( s) =
−Ts 1 ⎜ − e − e ⎟
1− e 1 − e − Ts ⎝ Ts 2 T s ⎠
Example 11.55 Find the Laplace transform of periodic waveform shown in Fig. 11.35.
f (t )
t
0 T T
2
Fig. 11.35
Solution The function f (t ) is a periodic function with period T.
The function f (t ) can be constructed from two functions by waveform synthesis.
⎛ T⎞ ⎛ T⎞
f (t ) = A si t u(t ) A si ω t ⎜ t − ⎟ u t − ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
Aω ⎛ − ⎞
Ts Ts
⎧ ⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ T ⎞⎫ ω ω −
F1 ( s) = AL{sin ω t u(t )} AL ⎨sin i ωt t − ⎟ u t − ⎟⎬ = A 2 + A e 2 =
⎜ 1 + e 2
⎟
⎩ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠⎭ s + ω2 s2 + ω 2 s2 + ω 2 ⎝ ⎠
The Laplace transform of the periodic function f (t ) is
1
L{ f (t )} = F1 ( s)
1 − e −Ts
Aω ⎛ − ⎞
Ts
1
= ⎜ 1 + e 2
⎟
1 − e −Ts s 2 + ω 2 ⎝ ⎠
Ts
−
Aω 1+ e 2
= 2
s +ω ⎛2
− ⎞⎛
Ts
− ⎞
Ts
⎜1 − e 2 ⎟ ⎜ + e 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
Aω 1
= 2
s + ω2 −
Ts
1− e 2
11.7 INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

If L{ f (t )} F ( s) then f (t ) is called inverse Laplace transform of F( s) and symbolically written as
f (t ) = L 1{F ( s)}
where L−1 is called the inverse Laplace transform operator.

Inverse Laplace transform can be found by the following methods:
(i) Standard results
(ii) Partial fraction expansion
(iii) Convolution theorem
11.7.1 Standard Results

Inverse Laplace transforms of some simple functions can be found by standard results and properties of
Laplace transform.
s2 3s+ 4 .
Example 11.56 Find the inverse Laplace transform of
s3
s2 3s + 4 1 3 4
Solution F ( s) = = − 2+ 3
s3 s s s
L 1{F ( s)} 3t + 2t 2
3s+ 4 .
s2 + 9
3s + 4 3s 4
Solution F ( s) = 2
= 2
+ 2
s +9
s +9 s +9
1 4
L {F ( s)} 3 cos 3t + sin 3t
3
4s+ 15 .
16s 2 − 25
4 s + 15 4 s + 15 1 s 15 1
Solution F ( s) = = = +
2
16 s − 25 ⎛ 2 25 ⎞ 4 s 2 25 16 s 2 − 25
2
16 ⎜ s − ⎟
⎝ 16 ⎠ 16 16
1 5 3 5
L 1{F ( s)} cosh t + sinh t
4 4 4 4
2s+ 2 .
Example 11.59 Find the inverse Laplace transform of 2
s + 2s+ 10
2s + 2 2(s
(s )
Solution F ( s) = 2
= 2
s + 2 s + 10 (s ) +9
⎧ s ⎫
L 1{F ( s)} 2e − t L−1 ⎨ 2 ⎬=2
−t
3t
⎩ s + 9⎭
11.7 Inverse Laplace Transform 11.31
3s + 7
Example 11.60 Find the inverse Laplace transform of .
s2 2s 3
3s + 7 3(s
( ) + 10 (s ) 1
Solution F ( s) = 2
= 2
=3 2
+ 10
s 2s − 3 (s ) −4 (s ) 4 (s )2 − 4
⎧ s ⎫ t −1 ⎧ 1 ⎫
L−11{F ( s)} = 3e t L 1 ⎨ 2 ⎬ + 10e L ⎨ 2
t
⎬ = 3e cosh 2 5e t sinh 2t
⎩s − 4⎭ ⎩s − 4⎭
11.7.2 Partial Fraction Expansion

P ( s)
Any function F( s) can be written as where P( s) and Q( s) are polynomials in s. For performing
Q ( s)
partial fraction expansion, the degree of P( s) must be less than the degree of Q( s). If not, P( s) must be
divided by Q( s), so that the degree of P( s) becomes less than that of Q( s). Assuming that the degree of
P( s) is less than that Q( s), four possible cases arise depending upon the factors of Q( s).
Case I Factors are linear and distinct,
P ( s)
F ( s) =
( s a)(s
( s b)
By partial-fraction expansion,
A B
F ( s) = +
s+a s b
Case II Factors are linear and repeated,
P ( s)
F ( s) =
( s b) n
( s a)(s
A B B2 Bn
F ( s) = + 1 + + ... +
s + a s b ( s b) 2 ( s b) n
Case III Factors are quadratic and distinct,

P ( s)
F ( s) =
( s2 as b)( s 2 cs d )
As + B Cs + D
F ( s) = +
s 2 + as b s 2 + cs d
Case IV Factors are quadratic are repeated,
P ( s)
F ( s) = 2
(s as b)( s 2 cs d ) n
As + B C1s + D1 C2 s + D2 Cn s + Dn
F ( s) = + + + ... +
s 2 + as b s 2 + cs d ( s2 cs d ) 2 ( 2
)n
s+2
s( s +1)( s + 3)
s+2
Solution F ( s) =
s( s )(s
)(s
( )
A B C
F ( s) = + +
s s +1 s + 3
s+2 2
A sF ( s) s = 0 = =
( s + )(s
)( s + ) s = 0 3
s+2 1
B ( s + ) F ( s) s = −1 = =−
s( s + ) s = −1 2
s+2 1
C ( s + ) F ( s) s = −3 = =−
s( s + ) s = −3 6
2 1 1 1 1 1
F ( s) = − ⋅ − ⋅
3 s 2 s +1 6 s + 3
2 −1 ⎧ 1 ⎫ 1 −1 ⎧ 1 ⎫ 1 −−11 ⎧ 1 ⎫ 2 1 1
L 1{F ( s)} L ⎨ ⎬− L ⎨ ⎬− L ⎨ ⎬= − e − e
3t
3 ⎩s⎭ 2 ⎩ s + 1⎭ 6 ⎩ s + 3⎭ 3 2 6
s 2 .
s 2 ( s + 3)
s+2
Solution F ( s) =
s2 ( s )
A B C
F ( s) = + 2+
s s s+3
s 2 A(
As(s ) + B( s ) + Cs 2
= As 2 + 3 A
As + B Cs 2
Bss + 3 B C
C s2
= ( A C) A + B)
(3A B) s + 3B
2 1 0
Comparing coefficients of s , s and s ,
A C=0
3A + B = 1
3B = 2
Solving these equations,
1 2 1
A , B= , C=−
9 3 9
1 1 2 1 1 1
F ( s) = + ⋅ − ⋅
9 s 3 s2 9 s + 3
1 −1 ⎧ 1 ⎫ 2 −1 ⎧ 1 ⎫ 1 −1 ⎧ 1 ⎫ 1 2 1 −3t
L 1{F ( s)} L ⎨ ⎬+ L ⎨ 2⎬− L ⎨ ⎬= + t− e
9 ⎩ ⎭
s 3 ⎩s ⎭ 9 ⎩ s + 3 ⎭ 9 3 9
s 2 − 15s − 11 .
1 − 2)2
(s+ 1)(s
5 s 2 15 s − 11
Solution F( s) =
(s )( s
)(s
)( )2
A B C
F ( s) = + +
s + 1 s − 2 ( s )2
2
5 15 11 A( s 2) 2 + B( s + 1)( s 2) C ( s + 1)
= A( s 2 − 4 s 4) B( s 2 s − 2) + C ( s + )
2 2
= As − 4 A
Ass + 4 A + Bs − Bs − 2 B + Cs + c
= ( A + B) s2 − ( A + B − C ) s + ( A − 2 B C )
Comparing coefficients of s 2 , s1 and s0 ,

A+ B = 5
4 A + B − C = 15
4 A 2 B + C = −11
A=1
B=4
C = −7
1 4 7
F ( s) = + −
s + 1 s − 2 ( s )2
⎧ 1 ⎫ −1 ⎧ 1 ⎫ −1 ⎧ 1 ⎫
L 1{F ( s)} L−1 ⎨ ⎬ + 4L ⎨ ⎬ − 7L ⎨ 2⎬
= e−t + 4 2
− 7te 2t
⎩ s + 1⎭ ⎩ s − 2⎭ ⎩ ( s − 2 ) ⎭
3s+ 1
1 2 + 2)
(s+ 1)(s 2
3s + 1
Solution F( s) =
(s )( s 2
)(s
)( )
A Bs + C
F ( s) = + 2
s +1 s + 2
3s 1 A( s 2 2) ( Bs C )( s 1)
= As + 2 A + Bss 2
2
Bs Cs
C C
2
= ( A + B) s ( B + C )s + ( + )
2 1 0
Comparing coefficients of
0
=3
2 =1
2 2 7
3 3 3
2 1 2 s 7 1
F s =−
3 s + 1 3 s2 s +2 2
1 s 7 1 2 2 7
L 1
+ L + L 1
= − e− in 2t
3 s +1 3 2
s +2 3 2
s +2 3 3 3 2
s
s s
Solution s s s −s − 1⎡ s s
F s = = = −
s s 3⎣ s s 3 s2 + 1 2
+4
s 1 s 1
L L − cos
3 s2 + 1 s 4 3
11.7.3 Convolution Theorem

t
1
If L F t then L F (t u )du
0
t
where ∫ t t)
∞ ∞
Proof F e f u u e − sv v dv e− f v u dv
0 0 00
∞
−
∫ ∫e f v v du
0 0
Putting v t dv dt
When =u
v t→∞
∞ ∞
F s dt ⎥ dt du
0 u 0 0
u
The region of integration is bounded by the lines u 0 and u t.
To change the order of integration, draw a vertical strip which starts
from line u = 0 and terminates on the line u t. Hence, u varies
from 0 to t and t varies from 0 to ∞
∞ t t
F ∫e f =L f (t u ) du
0 0 0 t
u
Fig. 11.36
t
Hence, F du
0
Note Convolution operation is commutative, i.e.,
t t
L f (t u )du = u du
0 0 ⎭
1
(s )(s 1)
1
Solution F s
s s
1 1
Let F s
s+2 s 1
t = e
By convolution theorem,
t
e −3u
t t
t et 3t
L s e du e = (1 e )
0 0
3 3
0
1
s2 s 2
1
Solution F s
s2 s 2
Let 1 1
F s = 2
F s
(s ) s2
−t
t
t t
− − t
L s −u u e du − t− u e )
0
0 0
te −
1
(s 2)(s )2
1
Solution F s = 2
s s
1 1
Let F s = 2
F s
( s 2) s 2
2t
t = =e t
t
t
−2 u t −u
t t
⎡ ue 4
2t e u⎤ ⎛ −te 1⎞
L = t
=e ⎢ e 2t
0 0 0 ⎣ 4 16
0
4 16 16
e 2 e −2 1 2
= − t
4t e
16 4 16 16
1 .
s 2 ( s 2 1)
1
Solution F ( s) =
s ( s2
2
)
1 1
Let F1 ( s) = 2
F2 ( s) =
s +1 s2
f (t ) = sin
nt f 2 (t ) t
t
∫ sin u (t u ) du = [ t u − u ]0 = t si t
t
L 1{F ( s)} u
0
1
1 2 + 1)
(s+ 1)(s 1
1
Solution F( s) =
(s )( s 2
)(s
)( )
1 1
Let F1 ( s) = F2 ( s) =
s +1 2 s +1
f (t ) = sin
nt f 2 (t ) e−t
t
⎡ eu ⎤ e−t t
t t
−t
∫ ∫e
1 t u u t
L {F ( s)} ue du
d sin u du e ⎢ (sin u cos u ) ⎥ = [e (sin t − cos t ) +1]
0 1 ⎣2 ⎦0 2
1 1
= (sin t − cos t ) + e − t
2 2
11.8 SOLUTION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS

