DECLARATIO

This thesis is my original research work undertaken at the Department of Electrical Engineering,

Faculty of Computer and Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, Kwame Nkrumah

University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana under the supervision of the undersigned.

All works consulted have been duly acknowledged in the references.

--------------------------------------------

MAHAMUDA ALHAJI MAHAMADU

STUDENT

--------------------------------------------

DR. A.I. IMORO

SUPERVISOR

--------------------------------------------

DR. NANA KWASI DIAWUO

Head

Department of Electrical Engineering

i
 CERTIFICATIO

I certify that this thesis has been assessed and all correction has been made in accordance with

the comments made by the Examiners.

--------------------------------------------

DR. NANA KWASI DIAWUO

Head

Department of Electrical Engineering

ii
 DEDICATIO

This work is dedicated to my daughter Hamdiyah Mahamuda who was born when I was pursuing

the program at the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology.

iii
 ACKOWLEDGEMET

I wish to first and foremost thank the Almighty Allah for bestowing on me good health, wisdom

and knowledge to pursue the programme. My gratitude goes to my supervisor; Dr. Adam I.

Imoro, for his guidance, encouragement and contributions in the form of suggestions pertinent to

the study. I am deeply indebted to him for making his professional expertise readily available to

me at all times throughout the study. In fact, this work is a product of his constant devotion of

time from his busy schedule to read through the scripts.

My sincere gratitude also goes to both lecturers and staff of the Department of Electrical

Engineering of the College of Engineering; Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and

Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, Ghana. I would like to make special mention of the Dean of the

Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rev. Dr. J.K. Oppong, the Coordinator of

Postgraduate Studies and Head of Electrical Department, Dr. N.K. Diawuo, Professor E.A.

Jackson, Dr. P.Y. Okyere, Dr. Boateng and Dr. David Anipa for their direct and indirect

contributions towards my successful completion of the programme. I wish to acknowledge Mr.

Edmund Agyeman a lecturer at the Mathematics Department of the College of Sciences of

KNUST for devoting time to assist me with the mathematical part of the study.

Professor Toby Cumberbatch of Cooper Union University, USA and Dr Willie Ofosu of the

Penn State University, Wilkes-Barre, USA, deserve special gratitude from me for their untiring

assistance in the form of providing me with relevant IEEE publications on antennas pertaining to

the study during the study. Literature from these publications formed an invaluable input of the

study.

iv
My sincere gratitude goes to my colleague course mates Mr. John Jerry Kponyo and Mr. Frank

Anoyke Boafo whom I will be missing for their companionship and moral encouragement

throughout my stay in KNUST.

I wish to express my deepest appreciation to Lawyer John Apam Akparibo of Gasikia Chambers,

Kumasi; an old time friend and brother for his moral support and encouragement from the onset

when I embarked on the Masters of Science programme at KNUST to the end of programme.

I am thankful to the former Minister of the Ministry of Environment and Science, Professor

Kasim Kasanga, and the Management of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

(CSIR) for making it possible for me to pursue the programme. The Deputy Director-General of

the CSIR in-charge of Industry, Natural and Social Science Sector (INSS), Professor Akwasi

Ayensu , deserve special mention for encouraging me to pursue a masters’ degree programme

and for playing a vital role in the granting of a study leave for me to pursue the programme. . I

am also grateful to the Director of my institute in the person of Mr. Clement Enstua-Mensah for

granting me the study leave to pursue the program.

I also appreciate the patience of my family during those times that I was unable to be with them

due to my being away in Kumasi at KNUST pursuing the programme. I finally thank all friends,

relatives and colleague staff members of the Institute of Scientific and Technological

Information (INSTI) of the CSIR (Mr. Joel Sam, Dr. R.Y. Kofie, Mrs. M.A. Sedziafa, Ms. Gifty

Dumenu, Mr. Charles Udzu and Mr. Roland Allotey Pappoe deserve special mention) who gave

me moral and material support when I needed them most.

