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Module 3
Analytic Philosophy
Origin and Development
Analytic philosophy is broadly speaking, the philosophical study of thought and experience as
expressed in language. Language provides the foundations for the structure of thought and
experience. Hence language is an important subject matter of philosophical analysis. Language
is the chief tool of a philosopher.
The term analytic philosophy refers to any philosophy which places its greatest emphasis upon
the study of language and its complexities. The search for the roots of our understanding of
thought and reality in language can be called the ‘linguistic turn’. The linguistic turn takes place
at two levels:
1. At the first level, the very concept of philosophical activity turns linguistic. Philosophers
considered language alone as the subject matter of philosophical thinking.
2. At the second level, the philosophical critique undertakes the study of structure and limits
of language.
The beginning of analytic philosophy can be attributed to Gottlob Frege, G.E Moore and
Bertrand Russell. Moore and Russell saw philosophy as the analysis of particular concepts and
notions. Analytic philosophy is, in fact against all system building theories of philosophy. They
were more for a logical analysis of language. They analysed the concepts and notions of
philosophy of language and of science.
Analytic philosophers were chiefly concerned about 3 areas of language:
i. The earliest was the concern to use words precisely so as to formulate problems clearly
and unambiguously
ii. The next was the construction of mathematical or logical
iii. The last was the systematic analysis of ordinary or natural language
To a certain extent, analytic philosophy is continuous in style and method with that of traditional
philosophy. Russell’s aim to construct a universal formal language is similar to that of Leibniz.
Leibniz believed that languages are the best mirrors of the human mind. In fact, analytic thinkers
were taking clues from Kant in their method and outlook of philosophy. Analytic philosophy
resembles the Kantian Copernican Revolution and hence, it can be called as the Second
Copernican Revolution in philosophy. It was Kant who gave the idea of critical study of reason
and thought. Again Kant questions the possibility of metaphysical science. He also understands
the limitations of human knowledge. Analytic thinkers were very much influenced by these
philosophical visions of Kant.
But analytic philosophy is considered as revolutionary. This is mainly because it developed in
relation to the idealistic emphasis of Britain during the late half of the 19th century. Moreover, it
identified itself within the methods and outlooks of natural science. Russell and Moore strongly
reacted against the tendencies.
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5 stages of Analytic philosophy

According to J.O. Urmson, the history of analytic philosophy can divided into five stages:
a) Realism and Analysis
The first stage is called early realism and analysis. Moore and Russell practised it at first.
Their concern was the analysis of philosophical propositions.

b) Construction of formal language

The second stage is concerned with construction of formal language. It is mainly
associated with Russell and early Wittgenstein. It is called logical atomism. It aimed to
understand the structure of the world through the structure of language.

c) Logical Positivism
The third stage is also concerned with formal language. But unlike the other two, it
completely rejects metaphysics and considers it meaningless. The chief advocates include
A.J. Ayer, Rudolf Carnap and Moritz Schlick

d) Analysis of ordinary language to dissolve philosophical problems

The fourth stage concerns the performance of natural languages or ordinary languages.
It was mainly practised by later Wittgenstein and Gilbert Ryle. They believed that
linguistic analysis helps in discovering and dissolving the problems into which
philosophers have fallen.

e) Analysis of ordinary language in understanding the diversity of language

The fifth stage was initiated by J.L. Austin; it also deals with ordinary languages. But
unlike the above, the concern here is not dissolving philosophical puzzles. But rather, it
deals with the diversity of languages.
It may be said that analytic philosophy presents a systematic view of the concepts of language,
reasoning, reference, truth, mind, world etc. these concepts are analysed for the sake of their
clarity. The most significant problem facing the analytic philosophers is the relationship between
language, thought and reality.

Bertrand Arthur William Russell (1872-1970)

Bertrand Russell was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, writer, essayist,
social critic, political activist and Nobel laureate (receiver of an award). He is widely held to be
one of the 20th century’s premiere logicians. His philosophical essay ‘On Denoting’ has been
considered a “paradigm of philosophy”. His work has had a considerable influence on
mathematics, logic, set theory, linguistics, artificial intelligence, cognitive science, computer
science and philosophy, especially the philosophy of language, epistemology, and metaphysics.
For Moore and Russell, analysis was the chief tool of a philosopher in solving philosophical
problems. According to Russell, “logic is fundamental in philosophy.” Philosophy could follow
the methods of science in solving its problems. His important works include:

 Principia Mathematica (written along with Alfred Whitehead)

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 My Philosophical Development
 Our Knowledge of the External World

Major conceptions of Russell

Some preliminary notions of the major concepts used by Russell are:
i. Proposition
Any symbolic form (words, symbols) which expresses what may be said to be true or
false.

ii. Propositional function

An expression with a blank space or variable in it. When the space is filled in with a
variable, the result is a proposition.

iii. Variable
A variable is a letter used in a proposition the value of which may vary.

iv. Names
A name is a symbol which must be treated as simple. They designate individual.

v. Complete and Incomplete Symbols

 Complete symbols have meaning of their own.
 Incomplete symbols depend on the propositions in which they occur for their
meaning

vi. Denoting or Descriptive phrases

There are 2 kinds of descriptive phrases:
 Definite description is of the form ‘the so… and so’
 Indefinite description is of the form ‘a so… and so’
But both of them may be incomplete symbols

The theory of definite descriptions

One of Russell’s chief missions was to set up a logical language for the sake of providing a
foundation for logic and mathematics. He calls it perfect symbolism. This would ensure that
there are no ambiguous expressions into simple ones.
Russell exposes his theory of logical language in his paper, ‘On Denoting’. This theory mainly
undertakes a logical analysis of language. The aim of it is elimination of all complex expressions.
The complex denoting phrases which have been puzzling are the ones like ‘the present King of
France’, ‘the square circle’ etc.
Russell makes a distinction between complete and incomplete symbols. Proper names which
designate a real individual are complete symbols. But the denoting phrases like ‘the so... and so’
or ‘a so… and so’ are incomplete symbols. The complete symbols have meaning of their own.
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But incomplete symbols depend for their meaning on the propositions in which they occur. This
can be explained with the following example: “The present King of France”
The problem here is how to understand the subject, ‘the present King of France’. According to
Russell, what is logically arrested is the conjunction of the following statements:
1) There exists at present at least one person who reigns in France
2) There exists at present at most one person who reigns in France
3) Whoever reigns in France is bald
By paraphrase, Russell has eliminated the apparent name, ‘The present King of France’. It is
easily seen that statement number ‘1’ is false since France is not a monarchy and nobody reigns
in it. Since one of the three statements is false, the conjunction of them is false. The statement is
not meaningless but is false.

Analysis of indefinite descriptions

Russell gives an example for the analysis of indefinite descriptions are of the form ‘a so… and so’.
When someone says, ‘I met a man’, what is not asserted is that he/she does not meet a particular
man (e.g.: James). The phrase, ‘a serpent’ or ‘a unicorn’ may be substituted for ‘a man’. The
proposition will, then also, be significant. But it is false. Thus Russell has shown that names can
be names or complete symbols only if they refer to individuals.

Analysis of definite descriptions

Russell has shown through the analysis of indefinite descriptions, how incomplete symbols can
be eliminated from language by paraphrase and analysis. The name like denoting phrase is
analysed into predicative expressions. This can be illustrated with the following example: “The
author of Waverly is Scott”
A definite description implies that the entity described, if it exists, is unique; there is only one of
them. The proposition, ‘The author of Waverly is Scott’ could not be true unless;
1) Waverly had actually been written
2) Only one person wrote it
3) That person is Scott
The three propositions bring out the meaning of the original expression. But it does not contain,
the denoting phrase. “The author of Waverly.” The phrases in fact, is not the name of anything.
The main advantage of the theory of definite descriptions, is that the analysis of denoting phrases
eliminates their misleading name like appearance. According to Russell, incomplete symbols
should be completely eliminated from language. Russell’s theory of incomplete symbols has
much significance for his logic and philosophy of mathematics. He has used his theory of
descriptions to cut away what he calls, ‘unnecessary metaphysics’.
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One word answers

1. Analytic philosophy – The philosophical study of thought and experience as expressed
in language. Any philosophy which places its greatest emphasis upon the study of
language and its complexities.

2. Linguistic turn – The search for the roots of our understanding of thought and reality in
language.

3. Perfect symbolism – Logical language for the sake of providing a foundation for logic
and mathematics. It would ensure that there are no ambiguous expressions which can
mislead us.

4. Unnecessary metaphysics – Russell argues that metaphysics needs to be eliminated to

be able to do analytic philosophy.

5. Theory of definite descriptions is related to Bertrand Russell

6. The criterion of meaning according to Logical Positivism is verificationism/verification

principle.
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