The Laplace transform is useful in solving linear differential equations with given initial conditions by using
algebraic methods. Initial conditions are included from the very beginning of the solution.
Linear Laplace Algebraic

differential
transform equation
equation
Solution of Solution of
Inverse
differential algebraic
Laplace equation
equation
transform
11.8 Solution of Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients 11.37
dy
Example 11.71 Solve + 22y = e -3t , y(0) = 1.
dt
Solution Taking Laplace transform of both the sides,

1
sY ( s) − y(
y( ) + 2Y ( s) =
s+3
1
sY ( s) 1 2Y ( s) = [ y(0)) ]
s+3
1 s+4
( s )Y ( s) = +1 =
s+3 s+3
s+4
Y ( s) =
( s + 2)( 3)
A B
Y ( s) = +
s+2 s+3
s+4
A ( s + ) Y ( s) s = −2 = =2
s + 3 s = −2
s+4
B ( s + ) Y ( s) s = −3 = = −1
s + 2 s = −3
2 1
Y ( s) = −
s+2 s+3
Taking inverse Laplace transform of both the sides.
y(t ) = 2e −2t e 3t
Example 11.72 Solve y ″ + y = t , y(0 ) 1, y ′(0 ) = 0 .

1
[ 2 ( s)) y(0) y ′(0)] + Y ( ) = 2
s
1
s 2Y ( ) − s + Y ( ) = 2 [∵ y(
y( ) 1, y ′(0) = ]
s
1 s3 + 1
( 2 )Y ( ) = 2 + s = 2
s s
s3 + 1 s 1 s s2 +
+11 − s 2 s 1 1
Y( ) = 2 2 = 2 + 2 2 = 2
+ 2 2
= 2 + 2− 2
s ( ) s + 1 s ( s + 1) 1 ( s + 1) s 1 s s +1
Taking inverse Laplace transform of both the sides,
y(t ) = cos t t sin t
Example 11.73 Solve y ″ + y = t 2 2t , y(0 ) 4, y ′(0 ) = −2.
Solution Taking Laplace transform of both sides,

2 2
⎡ s 2Y ( s) sy
⎣ s ( 0) y ′(0) ⎤⎦ + [ sY ( s) +y ( 0) ] =
s3 s 2
2 2
s 2Y ( s) 4s
4 s 2 + sY ( s) − 4 = 3 + 2
s s
2 2 2
= 3
+ 2
+ s + s
s3
2 4 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 2
Y = + + + − = 4+
s s 2
s s 2
s s 4 s s s +1 s s s +1
t3
yt 2 + 2e − t
3
Example 11.74 Solve y = 0 y′ 0 0
sY s 0 + s
s Y s s y0 ′ 0]
( s
1
Y s 2
s +4
1
y t = sin 2t
2
Example 11.75 Solve 0 0 0
sY s 0 + s 0 + s = e−s
sY s sY s =
−s
( )Y e
−s
e e−s 1 1
Y e−s
s +3 +2 2 s s+2 s s+2
−
yt t
Example 11.76 Solve = y 0 1

e −2 s
s Y s 0 + s =
s
e −2 s
s Y s Y ( s) [ y( ′ 1]
s
−2 s
e
1
s
2
e 1 1 s e 2 1
Y( = −
s s +4 s s2 4 s2 + 4
1 1 1
yt = − (t ut t
4 4
11.9 Solution of a System of Simultaneous Differential Equations 11.39
11.9 SOLUTION OF A SYSTEM OF SIMULTANEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

The Laplace transform can also be used to solve two or more simultaneous differential equations. The Laplace
transform method transforms the differential equations into algebraic equations.
dx
Example 11.77 Solve + y = sin t .
dt
dy
+ x = cos t
dt
where x(0) = 0 and y(0) = 2.
Solution Taking Laplace transform of both the equations,
1
sX ( s) − x(
x ( ) + Y ( s) = 2
s +1
1
sX ( s) Y ( s) = …(i)
s2 + 1
s
and sY ( s) − y(
y ( ) + X ( s) =
s2 + 1
s
sY ( s) X ( s) = +2
s2 + 1
2s2 + s + 2
sY ( s) X ( s) = …(ii)
s2 + 1
Multiplying Eq. (i) by s,
s
s 2 X ( s) + sY ( s) = 2
…(iii)
s +1
Subtracting Eq. (iii) from Eq. (ii),
2
( )X( ) 2
2
X ( s) = − 2
…(iv)
s −1
Substituting X ( s) in Eq. (i),
1 s
Y ( s) =
+2 2 …(v)
s2 + 1 s −1
Taking inverse Laplace transform of Eqs (iv) and (v),
x(t ) = −2 sinh t
and y(t ) = sin t 2 cosh t
dx
Example 11.78 Solve − y et
dt
dy
+ x = sin t
dt
where x(0) = 1 and y(0) = 0.
1
x ( ) − Y ( s) =
sX ( s) x(
s −1
1 s
sX ( s) Y ( s) = +1 = …(i)
s −1 s −1
1
and sY ( s) − yy(( ) + X ( s) = 2
s +1
1
sY ( s) X ( s) = 2 …(ii)
s +1
Multiplying Eq. (i) by s,
s2
s 2 X ( s) sY ( s) = …(iii)
s −1
Adding Eqs (ii) and (iii),
2 1 s2
( )X( ) = +
s +1 2 s −1
1 s2
X( ) = 2
+
( )2 ( )( 2
)
1 1⎛ 1 s 1 ⎞
= + ⎜ + 2 + 2 ⎟ …(iv)
( 2
+1) 2 ⎝ s − 1 s +1
2
+ 1 s + 1⎠
Substituting X(s) in Eq. (i),
s s s3 s
Y ( s) = sX ( s) − = − −
s − 1 ( s 2 ) (s
(s ))(s
(s 2
) s −1
s s
Y ( s) = −
( s2 )2 ( s 1)( s 2 + 1)
1⎛ 1 s s 1 ⎞
= − ⎜ − 2 + 2 ⎟ …(v)
2
(s + ) 2 ⎝ s − 1 s + 1 s + 1⎠
2
Taking the inverse Laplace transform of Eqs. (iv) and (v),

1 1 t 1
x(t ) =(sin t t cos t ) (e cos t s n t ) = (e t cos t + 2 sin t t cos t )
2 2 2
1 1 t 1
and y(t ) = t sin t (e cos t sin t ) (t sin t e t + cos
cos t sin t )
2 2 2
dx
Example 11.79 Solve + 55x - 2y = t
dt
dy
+ 2x
2 + y=0
dt
where x(0) = 0 and y(0)

0 = 0.
11.9 Solution of a System of Simultaneous Differential Equations 11.41

1
sX s x +5X s − =
s2
1
Y( ) …(i)
s2
and sY s + 2X s + s =0
2 1 ( s) 0 …(ii)
1
Multiplying Eq. (i) by ( 1),
2
1 s +1
1X − 1 Y( ) = …(iii)
2 2s2
Adding Eqs (ii) and (iii),
s +1
X s = 2 2
…(iv)
s s
Substituting X(s) in Eq. (ii),
2
Y s =− …(v)
s2 s 2
s +1
Now, X s 2 2
s s
A B C D
X s + +
s s2 s 2
As s + s+ +C s+ s s …(vi)
= s+ + s + + + + Ds 2
+ + Bs 2 + 6 Bs + + + s2
= + s + + s + + s+ B
3 2
Comparing coefficients of s1 s0 ,
=0
6 3 =0
A B =1
9B 1
1 1 1 2
= C D=−
27 9 27 9
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1
X ( s) =
⋅ + ⋅ − ⋅ − ⋅
27 s 9 s 2 27 s + 3 9 ( s ) 2
1 1 1 −3t 2 3t
x(t ) = + t e − te
27 9 27 9
Similarly,
−2 A B C D 4 1 2 1 4 1 2 1
Y ( s) = 2 = + + + = ⋅ − ⋅ − ⋅ − ⋅
s ( s ) 2 s s 2 s + 3 ( s ) 2 27 s 9 s 2 27 s + 3 9 ( + 3) 2
4 2 4 −3t 2 3t
y(t ) = − t e − te
27 9 27 9
11.10 THE TRANSFORMED CIRCUIT

Voltage–current relationships of network elements can also be represented in the frequency domain.
1. Resistor For the resistor, the v–i relationship in time domain is
v (t) = R i (t)
The corresponding frequency–domain relation are given as
V (s) = RI (s)
The transformed network is shown in Fig 11.37.
i (t) I (s)
+ +
v (t) R V (s) R
− −
Fig. 11.37 Resistor

2. Inductor For the inductor, the v–i relationships in time domain are
di
v(t ) = L
dt
t
1
i(t ) = ∫ v(t ) dt + i( )
L0
The corresponding frequency-domain relation are given as
V ( s) = Ls I ( s) − L i( )
1 i( )
I ( s) = V ( ss)) +
Ls s
i (t ) I (s) I (s)
+ + +
i (0)
Ls
v (t) V (s) V (s) Ls i (0)
s
−
Li (0)
+
− − −
Fig. 11.38 Inductor