v
 TABLE OF COTETS

Page

Declaration … … … … … … … … … … i
Certification … … … … … … … … … … ii
Dedication … … … … … … … … … … iii
Acknowledgement … … … … … … … … … iv
Table of Contents … … … … … … … … … vi
List of Figures … … … … … … … … … ix
List of Tables … … … … … … … … … … xi
List of Acronyms … … … … … … … … … xii
Abstract … … … … … … … … … … xiv

CHAPTER OE: GEERAL ITRODUCTIO

1.1 Background … … … … … … … ... … 1
1.2 Ghana’s Developmental Challenges and The Information Age … … 1
1.3 The Role of ICTs in Ghana’s Development … … … … … 2
1.4 Adoption of ICTs in Ghana’s Development Processes … … … 4
1.5 Methods of Evaluation of Antennas … … … … … … 9
1.6 The Role of Efficient Antenna Evaluation … … … … … 10
1.7 Objective of Study … … … … … … … … 10
1.8 Scope of Research … … … … … … … … 11
1.9 Methodology of Study … … … … … … … 11
1.10 Organization of the Thesis … … … … … … … 12

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction … … … … … … … … … 14
2.2 Methods of solving set of Fredholm Integral Equations … … … 15
2.3 Method of Moments … … … … … … … … 18
2.3.1 Integral Equations … … … … … … … 19
2.3.2 Solution of Integral Equations by Method of Moment … … 20
2.3.3 Basis Functions … … … … … … … 22
2.3.4 Weighting (Testing) Functions … … … … … 23
2.3.5 Piecewise Sinusoidal Garlekin Method … … … … 25
2.4 The Electromotive Force (EMF) Method … … … … … 28
2.4.1 Theory of the EMF Method … … … … … … 29
2.4.2 Conventional EMF Implementation … … … … … 31
2.4.3 Stationary Property of EMF Impedance Formula … … … 32
2.5 The Improved Circuit Theory (ICT) Method … … … … 33

vi
 2.5.1 ICT Integral Equation for a Multielement Antenna … … … 34
2.5.2 Stationary property of the Input Impedance … … … … 36
2.5.3 An Improved Circuit Theory for Multielement Antennas … … 37
2.5.4 Generalized Mutual Impedance … … … … … 38
2.5.5 Storer Two-term ICT (SICT) … … … … … … 39
2.5.6 Tai Two-Term ICT (TICT) … … … … … … 40
2.6 Summary … … … … … … … … … 40

CHAPTER THREE:DEVELOPMET OF THE TAI THREE-TERM ICT ALGORITHM

AD THE COMPUTER AIDED DESIG (CAD) SYSTEM

3.1 Introduction … … … … … … … … … 42
3.2 The Improved Circuit Theory Equation … … … … … 44
3.3 Representation of the Current Distribution by Trial Functions … … 46
3.4 Selection of Trial Functions … … … … … … … 47
3.4.1 Vanishing Trial Functions at Antenna Ends … … … … 50
3.4.2 Zero Currents at Feed Point … … … … … … 51
3.4.3 Closed-Form Expressions … … … … … … 52
3.5 The Tai Three-term ICT Implementation … … … … … 53
3.5.1 Generalized Impedance Matrix of the Tai Three-term ICT … … 54
3.5.2 Field Patterns … … … … ... … … … 55
3.6 The Tai Three-term ICT (TTICT) CAD… … … … … … 56
3.6.1 User Interface … … … … … … … 57
3.6.2 Computation Block … … … … … … … 57
3.6.2.1 ArrayGeo … … … … … … … 58
3.6.2.2 Input impedance … … … … … … 58
3.6.2.3 Antenna Gain … … … … … … … 59
3.6.2.4 Antenna Radiation Pattern … … … … … 59
3.6.2.5 Current distribution … … … … … … 60
3.6.2.6 Front-to-Back ratio … … … … … … 63
3.6.3 Data Visualization Block … … … … … 64
3.7 Conclusion … … … … … … … 64