11.11 Resistor–Inductor Circuit 11.43
3. Capacitor For capacitor, the v−i relationships in time domain are

t
1
v(t ) = ∫ i(t ) dt + v( )
C0
dv
i( t ) = C
dt
The corresponding frequency–domain relations are given as
1 v( )
V ( s) = I ( s) +
Cs s
I ( s) = CsV ( s) − Cv( )
i (t) I (s) I (s)
+ + +
1
Cs
V (s) 1
v (t) C V (s) Cv (0)
Cs
+ v (0)
− s
− − −
Fig. 11.39 Capacitor
11.11 RESISTOR–INDUCTOR CIRCUIT

Consider a series RL circuit as shown in Fig. 11.40. The switch is closed at time t = 0.
R
V L
i (t)
Fig. 11.40 RL circuit

For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.41.
Applying KVL to the mesh, R
V
− RI ( s) Ls I ( s) = 0
s
V
V s Ls
I (s)
I ( s) = L
⎛ R⎞
s s+ ⎟
⎝ L⎠ Fig. 11.41 Transformed network
A B
I ( s) = +
s R
s+
L
V
L V
A sI ( s) |s = 0 = s × =
⎛ R⎞ R
s s+ ⎟
⎝ L⎠ s=0
V
⎛ R⎞ ⎛ R⎞ L V
B s + ⎟ I ( s) = s+ ⎟ × =−
⎝ L⎠ R ⎝ L ⎠ ⎛ R⎞ R
s= − s s+ ⎟
L
⎝ L⎠ s= −
R
L
V ⎛−V ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟
R⎠
I ( s) = R +
s R
s+
L
Taking the inverse Laplace transform,
R
V V − Lt
i( t ) =− e
R R
V⎡ − t⎤
R
= ⎢1 − e L ⎥ f t>0
R⎢ ⎥⎦
⎣
Example 11.80 In the network of Fig. 11.42, the switch is moved from the position 1 to 2 at t = 0,
steady-state condition having been established in the position 1. Determine i (t) for t > 0.
1 1Ω
2
10 V
1Ω 1H
i (t)
Fig. 11.42
Solution At t = 0−, the network is shown in Fig 11.43. At t = 0−, the network has attained steady-state
condition. Hence, the inductor acts as a short circuit. 1Ω
10
i( )=
= 10 A
1
10 V
Since the current through the inductor cannot change instantaneously,
i (0−)
i (0+) = 10 A
Fig. 11.43
1
Applying KVL to the mesh for t > 0,
− I ( s) − I ( s) − sI ( s) + 10 = 0
I ( s ) ( s + ) = 10
1 s
10 I (s)
I ( s) =
s+2 10
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
i (t) = 10e−2t for t > 0 Fig. 11.44
Example 11.81 The network of Fig. 11.45 was initially in the steady state with the switch in the
position a. At t = 0, the switch goes from a to b. Find an expression for voltage v (t) for t > 0.
2Ω a b
+
2V 1Ω 1H v (t)
2H
Fig. 11.45 2Ω
Solution At t = 0−, the network is shown in Fig 11.46. At
t = 0−, the network has attained steady-state condition. Hence, the
inductor of 2H acts as a short circuit. 2V
2 i (0−)
i( ) = = 1 A
2
Since current through the inductor cannot change instantaneously, Fig. 11.46
i (0+) = 1 A
For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.47. +
Applying KCL at the node for t > 0, 2s
1 s V (s)
V ( s) + 2 V ( s) V ( s)
+ + =0 2
2s 1 s −
⎛ 3⎞ 1
V ( s) ⎜ 1 + ⎟ = −
⎝ 2s ⎠ s Fig. 11.47
1
−
V ( s) = s =− 2 =− 1
2s + 3 2 3 s +1 5
2s
v (t) = − e−1.5 t for t > 0
Example 11.82 In the network of Fig. 11.48, the switch is opened at t = 0. Find i(t).
10 Ω
3Ω
36 V 6Ω
0.1 H i (t)
Fig. 11.48 iT (0−) 10 Ω

Solution At t = 0 , the network is shown in Fig. 11.49. At t = 0 ,
− –
the switch is closed and steady-state condition is reached. Hence, 3Ω

the inductor acts as a short circuit. 6Ω
36 V
36 36 iL (0 ) −
iT ( ) = = =3A
10 + ( ) 10 + 2
6
iL ( ) 3 × =2A
6 3 Fig. 11.49
Since current through the inductor cannot change instantaneously,
iL(0+) = 2 A 3
0.1s 6
−0. − 0.1s ( ) − 3 ( ) − 6I ( s) = 0
0. ( ) + ( ) = 0.2
I(s)
0.2
02 2
I( ) = =
0.1 9 s + 90 Fig. 11.50
i(t) = 2e−90 t for t > 0
Example 11.83 The network shown in Fig. 11.51 has acquired steady-state with the switch closed
for t < 0. At t = 0, the switch is opened. Obtain i (t) for t > 0.
10 Ω 4Ω
36 V 4Ω 2H
i (t)
Fig. 11.51
Solution At t = 0−, the network is shown in Fig 11.52. At t = 0−, the switch is closed and the network has
acquired steady-state. Hence, the inductor acts as a
10 Ω 4Ω
short circuit.
36 36 iT (0− )
iT ( ) = = =3A
10 + ( ) 10 + 2
36 V 4Ω
4
i( ) 3 × = 1.5 A
4 4 i (0− )
Since current through the inductor cannot change
instantaneously, Fig. 11.52
i(0+) = 1.5 A
For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.53. 4
−4I ( s ) − 4I (s ) − 2sI ( s ) + 3 = 0 2s
8 ( ) + 2sI ( s) = 3 4
I (s)
3 15 3
I ( s) = =
2s + 8 s + 4
Taking the inverse Laplace transform, Fig. 11.53
i(t) = 1. 5e−4 t for t > 0
Example 11.84 In the network shown in Fig. 11.54, the switch is closed at t = 0, the steady-state
being reached before t = 0. Determine current through inductor of 3 H.
2H 2Ω
1V 2Ω 3H
i1 (t) i2 (t)
Fig. 11.54
Solution At t = 0−, the network is shown in Fig. 11.55. At t = 0−,
steady-state condition is reached. Hence, the inductor of 2 H acts
as a short circuit.
1 2Ω
i1 (0 ) = A 1V
2 i1 (0−)
i2 (0 ) 0
Since current through the inductor cannot change instantaneously,
Fig. 11.55
1
i1 (0 + ) = A
2
i2 (0 + ) 0 1
2s 2
Applying KVL to Mesh 1,
1 1
2 3s
− 2 s 1 ( ) 1 2[ 1 ( ) 2 ( )] 0 s
s I1 (s) I2 (s)
1
( 2 + 2s) I1 ( s) 2 2 ( s) = 1 +
s
Applying KVL to Mesh 2, Fig. 11.56
−2 [I2(s) − I1(s)] − 2I2(s) − 3s I2 (s) = 0
−2I1(s) + (4 + 3s) I2(s) = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
1
2 + 2s 1 +
s 2 1
−2 ( s 1) ( s + 1)
0 s s +1 s +1 3
I 2 ( s) = = = = =
2 + 2s −2 ( 4 3s) − 4 s(3s 2 + 7s
( 2 2 s)(4 7 s 2 ) 3s ⎛ s + 1 ⎞ ( s + 2 ) s ( s + 2 ) ⎛ s + 1 ⎞
−2 4 + 3s ⎝ ⎟ ⎟
3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
A B C
I 2 ( s) = + +
s s+2 1
s+
3
1
( s +1)
3 1
A s I 2 ( s) s = 0 = =
⎛ 1⎞ 2
( s + 2) s + ⎟
⎝ 3⎠ s=0
1
(s + )
1
B ( s + ) I 2 ( s) S = −2 = 3 =−
⎛ 1⎞ 10
s s+ ⎟
⎝ 3⎠ s = −2
1
( s +1)
⎛ 1⎞ 2
C s + ⎟ I 2 ( s) s = − 1 = 3 =−
⎝ 3⎠ 3 s ( s + 2) 5
1
s= −
3
11 1 1 2 1
I 2 ( s) = − −
2 s 10 s + 2 5 1
s+
3
Taking inverse Laplace transform
1
1 1 −2t 2 − 3 t
i2 (t ) = − e − e for t > 0
2 10 5
Example 11.85 In the network of Fig. 11.57, the switch is closed at t = 0 with the network previ-
ously unenergised. Determine currents i1(t).
10 Ω 1H
1H
100 V 10 Ω
i1 (t) i2 (t) 10 Ω
Fig. 11.57
Solution For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.58.
10 s
s
100
s 10
I1 (s) I2 (s) 10
Fig. 11.58
100
10 I1 ( s) sI1 ( s) 10 [ I1 s
−10I I2 s ] = 0
s
100
0
( s 20) I1 ( s) 100 I 2 ( s) =
s
−10 [ − ] − s I 2 ( s) −10
0 I 2 ( s) = 0
10
−10 I1 ( ) + ( s + 20
0) I 2 ( s) = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
100
−10
s 100
0 s 20 ( s 20)
100( ) 100( )
I1 ( s) = = s = =
s + 20 −10 ( s 20) 2 − 100 s(( 2 ) s(( )( )
−10 s + 20
11.12 Resistor–Capacitor Circuit 11.49
A B C
I1 ( s) = + +
s s + 10 s + 30
100( s 20) 2
20
A s I1 ( s) |s 0 = =
( s 10)(s( s 30) s= 0 3
100( s + 20)
B ( s + 10) I1 ( s) |s 10 = = −5
s( s + 30) s=−10
100( ) 5
C ( s + 30) I1 ( ) |s=−30 = =−
s(( ) s =−30
3
20 1 5 5 1
I1 ( ) = − −
3 s s + 10 3 s + 30
20 5 30 t
i1 (t ) = − 5e −10 t e
3 3
Similarly,
100
s + 20
s 1000
−10 0 s 1000 1000
I 2 ( s) = = = =
s + 20 −10 ( s 20) 2 100 s( s 2 + 40 s + 300) s( s +10)( s + 30)
−10 s + 20
A B C
I 2 ( s) = + +
s s + 10 s + 30
1000 10
A sI 2 ( s) |s 0 = =
( s 10)(s( s 30) s = 0 3
1000
B=( s −10 =
) I 2 ( ) |s= = −5
s(( ) s = −10
1
1000 5
C ( ) I 2 ( ) |s= −30 = =
s( s 10) s = −30 3
10 1 5 5 1
I 2 ( s) = − +
3 s s + 10 3 s + 30
10 5
i2 (t ) = − 5e −10 t e 30 t
fo t > 0
3 3
R
11.12 RESISTOR–CAPACITOR CIRCUIT
Consider a series RC circuit as shown in Fig. 11.59. The switch is
closed at time t = 0. V C
For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.60. i (t)
Applying KVL to the mesh,
V 1
− RI ( s) − I ( s) = 0 Fig. 11.59 RC circuit
s Cs
⎛ 1⎞ V
⎜⎝ R + ⎟⎠ I ( s) = R
Cs s
V V V
I ( s) = = s = s R V 1
1 C +1
RCs 1 s Cs
R+ s+ I (s)
Cs Cs RC
1 Fig. 11.60 Transformed network
V − RC t
i( t ) = e fo t > 0
R
Example 11.86 In the network of Fig. 11.61, the switch is moved from a to b at t = 0. Determine
i (t) and vc (t).
1Ω a b 1Ω
+
10 V 3F vc (t)
6F
i (t)
Fig. 11.61
−
Solution At t = 0 , the network is shown in Fig. 11.62. At t = 0–, the network has attained steady-state
condition. Hence, the capacitor of 6 F acts as an open circuit.
v6 F (0−) = 10 V 1Ω
i (0−) = 0
v3 F (0−) = 0
Since voltage across the capacitor cannot change 10 V v6F (0 − )
instantaneously, i (0 − )
v6 F (0+) = 10 V
v3 F (0+) = 0 Fig. 11.62
For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in 11.63.
10 1 1 1
− I ( s) − I ( s) − I ( s) = 0
s 6s 3s
1 1 10 1
I ( s) + I ( s) + I ( s) = 6s
6s 3s s 1 V (s)
c
3s
10 60 10 I (s)
I ( s) = = = 10
⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 6 s + 3 s + 0.5 s
s ⎜1 + + ⎟
⎝ 6 s 3s ⎠
Taking the inverse Laplace transform, Fig. 11.63
i(t) = 10e −0.5t
for t > 0
Voltage across the 3 F capacitor is given by
1 10
Vc ( s) = I ( s) =
3s 3s(s
( .5)
A B
Vc ( s) = +
s s + 0.5
10 20
A Vc ( s) s = 0 =
sV =
3(s
( .5) s = 0 3
10 20
B ( s + .5)Vc ( s) s = −0.5 = =−
3s s = −0.5 3
20 1 20 1
Vc ( s) = −
3 s 3 s + 0.5
20 20 −0.5t
vc (t ) = − e
3 3
20
= ( e 0 5t ) f t>0
3
Example 11.87 The switch in the network shown in Fig. 11.64 is closed at t = 0. Determine the
voltage cross the capacitor.
10 Ω
10 V 10 Ω 2 F vc (t)
Fig. 11.64
Solution At t = 0 , the capacitor is uncharged.
−
vc(0−) = 0
Since the voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously,
vc(0+) = 0 10
Applying KCL at the node for t > 0,
10 1 Vc (s)
10 10
Vc ( s) − s 2s
V
s + c ( s ) V ( s )
+ c =0
10 10 1
2s
Fig. 11.65
1
2 Vc ( ) 0.2 Vc ( s) =
2V
s
1 05
Vc ( s) = =
s( 2 0.2) s( s 0.1)
A B
Vc ( s) = +
s s + 0.1
0.5 0.5
A Vc ( s) s = 0 =
sV = =5
s + 0.1 s = 0 0.1
0.5 0.5
B ( s + .1)Vc ( s) s = −0.1 = =− = −5
s s = −0.1 0.1
5 5
Vc ( s) = −
s s + 0.1
vc ( t ) = 5 − 5e −0 1t for t > 0
Example 11.88 In the network of Fig. 11.66, the switch is closed for a long time and at t = 0, the
switch is opened. Determine the current through the capacitor.
v (t)
i1 (t) i2 (t)
0.5 F
2A 1Ω
1Ω
Fig. 11.66
Solution At t = 0−, the network is shown in Fig. 11.67. At t = 0−, the switch is closed and steady-state
condition is reached. Hence, the capacitor acts as an open circuit.
vc (0−) = 0
v (0 − )
vc (0 − )
2A 1Ω
1Ω
Fig. 11.67
Since voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously, V (s)
vc (0+) = 0 I1(s) I2(s)
2
For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.68. s
Applying KVL to two parallel branches, 2
s 1
2 1
I1 ( s) + I1 ( s) = I 2 ( s)
s
2 Fig. 11.68
= I1 ( s) + I 2 ( s)
s
2 2
I1 ( s) + I1 ( ss)) = − I1 ( s)
s s
2 2
I1 ( s) + 2 I1 ( s) =
s s
2
1
I1 ( s) = s =
2 s +1
+2
s