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AD DISCUSSIOS

4.1 Introduction … … … … … … … … … 65
4.2 Input Admittances … … … … … … … … 65
4.3 Mutual Impedance Computation … … … … … … 67
4.4 A Case Study of the Three-term ICT Method … … … … … 69
4.4.1 Analysis of a Yagi-Uda … … … … … … … 69
4.4.1.1 Computation of Time Statistics… … … … … … 75
4.4.2 Analysis of a Log-Periodic Dipole Array Antenna (LPDA)… … 76
4.4.2.1 Design Example of LPDA … … … … … … 78
4.5 Conclusion … … … … … … … … … 82

vii
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, COCLUSIOS AD REMARKS

5.1 Introduction … … … … … … … … … 83
5.2 Summary … … … … … … … … … 83
5.3 Conclusions … … … … … … … … … 85
5.4 Recommendations for Further Work … … … … … 86

REFERECE(S) … … … … … … … … … 88

APPEDICES
Appendix A … … … … … … … … … … 92
Appendix B … … … … … … … … … … 99

viii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1.1: A flow chart of Antenna Evaluation Procedures … … … … 9

2.1: (a) Three overlapping sinusoids, (b) Wire segment along z-axis … … …. … 27

2.2: Dipole antenna excited by Voltage Vo … … … … … … 29

2.3: Two coupled wire antennas excited by voltages V0 = V1 = V2 … … … 30

2.4: An array of cylindrical Antennas … … … … … … 34

3.1: Co-planar dipole array of arbitrary configuration. … … … … 44

3.2: Value of trial functions at antenna input for khi = 2π … … … 51

3.3: Conceptual Model of Three-term ICT (TTICT) CAD System … … 57

4.1: Input admittance (a) conductance, (b) subsceptance for Ω = 10 … … 66

4.2: Mutual impedance of two co-planar dipoles of lengths

2hi = 0.5λ, 2hj = 0.25λ for Ω=10 … … … … … … … 68

4.3: Mutual impedance of two co-planar dipoles of lengths

2hi = λ, 2hj = 0.5λ for Ω=10 … … … … … … … 68

4.4: Configuration of a general Yagi-Uda array … … … … … 70

4.5: Log-Periodic Dipole Array(LPDA) geometry … … … … … 77

4.6: Amplitude of Current distribution of an optimum LPDA

for operation in 200 to 600 MHz band … … … … … … 79

4.7: H-plane radiation patterns at several frequencies for an optimum LPDA

for operation in the 200 to 600 MHz band … … … … … 81

A1: Jacobian Transformation … … … … .. … … 94

B.1: User Interface … … … … … … … … … 100
B.2: Input and Output for the analysis of a Six-element Yagi-Uda Antenna … 100
B.3: Radiation Pattern of a Six-element Yagi-Uda … … … … … 100
B.4: Input and Output for the analysis of a LPDA Antenna … … … 101

ix
B.5: Radiation Pattern of a LPDA Antenna at 150MHz … … … … 101
B.6: Radiation Pattern of a LPDA Antenna at 200MHz … … … … 102
B.7: Radiation Pattern of a LPDA Antenna at 300MHz … … … … 103
B.8: Radiation Pattern of a LPDA Antenna at 150MHz … … … … 104
B.9: Radiation Pattern of a LPDA Antenna at 150MHz … … … … 105
B.10: Radiation Pattern of a LPDA Antenna at 150MHz … … … … 106