i1 ( t ) = e − t for t > 0
Example 11.89 In the network of Fig. 11.69, the switch is moved from a to b, at t = 0. Find v(t).
a 4Ω
b +
6V
1F v (t) 2Ω
2Ω −
Fig. 11.69
Solution At t = 0−, the network is shown in Fig 11.70. At t = 0−, steady-state condition is reached. Hence,
the capacitor acts as an open circuit. 4Ω
2
v( ) 6× =2V
4 2 +
6V v (0−) 2Ω
Since voltage across the capacitor cannot change −
instantaneously,
v (0+) = 2 V
Fig. 11.70
4 V (s)
2 1
V ( s) − s
V ( s) s + V ( s) = 0
+ 2 2
6 1 2 2
s
s
⎛2 ⎞
V ( s ) ⎜ + s⎟ = 2 Fig. 11.71
⎝3 ⎠
2
V ( s) =
2
s+
3
2
− t
v ( t ) = 2e 3 fo t > 0
Example 11.90 The network shown in Fig. 11.72 has acquired steady-state at t < 0 with the switch
open. The switch is closed at t = 0. Determine v (t).
2Ω
+
2Ω 1F 1F v (t)
4V
Fig. 11.72
Solution At t = 0−, the network is shown in Fig 11.73. At 2Ω
t = 0–, steady-state condition is reached. Hence, the capacitor of
1 F acts as an open circuit.
2 4V 2Ω v (0−)
v( ) 4× =2V
2 2
Since voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously,
v(0+) = 2 V Fig. 11.73
1
s 1 v (s)
4
2 s
s 2
s
Fig. 11.74
4 2
V ( s) − V ( s) −
s+ V ( s ) s + V ( s) = 0
+
2 2 1 1
s s
2
2 sV ( s) V ( s) = + 2
s
2
+2
2s + 2 2 2 2 1
V ( s) = s = = − = −
2 s + 1 s( s ) s 2 s + 1 s s + 0.5
v ( t ) = 2 − e −0 5t fo t > 0
11.13 RESISTOR–INDUCTOR–CAPACITOR CIRCUIT

Consider a series RLC circuit shown in Fig. 11.75. The switch is closed at time t = 0.
L
V
i (t) C
Fig. 11.75 RLC circuit

11.13 Resistor–Inductor–Capacitor Circuit 11.55
Applying KVL to the mesh, R
V 1
− RI ( s) Ls I ( s) − I ( s) = 0 Ls
s Cs V
s
⎛ 1⎞ V I (s) 1
⎜⎝ R + Ls + ⎟⎠ I ( s) = Cs
Cs s
⎛ LCs RCs + 1⎞
C 2 RCs V Fig. 11.76 Transformed network
⎜ ⎟ I ( s) =
⎝ Cs ⎠ s
V V V
I ( s) = s = L = L
C 2 + RCs + 1 s 2 +
LCs R 1 ( s − s )( s − s2 )
s+
Cs L LC
⎛ R⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
where s1 and s2 are the roots of the equation s 2 + ⎜ ⎟ s + ⎜ = 0.
⎝ L⎠ ⎝ LC ⎟⎠
2
R ⎛ R⎞ 1
s1 = − + ⎜ ⎟ − = −α + α 2 − ω 02 = −α + β
2L ⎝ 2L ⎠ LC
2
R ⎛ R⎞ 1
s2 = − − ⎜ ⎟ − = −α − α 2 − ω 02 = −α − β
2L ⎝ 2L ⎠ LC
R
where α=
2L
1
ω0 =
LC
and β α 2 − ω 02
By partial-fraction expansion, of I(s),
A B
I ( s) = +
s s1 s s2
V
A ( s s ) I ( s) s = L
s1
s1 s2
V V
B ( s − s ) I ( s) s = L =− L
s2
s2 s1 s1 s2
V ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
I ( s) = −
L( s s ) ⎣ s − s1 s − s2 ⎥⎦
⎢
V ⎡e s t
i( t ) = e s2t ⎤⎦ = k1 e s t + k2 e s2t
L( s s )⎣
where k1 and k2 are constants to be determined and s1 and s2 are the roots of the equation.
Now depending upon the values of s1 and s2, we have 3 cases of the response.
Case I When the roots are real and unequal, it gives an overdamped response.
R 1
>
2L LC
> 0
In this case, the solution is given by
i t) = e e t
or it for t > 0
Case II When the roots are real and equal, it gives a critically damped response.
R 1
2L LC
= 0
i(t) = e−at (k1 + k2 t) for t > 0
Case III When the roots are complex conjugate, it gives an underdamped response.
R 1
<
2L LC
< 0
it
2
where s1 2 = − 0
2 2 2 2
Let = = j d
where j 1
2 2
and −
Hence
dt
it e
⎡ −
e + −
2 2j
−
− for t > 0
Example 11.91 The switch in Fig. 11.77 is opened at time t = 0. Determine the voltage v(t) for t > 0.
+
2A 0.5 Ω 0.5 H 0.5 F v()
Fig. 11.77
Solution At t = 0−, the network is shown in Fig. 11.78. At t = 0−, the network has attained steady-state
condition. Hence, the inductor acts as a short circuit and the capacitor acts as an open circuit.
+
iL (0 − )
2A 0.5 Ω v (0 − )
Fig. 11.78
iL(0−) = 0
v(0−) = 0
Since current through the inductor and voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously,
iL(0+) = 0
v(0+) = 0
+
V ( s) V ( s) V ( s) 2
+ + =
0.5 0.5s 1 s 2 1
0.5s s 0.5 0.5s V(s)
0.5s
2 2
2V ( s) + V ( s) + 0.. sV ( s) =
s s −
2
4 4 Fig. 11.79
V ( s) = s = =
2 2
2
+ 0.5s + 2 s + 4s + 4 (s )
s
v ( t ) = 4tt e −2t for t > 0
Example 11.92 In the network of Fig. 11.80, the switch is closed and steady-state is attained. At
t = 0, switch is opened. Determine the current through the inductor.
. Ω
2.5
5V 200 μF 0.5 H
Fig. 11.80
Solution At t = 0−, the network is shown in Fig. 11.81. At t = 0–, the switch is closed and steady-state
condition is attained. Hence, the inductor acts as a short circuit and the capacitor acts as an open circuit.
Current through inductor is same as the current through the resistor.
5 2.5 Ω
iL ( )= =2A
2.5
5V vc (0−)
Voltage across the capacitor is zero as it is connected in parallel
iL (0−)
with a short.
vc (0−) = 0
Fig. 11.81
Since voltage across the capacitor and current through the
inductor cannot change instantaneously,
iL (0+) = 2 A
vc (0+) = 0 0.5s
Applying KVL to the mesh for t > 0, 200 × 10−6s
I (s) 1
1
− I ( s) − 0.5s I ( s) + 1 = 0
200 × 10 −6 s Fig. 11.82
I ( s)
0.5s I ( s) − 1 + 5000 =0
s
1 2s
I ( s) = = 2
5s +
0.5
5000 s + 10000
s

i ( t ) = 2 cos 100t fo t > 0
Example 11.93 In the network shown in Fig. 11.83, the switch is opened at t = 0. Steady-state con-
dition is achieved before t = 0. Find i(t).
0.5 H
1V 1F 1Ω
i (t)
Fig. 11.83
Solution At t = 0−, the network is shown in Fig 11.84. At

t = 0−, the switch is closed and steady-state condition is achieved.
Hence, the capacitor acts as an open circuit and the inductor acts as
a short circuit. 1Ω
1V
vc (0−) = 1 V
i (0−)
i (0−) = 1 A
Since current through the inductor and voltage across the
capacitor cannot change instantaneously, Fig. 11.84
vc(0+) = 1 V 0.5s 0.5

i(0+) = 1 A
1
For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.85. s
Applying KVL to the mesh for t > 0, 1
1 I(s)
1 1 s
− I ( s) − 0.5s I ( s) 0.5 I ( s) = 0
s s
1 1 Fig. 11.85
0.5 + = I ( s) + 0.5 s I ( s) I ( s)
s s
⎡ 1 ⎤ 1
I ( s) ⎢1 + + 0.5s ⎥ = 0.5 +
⎣ s ⎦ s
s+2 (s ) 1 s +1 1
I ( s) = 2 = = +
2 s 2 ( s ) 1 ( s +1) + 1 ( s + 1) 2 + 1
s + 2s 2 2

i ( t ) = e −tt cos t + e t si t for t > 0
Example 11.94 In the network shown in Fig. 11.86, the switch is closed at t = 0. Find the currents
i1(t) and i2(t) when initial current through the inductor is zero and initial voltage on the capacitor is 4 V.
1Ω
1Ω 1Ω
10 V
i2 (t) +
i1 (t) 1H 4V 1F
−
Fig. 11.86

1
10 1 1
s
1
I1 (s) I2 (s) s
s 4
s
Fig. 11.87
10
− I1 ( s) (1 )[ 1 2 ] 0
s
10
( s 2) I1 ( ) ( 1) I 2 ( s) =
s
1 4
−( + ) [ − ] − I2(
) − I2( ) − = 0
s s
⎛ 1 ⎞ 4
−( + ) I1 ( ) + s + 2 + ⎟ I 2 ( s) = −
⎝ s⎠ s
By Cramer’s rule,
10
−(s
( s 1)
s
⎛ 10 ⎞ ⎛ s + 2 s 1⎞
2
4 1 ⎛ 4⎞ 10 4
− s+ 2+ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎜ ⎟ − ( s + 1) ⎜⎝ s ⎟⎠ (ss + 1) 2 ( s + 1)
s s s ⎝ s ⎠ s 2 s
I1 ( s) = = =
s+2 ( s 1) ⎛ s 2 + 2s
2s 1 ⎞ ( s +1) 2
1 ( s + 2) ⎜ ⎟ − ( s + 1)
2
( s + 2) − ( s + 1) 2
−(s
( s 1) s + 2 + ⎝ s ⎠ s
s
10 4
( s +1) −
s 2 s 3s + 5
= =
( s +1) s(( )
( s + 2) −( )
s
A B
I1 ( s) = +
s s +1
3s 5
A sI1 ( s) |s 0 = =5
s + 1 s=0
3s + 5
B ( s 1) I1 ( s) |s 1= = −2
s s = −1
5 2
I1 ( s) = −
s s +1
i1 ( t ) = 5 2e − t fo t > 0
Similarly,
10
s+2
s
4
−(s
( s 1) −
s 3s 1 3s 3 − 2 3( + 1) − 2 3 2
I 2 ( s) = = = = = −
s+2 ( s 1) ( s 1) 2
( +1) 2
( +1) 2 s + 1 ( +1) 2
1
−(s
( s 1) s + 2 +
s
3e t 2te t
i2 (t ) = 3e fo t > 0
11.14 RESPONSE OF RL CIRCUIT TO VARIOUS FUNCTIONS

+
Consider a series RL circuit shown in Fig. 11.88. When the switch is closed at t = 0, i( ) i(
i( ) = 0.
11.14 Response of RL Circuit to Various Functions 11.61
v (t) + L
−
i(t)
Fig. 11.88 RL circuit

R
V ( s) − R I (s
( s) Ls I ( s) = 0
V (s) + Ls
V ( s) 1 V ( s) −
I ( s) = = I (s)
R Ls L R
s+
L
(a) When the unit step signal is applied, Fig. 11.89 Transformed network
v ( t ) = u( t )
Taking Laplace transform,
1
V ( s) =
s
1
1 s
I ( s) =
L R
s+
L
1 1
=
L ⎛ R⎞
s s+ ⎟
⎝ L⎠
⎛ ⎞
1⎜A B ⎟
I ( s) = ⎜ +
L s R⎟
⎜ s+ ⎟
⎝ L⎠
1 L
A s I ( s) s=0 = =
R R
s+
L s=0
⎛ R⎞ 1 L
B s + ⎟ I ( s) s = − R = =−
⎝ L⎠ L s s= − R R
L
⎛ ⎞
1⎜L1 L 1 ⎟
I ( s) = ⎜ −
L Rs R R⎟
⎜ s+ ⎟
⎝ L⎠
⎛ ⎞
1 ⎜1 1 ⎟
= ⎜ −
R s R⎟
⎜ s+ ⎟
⎝ L⎠
⎛ R⎞
1 −⎜ ⎟ t
⎝ L⎠
i( t ) = [ e ] f t>0
R
(b) When unit ramp signal is applied,
v(t ) = r (t ) = t for t > 0
1
V ( s) =
s2
1 1
I ( s) =
L ⎛ R⎞
s2 s + ⎟
⎝ L⎠
By partial-faction expansion,
1 1 A B C
= + 2+
L ⎛ R⎞ s s
s+
R
s2 s + ⎟
⎝ L⎠ L
1 ⎛ R⎞ ⎛ R⎞
= As s + ⎟ + B s + ⎟ + Cs 2
L ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ L⎠
Putting s = 0,
1
B=
R
R
Putting s = − ,
L L
C=
R2
Comparing coefficients of s2,
A C=0
L
A C=−
R2
L 1 1 1 L 1
I ( s) = − 2 + 2
+ 2
R s Rs R s+ R
L
⎛ R⎞
L 1 L −⎜ ⎟ t
i( t ) = − + t + 2 e ⎝ L⎠
R2 R R
⎛ R⎞
1 L −⎜ ⎟ t
⎝ L⎠
= t− 2[ e ] f t>0
R R
(c) When unit impulse signal is applied,
v(t ) = δ (t )
V ( s) = 1
1 1
I ( s) =
L R
s+
L

⎛ R⎞
1 −⎜ ⎟ t
i( t ) = e ⎝ L ⎠ fo t > 0
L
Example 11.95 At t = 0, unit pulse voltage of unit width is applied to a series RL circuit as shown
in Fig. 11.90. Obtain an expression for i(t).
v (t ) 1Ω
v (t) +
1 − 1H
i (t)
t
0 1
Fig. 11.90
Solution
v(t ) = u ( t ) − u ( t − 1)
1 e −ss 1 − e s
V ( s) = − =
s s s
V ( s) − I ( s) − sI ( s) = 0
V ( s) +
I ( s) = V (s) − s
s +1 I (s)
1 − e−s
=
s( s ) Fig. 11.91
−s
1 e
= −
s( s ) s( s + 1)
1 1 e−s e−s
= − − +
s s +1 s s +1
i(t ) = u(t ) − e −tt u(t ) u(t
u( t ) e (t )
u(t
(t )
( t −1)
=( t
e )u(t
(t ) [ e ] (t − 1) f >0
Example 11.96 For the network shown in Fig. 11.92, determine the current i(t) when the switch is
closed at t = 0. Assume that initial current in the inductor is zero.
5Ω
r (t − 3) + 2H
−
i(t)
Fig. 11.92 5

Applying KVL to the mesh for t > 0, e−3s + 2s
−3 s s2 − I (s)
e
− 5 I ( s) − 2 s I ( s) = 0
s2
e −3s Fig. 11.93
5 I ( s) + 2 s I ( s) =
s2
e −3s 0 5 e −3s
I ( s) = =
s 2 ( 2 s + 5) s2 ( 2.5)
05 A B C
= + 2+
2
s ( 2.5) s s s+2 5
0.5 ((ss 2.5
5)) B( 2.5) Cs 2
= As 2 + 2.5 A Cs 2
2.5 B C
=( )s2 .5 A + B))
( .5 .5 B
2 0
Comparing coefficients of s , s and s ,
A C=0
2 5A + B = 0
2.5 B = 0.5
A = −0 08
B=02
C = 0 08
⎛ 0.08 0.2 0.08 ⎞
I ( s) = e −3s − + 2 + ⎟
⎝ s s s + 2 5⎠
e −33 e 3s e −3s
= −0.08 + 0.2 2 + 0.08
s s s + 2.5
2 ( t 3)
i(t ) = −0.. u(t − 3) .2r (t ) + 0. e u(t − 3)
Example 11.97 Determine the expression for vL (t) in the network shown in Fig. 11.94. Find vL(t)
when (i) vs(t) = d (t), and (ii) vs(t) = e−t u(t).
5Ω
+ 1 v (t )
Vs (t )
− 2H L
Fig. 11.94