x
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

3.1: Value of Trial Functions at Antenna Feed Point ( z = 0 ) …. …. … … 52

4.1A: Characteristics of equally spaced Three-element Yagi-Uda array … … 71

4.1B: Characteristics of equally spaced four-element Yagi-Uda array … … 72

4.1C: Characteristics of equally spaced Five-element Yagi-Uda array … … 73

4.1D: Characteristics of equally spaced Six-element Yagi-Uda array … … 73

4.1E: Characteristics of equally spaced Seven-element Yagi-Uda array … … 74

4.2: Characteristics of a Six-element Yagi-Uda Array antenna

for TV Channel 22 Operation … … … … … … … 74

4.3: Computed Central Processing Unit (CPU) times of SICT, TICT

and TTICT Algorithms … … … … … … … …. 75

4.4: Characteristics of 150-600 MHz LPDA, τ = 0.917, σ = 0.169 … … … 80

xi
 LIST OF ACROYMS

1. CAD - Computer Aid Design

2. FBR - Front-to-Back Ratio
3. EFIE(s) - Electric Field Integral Equation(s)
4. EMF - Electromotive Force
5. FM - Frequency Modulation
6. FORTRAN - FORmula TRANslation
7. GSM - Global System for Mobile Communications
8. ICT - Improved Circuit Theory
9. ICTs - Information Communication Technologies
10. IE - Integral Equation
11. IKE - Information and Knowledge-based Economy
12. IKEs - Information and Knowledge-based Economies
13. LPDA - Log-Periodic Dipole Array
14. MFIE - Magnetic Field Integral Equation
15. MoM - Method of Moment
16. NEPAD - New Economic Partnership for Africa Development
17. NICI - National Information Communication Infrastructure
18. PC(s) - Personal Computer(s)
19. PEC - Perfect Electric Conductor
20. R&D - Research and Development
21. SFICT - Storer Faster Improved Circuit Theory
22. SHD - Sustainable Human Development
23. SICT - Storer Improved Circuit Theory
24. TICT - Tai Improved Circuit Theory
25. TTICT - Tai Three-term Improved Circuit Theory
26. TV - Television
27. UHF - Ultra High Frequency
28. VHF - Very High Frequency

xii
29. WCDMA - Wideband Code Division Multiple Access
30. WLAN - Wireless Local Area Network

xiii
 ABSTRACT
The use of antennas in wireless and satellite communication systems has necessitated antenna
research in the area of the development and implementation of new efficient computational
algorithms and other analysis techniques to aid in the design of antennas. The Improved Circuit
Theory (ICT) method for multielement antennas is one of such analysis techniques. As a
contribution towards the building of an advanced National Information and Communication
Infrastructure (NICI) in Ghana, the study proposes an efficient ICT method of analyzing co-
planar multielement wire antennas to aid in the design of antennas to support the NICI. To
achieve the proposed efficient ICT method, the conventional two-term ICT method was modified
to include a third trial function to develop a Tai Three-term ICT algorithm known as TTICT. A
trial function analysis was carried out to select an appropriate third trial function from a list of
known trial functions which together with the two Storer functions of the conventional ICT
algorithm were used to derive two more elements of the new generalized input impedance matrix
of the TTICT which was necessary for the implementation of the ICT method. For any length of
the dipole elements of a parallel co-planar dipole arrays, these trial functions which are used in
the current distribution equation of the ICT algorithm do not simultaneously vanish at the feed
point thereby expanding the valid dipole elements lengths of a parallel co-planar array to
arbitrary dipole elements lengths to which TTICT applies. TTICT was validated by applying it to
analyze two parallel co-planar dipole arrays namely Yagi-Uda and Log-Periodic Dipole Arrays
(LPDA). The accuracy of the results of the input impedance and the radiation characteristics
computed with TTICT are in good agreement with those computed with the Method of Moment
(MoM). Moreover, all the new formulas of the TTICT algorithm including the radiation pattern
expression are expressible in closed form. TTICT still presents an ICT algorithm that is superior
in terms of computer running time and lesser storage space compared to MoM. TTICT
algorithm thus provides a relatively very efficient method for the analysis of parallel co-planar
dipole array antennas of arbitrary dipole elements lengths and would therefore be found useful in
computer-aided design and computer-aided engineering (CAD/CAE) systems for the analysis of
parallel co-planar dipole array antennas where response time is paramount.

xiv
 DEVELOPIG A THREE-TERM IMPROVED CIRCUIT
THEORY (ICT) ALGORITHM AD COMPUTER-AIDED
DESIG (CAD) FOR CO-PLAAR DIPOLE ARRAY
ATEAS

BY

MAHAMUDA ALHAJI MAHAMADU

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

KWAME KRUMAH UIVERSITY OF SCIECE AD TECHOLOGY
I PARTIAL FULFILLMET OF THE REQUIREMETS FOR THE
AWARD OF A MASTERS OF SCIECE DEGREE I ELECTRICAL
EGIEERIG