By voltage-division rule,
s 5
2 s +
VL ( s) = Vs ( s) × = Vs ( s)
s s + 10
+5 + s V (s )
2 Vs (s ) 2 L
−
(a) For impulse input,
−
Vs ( s) = 1
s s + 10 − 10 10
VL ( s) = = = 1− Fig. 11.95
s + 10 s + 10 s + 10
(t ) 10e −10 t u(t )
VL (t ) = δ (t for t > 0
(b) For vs (t ) = e − t u(t ),
1
Vs ( s) =
s +1
s
VL ( s) =
(s ))(s
(s )
A B
VL ( s) = +
s + 10 s + 1
s 10
A (s )VL ( s) s = −10 = =
s + 1 s = −10 9
s 1
B (s )VL ( s) s = −1 = =−
s + 10 s = −1 9
10 1 1 1
VL ( s) = −
9 s + 10 9 s + 1
10 −10 t 1 t
vL (t ) = e u(t u( t ) e u( t )
9 9
⎛ 10 −10 t 1 t ⎞
= e e ⎟ u( t ) for t > 0
⎝ 9 9 ⎠
Example 11.98 For the network shown in Fig. 11.96, determine the current i (t) when the switch is
closed at t = 0. Assume that initial current in the inductor is zero.
2Ω
+
2d (t − 3) 1H
−
i (t)
Fig. 11.96
Solution For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.97. 2

3s
2e 2 I ( s) sI ( s) = 0 +
2e−3s − s
−3 s
2 ( s) s ( s) 2e I (s)
2e −3s
I ( s) =
s+2
Fig. 11.97
i(t ) = 2ee −2(t(t( )
(
u(t ) fo t > 0
Example 11.99 Determine the current i(t) in the network shown in Fig. 11.98, when the switch is
closed at t = 0.
10 Ω
50 sin 25 t 5H
i (t)
Fig. 11.98
10
Solution For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in
Fig. 11.99.
Applying KVL to the mesh for t > 0, 1250
5s
1250 s 2 + 625
2
− 10I
10 I ( s) − 5 ( ) 0 I (s)
s + 625
250
I ( s) = 2
( s + 625)( s + 2) Fig. 11.99
As + B C
I ( s) = +
2
s + 625 s+2
250 = ( As B)( s ) + C ( s2 )
2
= ( A C )s ( A + B) s ((2 B C)
Comparing coefficients,
A C=0
2A + B = 0
2B C = 250
Solving the equations,
A = −0.397
B = 0.795
C = 0.397
−0.397 s + 0.795 0.397 0.397 s 0.795 0.397
I ( s) = + =− 2 + +
s 2 + 625 s+2 s + 625 s 2 + 625 s + 2

i(t ) = −0.397 cos 25t 0.032 si 25t + 0.397e −2t fo t > 0
Example 11.100 Find impulse response of the current i(t) in the network shown in Fig. 11.100.
i1 (t) 1Ω
i (t)
+ 1Ω
d (t) −
2H
Fig. 11.100
Solution The transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.101. I1 (s) 1
1(( s ) 2 s + 1 I (s)
Z ( s) = =
2s + 1 + 1 2s + 2
1 + 1
V ( s) 1 2s 2 −
I1 ( s) = = = 2s
Z ( s) 2 s 1 2 s 1
2s 2
By current-division rule,
Fig. 11.101
1 1 2s + 2 1 1 1
I ( s) = I1 ( s) × = × = =
2 s + 2 2 s + 2 2 s + 1 2 s + 1 2 s + 0.5
1
i(t ) = e −0.5t u(t(t ) fo t > 0
2
Example 11.101 The network shown in Fig. 11.102 is at rest for t < 0. If the voltage
v(t ) = u(t ) cos t Aδ (t ) is applied to the network, determine the value of A so that there is no transient term
in the current response i(t).
1Ω
v (t) 2H
i (t)
Fig. 11.102
v(t ) = u(t ) cos t Aδ (t )
s
V ( s) = 2 +A
s +1

s
V ( s) = 2 sI (s
( s) I ( s) = +A V (s) 2s
s2 + 1 I (s)
s A ( s2 )
A(s K K s + K3
I ( s) = = 1 + 22
⎛ 1⎞ 1 s +1
2 ⎜ s + ( s2 ) s +
⎝ 2⎠ 2 Fig. 11.103
The transient part of the response is given by the first term. Hence, for the transient term to vanish, K1 = 0.
−1 ⎛ 5⎞
+ A⎜ ⎟
⎛ 1 ⎞ 2 ⎝ 4⎠
K1 s + ⎟ I ( s) s = − 1 =
⎝ 2⎠ 2 ⎛ 5⎞
2⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4⎠
When K1 = 0
5 1
A=
4 2
2
A= =04
5
11.15 RESPONSE OF RC CIRCUIT TO VARIOUS FUNCTIONS

Consider a series RC circuit as shown in Fig. 11.104.
R
v (t) +
− C
i (t)
Fig. 11.104 RC circuit
For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.105. R

1 V (s) +
1
V ( s) − RI ( s) − I ( s) = 0 − Cs
Cs I (s)
V ( s) sV ( s)
I ( s) = =
+ R R⎛s +
1 1 ⎞
⎝ ⎟
Cs RC ⎠ Fig. 11.105 Transformed network
(a) When unit step signal is applied,

v ( t ) = u( t )
11.15 Response of RC Circuit to Various Functions 11.69

1
V ( s) =
s
1
s×
s 1
I ( s) = =
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
R s+ ⎟ R⎝s + ⎟
⎝ RC ⎠ RC ⎠
1
1 − RC t
i( t ) = e fo t > 0
R
(b) When unit ramp signal is applied,
v(t ) = r (t ) = t
1
V ( s) =
s2
1 1
2
s×
I ( s) = s = R
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
R s+ ⎟ s⎝s + ⎟
⎝ RC ⎠ RC ⎠
A B
I ( s) = +
s 1
s+
RC
1
A s I ( s) = R =C
s=0
1
s+
RC s=0
1
⎛ 1 ⎞ R
B s+ ⎟ I ( s) s = − 1 = = −C
⎝ RC ⎠ R
RC s
1
s= −
RC
C C
I ( s) = −
s 1
s+
RC
1
− t
i(t ) = C Ce RC fo t > 0
(c) When unit inpulse signal is applied,

v(t) = d (t)
V ( s) = 1
1 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
− s+
s RC RC = 1 ⎜ ⎟
I ( s) = = ⎜ 1 − RC ⎟
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ R
⎜ s+
1
⎟
R s+ ⎟ R s+ ⎟ ⎝
⎝ RC ⎠ ⎝ RC ⎠ RC ⎠
1⎡ 1 − RC t ⎤
1
i( t ) = ⎢δ (t ) − e ⎥ fo t > 0
R⎢ RC ⎥⎦
⎣
Example 11.102 A rectangular voltage pulse of unit height and T-seconds duration is applied to
a series RC network at t = 0. Obtain the expression for the current i(t). Assume the capacitor to be initially
uncharged.
v (t )
R
1 +
v (t) − C
t i (t)
0 T
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.106
R
Solution v(t) = u(t) − u(t − T)
1 e −sTsT
1 − e − sT
V ( s) = − =
s s s 1
V (s) +
− Cs
For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.107. I (s)
1 Fig. 11.107
V ( s) − RI ( s) − I ( s) = 0
Cs
1 ⎡ ⎤
s
V ( s) R 1 − e − sT 1⎢ 1 e − sT ⎥
I ( s) = = V ( s) = = ⎢ − ⎥
R+
1
s+
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ R⎢
+
1
+
1 ⎥
R s+ ⎟ s s
Cs RC ⎝ R ⎠
RC ⎣ RC RC ⎦
⎡ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
1 ⎢ − ⎝⎜ RC ⎠⎟ t −⎜ ⎟ (t T)
i( t ) = e u(t ) e ⎝ RC ⎠
u(t u( t T ) ⎥ fo t > 0
R⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Example 11.103 For the network shown in Fig. 11.108, determine the current i(t) when the switch
is closed at t = 0 with zero initial conditions.
3Ω
2r (t − 2) +
− 1F
i (t)
Fig. 11.108
2e −2 s 1 2e−2s + 1
− 3 I ( s) − I ( s) = 0 − s
s2
s2 s I(t)
⎛ 1⎞ 2e −2 s
⎜⎝ 3 + ⎟ I ( s ) = Fig. 11.109
s⎠ s2
2e −2 s 0 67e −2 s
I ( s) = =
⎛ 1 ⎞ s( s + 0.33)
s2 ⎜ 3 + ⎟
⎝ s⎠
0 67 A B
= +
s(( 0.33) 0.33
0 67
A= =2
s + 0 33 s = 0
0 67
B= = −2
s s = −0 33
⎛2 2 ⎞ e −2 s e 2s
I ( s) = e −2 s − = 2 − 2
⎝ s s + 0.33 ⎟⎠ s s + 0.33
i(t ) = 2u(t
u( t ) − 2ee −0. ((tt − 2 )
u( t
u(t ) fo t > 0
5Ω
d (t) +
− 2F
i (t)
Fig. 11.110
1
1 5 I ( s) − I ( s) = 0
2s
⎛ 1⎞
⎜⎝ 5 + ⎟⎠ I ( s) = 1
2s
5
1
I ( s) =
1
5+
2s + 1
1 −
2s 2s
= I(s)
10 s + 1
0 2s
= Fig. 11.111
s+0 1
0.2( s + 0.1 − 0.1)
=
s+0 1
⎛ 01 ⎞
= 0 2 1−
⎝ s + 0 1⎟⎠
0 02
= 0 2−
s + 0.1
0. δ (t )
i(t ) = 0. .02 e −0.1t u(t )
Example 11.105 For the network shown in Fig. 11.112, find the response v0 (t).
2Ω
+
1 + 1
F vo (t)
vs (t) = cost u(t ) −
2 4
Fig. 11.112
2
1 s
Vs ( s) = +
2 s2 + 1
By voltage-division rule, + 4
Vs (s)
4 − s Vo (s)
2V ( s) s
Vo ( s) = Vs ( s) × s = s = 2 −
4 s+2 (s ))(
)(s
(s )
2+ Fig. 11.113
s
As + B C
Vo ( s) = +
2
s +1 s+2
s ( As B)( s ( s2
) + c(s )
2
s ( A C ) s + ( 2 A B) s + ( )
Comparing coefficient of s2, s and s0,

A C=0
2A + B = 1
2B C = 0
Solving the equations,
A=04
B=02
C = −0 4
0.4 s + 0.2 0.4 0.4 s 02 04
Vo ( s) = − = 2 + 2 −
2
s +1 s + 2 s +1 s +1 s +2
2t
i(t ) = 0.4 cos t 0.2 si t − 0.4e fo t > 0
Example 11.106 Find the impulse response of the voltage across the capacitor in the network
shown in Fig. 11.114. Also determine response vc (t) for step input.
2Ω 1H
+
v (t) + 1 F vc (t)
− −
Fig. 11.114
2 s
By voltage-division rule,
1
Vc ( s) = V ( s) × s + 1
+ Vc (s )
1 V (s) − s
2+ s+ −
s
V ( s) V ( s)
= 2 =
s + 2s + 1 ( s )2 Fig. 11.115
(a) For impulse input,