February 2006

xv
 CHAPTER OE

GEERAL ITRODUCTIO

1.1 Background of Study

Despite implementing various developmental programmes since independence in 1957, using

mostly its abundance natural resources which include forests and mineral deposits (gold,

diamond, manganese and bauxite), with the objective of bringing about the desired socio-

economic development, Ghana’s social and economic performance measured in terms of a

number of key indicators has on the whole been slow. The main challenge confronting Ghana

now is how to achieve the required rapid growth and expansion of its economy to accelerate the

process of economic development, and wealth creation that could ensure improvements in the

socio-economic well being of its citizenry [1].

1.2 Ghana’s Developmental Challenges and the Information Age

The world economy is no doubt experiencing the effects of rapid globalization and liberalization

as well as the impact of the emerging information age. The prediction is that this information age

will bring about a new global economic order to be dominated by information and knowledge-

based economies. According to [2], developing countries are facing new challenges to their

socio-economic development process as a result of this globalization process and the impact of

the emerging new information age characterized by ICTs and the spread of knowledge. Ghana’s

socio-economic problems are therefore likely to be compounded by the new challenges posed by

globalization and the information age.

1
1.3 The Role of ICTs in Ghana’s Development

It has now been recognized that, information, knowledge and technology are increasingly

becoming critical drivers of socio-economic development worldwide. To this end, a nation’s

ability to accelerate its socio-economic development process and improve the well-being of its

people, depends very much on the extent to which it can develop, use and sell—information,

knowledge and technology in one form or the other. It is also evident that, nations that have used

information, knowledge and technology to improve on their services, products and processes to

transform their economies are also engaged in the development, as well as the sale of

information and its product, knowledge and knowledge products, and technology and its

products are moving rapidly on the socio-economic scale [1].

The world is now in an information age, which is characterized by Information and

Communication Technologies (ICTs). Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are

playing a key role in the emerging information age and they are used worldwide to harness

information and knowledge for socio-economic development. Thus the emergence of the

information age through the use of ICTs has brought about an extraordinary increase in the

spread of knowledge given birth to a new era, that is, knowledge and information, which is being

used in accelerating the socio-economic development of developing countries and transforming

their economies into information and knowledge-based economies.

Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) also represent a novel and effective tool to

help advance Sustainable Human Development (SHD). ICTs allow faster delivery and a more

adapted content of technical assistance in a variety of sectors - ranging from long-distance

2
education, telemedicine, agriculture and environmental management to strengthening of

participatory approaches and the creation of new livelihoods. ICTs can involve more people,

hitherto unreached or under serviced, and accomplish a deeper geographic penetration, especially

to rural areas, than is the case with traditional means and modalities.

ICTs allow access to information sources worldwide; promote networking transcending borders,

languages and cultures, foster empowerment of communities, women, youth and socially

disadvantaged groups, and help spread knowledge about "best practices" and experience. ICTs

are therefore indispensable to the realization of the global information society and the global

knowledge society. In [2], it is stated that, the world economy is experiencing the rapid impact of

globalization and the information age (characterized by ICTs) which is bringing about a new

global economic order to be dominated by Information and Knowledge-based Economies

(IKEs).

Ghana is experiencing socio-economic challenges characterized by low growth rates, balance of

payment difficulties, weak industrial structures, poor physical and communications

infrastructural development, and problems associated with heavy debt burdens and huge public

and social expenditure budgets. These problems are likely to be compounded by the new

challenges posed by globalization and the information age, if steps are not taken in applying

Information and Communication technologies (ICTs) in addressing them. Thus, these

technologies are offering even less developed countries like Ghana the opportunity to transform

their economies and accelerate their socio-economic development process towards an

information and knowledge-based economy [2].

3
There is therefore no doubt that information and knowledge is generating opportunities across all

sectors of the economies of both developed and developing countries. It is a new source for the

creation of quality jobs, wealth generation and redistribution, rapid economy development and

prosperity as well as a source for facilitating global competitiveness. Thus, in the emerging new

global economic order, the fundamental basis for poverty reduction, wealth creation and national

prosperity is information and knowledge, and Ghana cannot afford to be without either of these.

In other words, the opportunities offered by the emerging information revolution will enable

Ghana to circumvent the classical developmental path that stipulates that economies in the

process of its development will need to move from agricultural to industrial, and then to what is

now termed the information and knowledge economy (IKE) [2].

The premise is that the emerging information and communications technologies underlying the

information revolution are offering even under-developed agricultural countries, like Ghana, a

window of opportunity to leap-frog the industrialization stage and transform their economies into

high value-added information and knowledge-based economies that can compete with the

advanced economies on the global market [2].

1.4 Adoption of ICTs in Ghana’s Development Processes

The argument being put forward with regards to Ghana taking advantage of these technologies to

achieve rapid and radical social and economic transformation in this new information age

dominated by information and knowledge-based economies is that, Ghana needs to implement

4
comprehensive ICT-led socio-economic development policies, strategies, plans and a variant

National Information Infrastructure (NII) capable of serving its entire people [2].

Information and Communication Technologies traverses a wide range of technologies including

telecommunication technologies and infrastructure (fixed line, wireless, satellite-based and

mobile infrastructure), broadcasting networks and technologies including radio and TV networks

and the Internet as a globally-based delivery platform—incorporating elements of computers,

telecommunications, communication technologies and networks and other multimedia

development transmission and delivery technologies to form an integrated multimedia

transmission and communication delivery infrastructure and platform with a global research [2].

Also, the increasing concern with sustainability of socio-economic resources as a basis for

continued development at a global scale identifying a number of socio-economic development

concerns also implicate advanced telecommunication technology a component of ICTs as a key

determinant of sustainability. The portable nature of this driver makes it possible for developing

countries, like Ghana to take advantage of these technologies to facilitate their socio-economic

development. It is against this backdrop that, a NEPAD ICT Report [3] put it that, “Rapid

advances in technology and diminishing cost of acquiring the new ICT tools have opened new

windows of opportunity for African countries to accelerate their economic growth and

development”.

However, a review of Ghana’s ICTs infrastructure indicates unequal levels of infrastructure

development. Overall, the existing telecommunication infrastructure is more developed in urban

5
areas than in the rural areas despite the proliferation of FM radio stations, mobile phone service

and Internet service country-wide. The argument being put forward is that, Ghana’s ICTs

landscape is still far from being developed to provide the required national and global reach.

Many of the rural areas in Ghana to a large extent still do not have access to telecommunication

and the Internet thereby creating a digital divide between urban centers and the remote rural

environs. Without a concerted effort to develop, expand and modernize its telecommunication

infrastructure, rural people in Ghana will be among the last to access the benefits of advances in

telecommunication technology and telecommunication investments. They will remain

"information have-nots" in the global context.

It has therefore been widely accepted that, a total development, expansion and modernization of

its information infrastructure to achieve universal service and access to basic and value added

telecommunication services, support the development of the local ICTs industry and aid the

country’s socio-economic process, remains a fundamental developmental challenge to Ghana [2].

New technological developments in the use of radio frequencies for wireless and satellite

communications has advanced rapidly over the past few years resulting in an exploration of

possibilities for improving communications infrastructures world-wide. Radio frequency based

transmission systems solutions are now being considered as among the best options for many

initiatives to improve basic telecommunication infrastructure, particularly in rural areas of Africa

[4].

6
Wireless and satellite systems also have a special role to play in meeting data communication

needs, and the spread of the Internet. Antenna systems are vital components in the use of radio

frequencies for wireless and satellite communications. They are designed to radiate and receive

electromagnetic waves that are used to transport information from one point to another in

wireless systems.

By definition, an antenna acts as a transducer between a guided wave in a transmission line and

an electromagnetic wave in free space and vice versa. Antennas demonstrate a property known

as reciprocity that is an antenna will maintain the same characteristics regardless if it is

transmitting or receiving.