V ( s) = 1
1
Vc ( s) =
(s )2
vc (t ) = te − t u(t ) for t > 0
(b) For step input,
1
V ( s) =
s
1
Vc ( s) =
s( s )2
A B C
Vc ( s) = + +
s s + 1 ( s )2
1 = A( s ) 2 + Bs(s
Bs( s ) Cs
C
2
= A( s s ) B ( s 2 + s ) Cs
= ( A B) s2 ( A B C )s A
Comparing coefficient of s2, s1 and s0,

A=1
A+ B = 0
B A = −1
2A + B + C = 0
C A − B = −2 + 1 = −1
1 1 1
Vc ( s) = − −
s s + 1 ( s )2
vc (t ) = u(t ) − e −tt u(t ) te t u(t )
=( e t
t t )utt
te f t>0
5Ω
1H
5r (t − 1) +
−
i (t) 1
F
6
Fig. 11.116

5
5e − s 6
− 5I
5 I ( s) − sI ( s) − I ( s) = 0
s2 s
6 5e − s 5e−s +
s
5 I ( s) + sI ( s) + I ( s) = 2 −
s s s2 6
I (s)
−ss s s
5e 5e
I ( s) = =
2
s( s + s + ) s( s + )(s
)( s + ) Fig. 11.117
1 A B C
= + +
s( s 3)( 2) s s + 3 2
1 1
A= =
( s 3)( 2) s = 0 6
1 1
B= =
s( s 2) s = −3 3
1 1
C= =−
s( s + 3) s = −2 2
⎡1 1 1 ⎤ 5 e−s 5 e−s 5 e−s
5e − s ⎢ +
I ( s) = 5e − ⎥= + −
⎣ 6 s 3( 3) 2( s 2) ⎦ 6 s 3 s+3 2 s+2
5 5 5
i( t ) = u( t ) + e −3(t(t( )
u( t
u(t ) e 2(t
(t )
u( t ) f t>0
6 3 2
Example 11.108 For the network shown in Fig. 11.118, the switch is closed at t = 0. Determine
the current i(t) assuming zero initial conditions.
2Ω 1H
sin t 0.5 F
i(t)
Fig. 11.118
Applying KVL to the mesh for t > 0, 2 s
1 2
2
− 2I
2 I ( s) − s I ( s) − I ( s) = 0
s +1 s 1 2
s2 + 1 s
⎛ 2⎞ 1
⎜⎝ 2 + s + ⎟⎠ I ( s) = 2
I (s)
s s +1
s Fig. 11.119
I ( s) = 2 2
( s + 1)( s 2 s + 2)
2s
As + B Cs + D
I ( s) = 2
+ 2
s +1 s + 2s + 2
s ( As B)( s 2 s ) + (CCs D )( s 2
((Cs
C )
= As3 + 2 As 2 2 As + Bs 2 + 2 Bs + 2 B + Cs3 + Cs + Ds 2 + D
= ( A + C ) s3 + ( 2 A )s2 (2 A + 2 B + C )s + (2 B + D)
Comparing coefficients of s3, s2, s1 and s0,
A C=0
2A + B + D = 0
2A 2B + C = 1
2B + D = 0
A = 0.2, B = 0.4, C = −0.2, D = −0.8
0.2 s + 0.4 0.2 s + 0.8
I ( s) = 2
−
s +1+1 s2 + 2s + 2
0.2 s 0.4 0.2 s + 0.2 0.6
= 2 + −
s + 1 s 2 + 1 ( +11) 2 (1) 2
0.2 s 0.4 0.2( s + 1) 06
= 2
+ 2
− −
s +1
+1 + 1 ( + 1) + 1 ( + 1) 2 + 1
s +1 2
0.2 cos t 0.4 si t − 0.2 e −tt cos t − 0.6 e

i(t ) = 0. t
si t
−t
= 0.2 cos t 0.4 si t − e ( .2 cos t + 0.6 sin t ) fo t > 0
Example 11.109 For the network shown in Fig. 11.120, the switch is closed at t = 0. Determine
the current i(t) assuming zero initial conditions in the network elements.
5Ω 1H
+
6e−2t − 0.25 F
i(t)
Fig. 11.120

6 4 5 s
− 5I
5 I ( s) − s I ( s) − I ( s) = 0
s+2 s
⎛ 4⎞ 6
⎜⎝ 5 + s + ⎟⎠ I ( s) = 6 + 4
s s+2 s+2 − s
I (s)
6s
I ( s) = 2
( s + 2)( ) Fig. 11.121
6s
=
( )(
)( )( )
A B C
I ( s) = + +
s + 2 s +1 s + 4
6s
A (s ) I ( s) |s = −2 = =6
( s )(
)( s ) s = −2
)(s
6s
B ( s + 1) ( s) |s = −1 = = −2
( + 2)( + 4) s = −1
6s
C = ( + 4) I ( ) |s = −4 = = −4
( + 2)( s + 1) s = −4
6 2 4
I ( s) = − −
s + 2 s +1 s + 4
i(t ) = 6e −2t u(t(t ) 2e t u(t ) − 4 e −4 t u(t
uu((t (t ) f t>0
Example 11.110 The network shown has zero initial conditions. A voltage vi(t) = d (t) applied to two
terminal network produces voltage vo(t) = [e−2 t + e−3 t] u(t). What should be vi(t) to give vo(t) = t e−2 t u(t)?
+ +
vi (t ) Network vo (t )
− −
Fig. 11.122
Solution For vi(t) = d (t),
Vi ( s) = 1
2t 3t
vo (t ) = [e
[e ]u(t ) e
1 1
Vo ( s) = +
s+2 s+3
Vo ( s)
System function H ( s) =
Vi ( s)
1 1 2 +5
= + = …(i)
s + 2 s + 3 ( s + 2)( + 3)
For vo (t ) = te −2t u(t ),
1
Vo ( s) =
(s )2
From Eq. (i),
Vo ( s) 1 ( s )(s
)( ) (s )
Vi ( s) = = × =
H ( s) ( s ) 2 2s + 5 ( s .5)( s + 2)
2(s
A B
Vi ( s) = +
s + 2 s + 2.5
A=1
B = −0.5
1 0.5
Vi ( s) = −
s + 2 s + 2.5
vi (t ) = e −22tt 0.5e 2.5t
for t > 0
Example 11.111 A unit impulse applied to two terminal black box produces a voltage
vo(t) = 2e−t −e−3t. Determine the terminal voltage when a current pulse of 1 A height and a duration of 2 seconds
is applied at the terminal.
+
is (t) Black box vo (t )
−
Fig. 11.123
Solution vo (t ) = 2e −tt e 3t
is (t )
2 1
Vo ( s) = −
s +1 s + 3
When is (t ) = δ (t ), 1
t
I s ( s) = 1 0 2
Vo ( s) = Z ( s) I s ( s) …(i) Fig. 11.124