Thus information can be transferred between different locations without any intervening

structure. The possible frequencies of the electromagnetic waves for carrying information form

part of the electromagnetic spectrum. One of mankind’s greatest natural resource is the

electromagnetic spectrum and the antenna has been instrumental in harnessing this resource [5].

It is also being recognized that effective use of ICTs depends upon the knowledge of how they

are designed, how they can be tailored to local conditions, and how they can be maintained.

Assembling the technological components and the capabilities involves measures to be taken by

developing countries to strengthen their science and technology bases. It may, in some

developing countries, also involve building capacities in the hardware industry [6]. An important

aspect of the national information infrastructure in developing countries is the strengthening of

7
Research and Development (R&D) capabilities in firms and their propensity to invest in R&D to

enable them participate in the construction of the infrastructure [6].

Since antennas have been identified as vital components in the usage of radio frequencies in

wireless and satellite communications, a fundamental knowledge of antennas that will assist in

their design locally is to have an insight into efficient methods of evaluating them. The

evaluation [7] of an antenna to determine its impedance could be for:

(1) the best way to feed a single antenna element;

(2) provision of a match between an element and feed line at the design frequency;

(3) for array or multielement, how to achieve the desired excitation of elements to

produce a specific pattern;

(4) match between a transmitter/receiver at designed frequency;

(5) how to minimize pattern degradation and mismatch over a frequency band; and

(6) how to scan a pattern.

All these require an adequate knowledge of antenna impedance, which also requires a sound

knowledge of antenna theory, analysis and design [7].

The Government of Ghana thus has to strengthen the Research and Development (R&D)

capacities of the country’s telecommunication organizations, research organizations and

universities in the area of analysis, design and prediction of their propagation characteristic to

enable the R&D units of these organizations to participate in the construction of its National

Information Infrastructure (NII) to support national effort at improving the ICT landscape of the

country.

8
1.5 Methods of Evaluation of Antennas

The theory and design of antennas involve their evaluation [7]. There are various methods of

evaluation of antennas. These can broadly be categorized as Analytical, Numerical and

Experimentation. There are two basic approaches to the evaluation of antennas besides

experimentation: Analytical and numerical techniques with the exception of a few problems can

be solved using the boundary-value formulation, require the assumption of the current

distribution on the antenna. Figure 1.1 below summarizes the various procedures of analysis

antennas.

Fig 1.1: A flow chart of Antenna Evaluation Procedures [7]

9
1.6 The Role of Efficient Antenna Evaluation

Without an efficient antenna, electromagnetic energy would be localized and wireless

transmission of information over long distances would not be possible. While in the past antenna

design may have been considered a secondary issue in overall system design, today it plays a

critical role. In fact, many system successes rely on the design and performance of an antenna.

Analysis and design methods are such that antenna system performance can be predicted with

remarkable accuracy. Infact, many system successes rely on the design and performance of the

antenna [5].

In the light of these developments in antenna technology, the level of interest in the field of

antenna analysis has increased tremendously; hence the growing interest in antenna technology

which includes antenna analysis.

1.7 Objective of Study

The capacities to be built concerning antennas require an efficient method of evaluating of a

particular class of antennas that are used in the telecommunication networks, broadcast networks

and for Internet networks. Parallel co-planar dipole array antennas are an important component

of these networks. These types of antennas include Yagi-Uda, Log-Periodic Dipole Antennas

(LPDA) and the Corner Reflector.

The study looks at the various methods available for evaluating parallel co-planar dipole arrays

with a view of identifying an efficient method of evaluating parallel co-planar dipole array

antennas among these methods. The specific objectives are:

10
1. To carry out a trial function analysis to select an appropriate trial function to modify the

conventional two-term ICT algorithm to expand the valid dipole elements lengths to which

the ICT method could be applied in the analysis of parallel co-planar dipole arrays.

2. To develop an efficient Improved Circuit Theory (ICT) algorithm for the analysis of parallel

co-planar dipole array antennas of arbitrary element lengths using a three-term current

function representation.