Vo ( s) 2 1
Z ( s) = = −
I s ( s) s + 1 s + 3
When is (t) is a pulse of 1 A height and a duration of 2 seconds then,
is (t ) = u(t ) − u(t )
−2 s
1 e
I s ( s) = −
s s
From Eq. (i),
⎡ 2 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 e −2 s ⎤
Vo ( s) = ⎢ − ⎥⎢ − s ⎥
⎣ s + 1 s + 3⎦ ⎣ s ⎦
2 1 2e −2 s e −2 s
= − − +
s( s ) s( s ) s( ) s(( )
⎡1 1 ⎤ 1 ⎡1 1 ⎤ −2 s ⎡ 1 1 ⎤ e −2 s ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
= 2⎢ − ⎥ − ⎢ − ⎥ − 2 e ⎢ − ⎥ + −
⎣ s s + 1⎦ 3 ⎣ s s + 3 ⎦ ⎣ s s + 1⎦ 3 ⎣ s s + 3 ⎥⎦
1 3t (t
(t ) 1 −33( − 2 )
[u(t ) e t u(t )]
v(t ) = 2[u [u
u((t ) e u(t )] − 2[[u
u ( t − 2) e u(t − 2)] + [ (t − 2) − (t − 2)]
3 3
for t > 0
Exercises 11.79
Exercises
1
⎛ 1 − cos 2t ⎞ Ω
11.1 Find L{ f ′(t )} of f (t ) = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ v (t ) 8
t
⎡ ⎛ s2 + 4 ⎞ ⎤ 1
` ⎢ s log ⎜ ⎟⎥ 10 A Ω 1F
⎢ ⎜⎝ s ⎟⎠ ⎥ 2
⎣ ⎦
11.2 Find Laplace transform of the follwoing
function: Fig. 11.127
f (t ) = t + 1 0 2 [v(t) = 1 + 4 e−10t]
=3 t>2 11.6 The circuit of Fig. 11.128, has been in the
⎡1 2s ⎤ condition shown for a long time. At t = 0,
⎢ s (1 e )⎥ switch is closed. Find v(t) for t > 0.
⎣ ⎦
5Ω
11.3 For the network shown in Fig 11.125, the
switch is closed at t = 0. Find the current i1(t)
for t > 0. 20 V v (t ) 2F 3Ω
100 Ω
Fig. 11.128
50 Ω
100 V 4H [v(t) = 7.5 + 12.5 e−(4/15)t]
i1 (t )
11.7 Figure 11.129 shows a circuit which is in the
steady-state with the switch open. At t = 0, the
Fig. 11.125 switch is closed. Determine the current i (t).
[i1(t) = 3 − e−25 t] Find its value at t = 0.114 μ seconds.
800 Ω
11.4 Determine the current i(t) in the network of
Fig. 11.126, when the switch is closed at t = 0. i (t )
The inductor is initially unenergized.
12 V 400 Ω 0.001 μF 200 Ω
2Ω
i (t )
2Ω Fig. 11.129
2Ω
6
[i(t) = 0.00857 + 0.01143 e−8.75 × 10 t, 0.013 A]
0.5 H 11.8 Find i(t) for the network shown in Fig.
24 V
11.130.
i (t ) 10 Ω
Fig. 11.126
[i(t) = 4(1 − e−6t)]
1F 0.5 F
11.5 In the network of Fig. 11.127, after the switch
50 V
has been in the open position for a long time, 5Ω 5Ω
it is closed at t = 0. Find the voltage across the
capacitor.
Fig. 11.130
[i(t) = 0.125 e−0.308t + 3.875 e−0.052t] 10 Ω 1H 2H
11.9 Determine v(t) in the network of Fig. 11.131
where iL(0−) = 15 A and vc(0−) = 5 V.
10 V 20 Ω 30 Ω
0.5 H
+
0.33 Ω
10 V 1 F v (t ) Fig. 11.134
[i(t) = 0.1818 − 0.265 e−13.14t + 0.083 e−41.86t ]
−
11.13 The network shown in Fig. 11.135 is in steady
Fig. 11.131 state with s1 closed and s2 open. At t = 0, s1
[v(t) = 10 − 10e−t + 5e−2t] is opened and s2 is closed. Find the current
11.10 The network shown in Fig. 11.132 has acquired through the capacitor.
steady state with the switch at position 1 for 2Ω 2H s1 s2
t < 0. At t = 0, the switch is thrown to the
position 2. Find v(t) for t > 0.
2Ω 1 2 10 V 3H 1 μF
+
3Ω
2V v (t ) Fig. 11.135
0.5 F [i(t) = 5 cos (0.577 × 103 t)]
1H
11.14 In the network shown in Fig. 11.136, find
− currents i1(t) and i2(t) for t > 0.
10 Ω
Fig. 11.132
[v(t) = 4e−t − 2 e−2t]
11.11 In the network shown in Fig. 11.133, the
switch is closed at t = 0. Find current i1(t) for 50 V 0.2 F 40 Ω
t > 0. i1 (t ) i2 (t )
3Ω 1H 1Ω
Fig. 11.136
1
20 V 1 Ω i (t ) 3
F [i1(t) = 5 e−0.625t, i2(t) = 1 − e−0.625t ]
i1 (t ) 2
11.15 For the network shown in Fig. 11.137, find
currents i1(t) and i2(t) for t > 0.
5Ω
Fig. 11.133
[i1(t) = 5 + 5e−2t − 10e−3t]
11.12 In the network shown in Fig. 11.134, the 5Ω
50 V 20 μF
switch is closed at t = 0. Find the current
through the 30 Ω resistor. i1 (t ) i2 (t )
0.1 H
Fig. 11.137
Objective-Type Questions 11.81
7Ω 1H
101e −100.5t 0.05e 99
⎡ i1 (t ) = 0.101
.101e 99499.5t ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣i2 (t ) = 5 5.05e −100.5t + 0.05e −9949.5t ⎥⎦
+ 1 F v (t )
5 cos 2t
11.16 In the network shown in Fig. 11.138, the − 2
switch is opened at t = 0, the steady state
having been established previously. Find i(t)
for t > 0. Fig. 11.140
3Ω
⎡ 6 −tt 9 6t 3 21 ⎤
i (t )
⎢ v(t ) = − 5 e e + cos 2t s i 2t ⎥
⎣ 10 10 10 ⎦
5Ω 1.8 H
10 V 11.19 For the network shown in Fig. 11.141,
determine v(t) when the input is
0.1 F 3.5 Ω
(i) an impulse function [e−t u(t)]
(ii) i(t) = 4e u(t)
−t
[4t e−t u(t)]
Fig. 11.138 +
[i(t) = 1.5124e−2.22t + 3.049e−2.5t]
i (t ) 1Ω 1F v (t )
11.17 Find the current i(t) in the network of Fig.
11.139, if the switch is closed at t = 0. Assume
initial conditions to be zero. −
20 Ω
Fig. 11.141
i (t )
11.20 For a unit-ramp input shown in Fig. 11.142,
10 Ω 15 Ω find the response vc(t) for t > 0.
5A
10 Ω
2.5 H
1H
r (t ) 10 F vc (t )
Fig. 11.139
[i(t) = 3 + 0.57e−7.14 t]
11.18 In the network shown in Fig. 11.140, find the Fig. 11.142
voltage v(t) for t > 0. [vc(t) = −100 u(t) + 100e−0.01t u(t) + tu(t)]
Objective-Type Questions
11.1 If the Laplace transform of the voltage across 1
1 (c) A (d) 1A
a capacitor of value F is 2
2
1 11.2 The response of an initially
Vc ( s) = 2 relaxed linear constant parameter
s +1
network to a unit impulse applied at
the value of the current through the capacitor t = 0 is 4 e−2t u(t). The response of this network
at t = 0+ is to a unit-step function will be
(a) 0 (b) 2 A
(a) 2[1 − e −2t] u(t) 0.1 μF −2Ω
−j
(b) 4[e−t − e–2t] u(t)
(c) sin 2t
3V vi 1 kΩ vo
(d) (1 − 4 e−4t) u(t)
11.3 The Laplace transform of a unit-ramp t
function starting at t = a is 2s
Fig. 11.144
1 e − as
(a) (b) 11.7 A 2 mH inductor with some initial current can
( )2 ( s + a) 2
be represented as shown in Fig. 11.145. The
e − as a value of the initial current is
(c) (d)
s2 s2 I (S)
−+
11.4 The Laplace transform of eat cos a t is equal 0.002s 1mV
to Fig. 11.145
s −α (a) 0.5 A (b) 2 A
(a)
( s − α )2 + α 2 (c) 1 A (d) 0
s+α 11.8 A current impulse 5 d (t) is forced through
(b) a capacitor C. The voltage vc(t) across the
( s − α )2 + α 2
capacitor is given by
1
(c) (a) 5t (b) 5 u(t) − C
( )2
(d) none of the above 5 5u(t )
(c) t (d)
11.5 The circuit shown in Fig. 11.143 has initial C C
current i(0−) = 1 A through the inductor and 11.9 In the circuit shown in Fig. 11.146, it is desired
an initial voltage vc(0−) = −1 V across the to have a constant direct current i(t) through
capacitor. For input v(t) = u(t), the Laplace the ideal inductor L. The nature of the voltage
transform of the current i(t) for t ≥ 0 is source v(t) must be
1Ω 1H i (t )
+
v (t ) 1F v (t ) L
i (t )
−
Fig. 11.143 Fig. 11.146

s s+2 (a) a constant voltage
(a) 2
(b) 2
s + s +1 s + s +1 (b) a linearly increasing voltage
(c) an ideal impulse
s−2 s−2
(c) (d) (d) as exponential increasing voltage
s2 + s + 1 s2 + s + 1
11.10 When a unit-impulse voltage is applied to an
11.6 A square pulse of 3 volts amplitude is applied inductor of 1 H, the energy supplied by the
to an RC circuit shown in Fig. 11.144. The source is
capacitor is initially uncharged. The output
(a) ∞ (b) 1 J
voltage v0 at time t = 2 seconds is
(a) 3 V (b) −3 V 1
(c) J (d) 0
(c) 4 V (d) −4 V 2
Answers to Objective-Type Questions 11.83
Answers to Objective-Type Questions

11.1 (c) 11.2 (a) 11.3 (c) 11.4 (a) 11.5 (b) 11.6 (b)
11.7 (a) 11.8 (d) 11.9 (c) 11.10 (c)

Laplace Transform and Applications-R Singh

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Laplace Transform and Applications-R Singh

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

11

11.2 LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION

where s is the complex frequency variable.

11.3 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS OF SOME IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS

8. Exponential Function (eat)

10. Cosine Function

12. Hyperbolic cosine function

11.4 PROPERTIES OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM

Example 11.1 Find the Laplace transform of 4t + si t t

Example 11.2 Find the Laplace transform of e 3t .

Example 11.3 Find the Laplace transform of ( )2 .

Solution L{(si 2t − cos t ) 2 } i 2 2t cos 2 2t 2 cos 2t si 2t}

Example 11.4 Find the Laplace transform of cos ( t b) .

Solution L{cos( t b)} L{cos ω t cos b − sin ω t s b} cos {c ω t} s bL{sin ω t}

11.4.3 Frequency-Shifting Theorem

Example 11.7 Find the Laplace transform of e t4 .

Example 11.8 Find the Laplace transform of ( )2 et .

Example 11.9 Find the Laplace transform of 4t

Example 11.10 Find the Laplace transform of cosh at cos at.

11.4.4 Time-Shifting Theorem

Example 11.11 Find the Laplace transform of cos (t a) t > a.

Example 11.12 Find the Laplace transform of e t a

Example 11.14 Find the Laplace transform of ( )3 t 1.

Differentiating both the sides w.r.t s using DUIS,

Example 11.15 Find the Laplace transform of t s at.

Example 11.16 Find the Laplace transform of t cos 2 t .

Example 11.17 Find the Laplace transform of t sin3 t .

Example 11.18 Find the Laplace transform of t sin 2t cosh t .

11.4.6 Division by t (Frequency-Integration Theorem)

Integrating both the sides w.r.t s from s to ∞,

Since s and t are independent variables, interchanging the order of integration,

cos h2t sin 2t

11.4.7 Time-Differentiation Theorem: Laplace Transform of Derivatives

Example 11.24 Find L f (t ) and L f (t ) of the following function:

Example 11.25 Find L f (t ) and L f ′(t ) of f(t) = e −5t sin t .

Example 11.26 Find L f (t ) and L f ′(t ) of the following function:

11.4.9 Initial Value Theorem

If f t F ( s) then lim ( = lim ( s)

11.4.10 Final Value Theorem

11.5 LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF PERIODIC FUNCTIONS

Solution The function f(t) is a periodic function with period 2.

Example 11.40 Find the Laplace transform of

Solution The function f(t) is a periodic function with period 2.

Example 11.41 Find the Laplace transform of

11.6 WAVEFORM SYNTHESIS

Example 11.43 Find the Laplace transform of the unit-doublet function.

A r (t) f2(t) f3(t)

(a) (b) (c)

F ( s) = L{u(t )} L{u(t )} − L{u( u(t − 2)} { ( 3)} = 1s + 1s e − s − 1s e −2 − 1s e 3s

Solution The function f (t ) is a periodic function with period 2.

11.7 INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

where L−1 is called the inverse Laplace transform operator.

11.7.1 Standard Results

11.7.2 Partial Fraction Expansion

Case III Factors are quadratic and distinct,

Comparing coefﬁcients of s 2 , s1 and s0 ,

11.7.3 Convolution Theorem

11.8 SOLUTION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS

Linear Laplace Algebraic

Solution Taking Laplace transform of both the sides,

Example 11.72 Solve y ″ + y = t , y(0 ) 1, y ′(0 ) = 0 .

Example 11.73 Solve y ″ + y = t 2 2t , y(0 ) 4, y ′(0 ) = −2.

Solution Taking Laplace transform of both sides,