3. To develop a Computer Aided Design (CAD) tool (program) of the efficient Improved

Circuit Theory (ICT) algorithm for the analysis of parallel co-planar dipole array antennas.

1.8 Scope of Research

Parallel co-planar wire antennas are important components of telecommunication networks,

broadcast networks and for Internet networks in Ghana. The study therefore focused on the

evaluation of this class of antennas since there are a wide variety of antennas, which makes it

impossible to research into them in one study.

1.9 Methodology of Study

The study has been a computation-based research involving literature review on antenna theory,

analysis and design, Method of Moments, Electromotive Force Method (EMF), Improved Circuit

Theory, CAD systems[8], FORTRAN and Visual Basic programming [9, 10] to provide an in-

depth knowledge in these areas to form an input for the study. Finally, a conceptual model of the

CAD system was used to design the system.

11
1.10 Organization of the Thesis

The thesis is organized in five chapters and has the following structure: Chapter 1, the

introductory chapter, outlines Ghana’s developmental challenges in the Information Age and the

role ICTs can play in accelerating Ghana’s development. In particular, the importance of

antennas as critical components of ICTs is recognized and the need to have an insight into

efficient methods of evaluating them to assist in their analysis and prediction of their propagation

characteristics, so as to have them design locally to support national effort at improving the ICTs

landscape of the country is emphasized.

Chapter 2 reviews the theoretical background on the methodologies to analysis of antennas, as

they exist in current literature. The semi-analytical approach of Improved Circuit Theory (ICT),

The Induced Electromotive Force (EMF) method and the numerical approach of Method of

Moments (MoM) are discussed. The concepts and formulas of the ICT method review in Chapter

2 are extended in Chapter 3 for the development of three-term current function of the ICT

method.

Chapter 3 presents the development of a three-term trial function algorithm of the ICT method

and a computer aided design (CAD) tool or program of the three-term ICT algorithm. A trial

function analysis is carried out to select an appropriate third trial function which together with

the two Storer functions of the conventional ICT algorithm are derive two more elements of the

new generalized input impedance matrix of the new three-term ICT algorithm. For any length of

the dipole elements of a parallel co-planar dipole array, a combination of these trial functions

used in the current distribution equation of the ICT algorithm do not simultaneously vanish at the

12
feed point thereby expanding the valid dipole elements lengths of a parallel dipole array to

arbitrary lengths (without restrictions on elements lengths) of dipoles of the antenna to which

the new ICT algorithm applies and at the same time making its implementation on a computer to

be done at a reduced CPU time due to its generalized formulas been expressible in closed form.

In implementing the CAD tool, a non-singular implementation of the new ICT algorithm is

considered to avoid occurrence of poles in the algorithm when it is implemented on a computer.

Chapter 4 presents the results of the study and discussions of the results. The new three-term ICT

algorithm is applied in the analysis of two co-planar dipole arrays namely a Yagi-Uda antenna

and Log-Periodic Dipole Array (LPDA) and the results are validated with those of SICT, TICT

and that of the more versatile MoM.

In Chapter 5, a summary of the thesis is given together with the conclusions drawn from the

results of the study and proposed future research themes are presented.

13
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Parallel co-planar dipole array antennas lie at the heart of antenna systems of most major radio

communication systems, broadcasting networks, cellular phone systems and Internet networks.

The need to analyze and design this class of antennas for wireless communication, satellite

communication and broadcasting has therefore been a driving force in antenna research. Recent

research has focused on the development and implementation of new efficient computational

algorithms and other analysis techniques.

An antenna is a device that is designed to radiate and receive electromagnetic energy. An

efficient radiation and reception of electromagnetic waves by an antenna system in a radio

broadcast and Internet network is dependent on how efficient the antenna is coupled to the load

(transmitter/receiver) [11], and how the antenna couples to free space. This efficient coupling

requires an adequate knowledge of antenna input impedance. The efficient coupling requirement

is further supported by the maximum power transfer theory which states that, “Maximum power

transfer between a transmission line and a transmitting antenna occurs when their impedances

are conjugate-matched” [11]. The same is necessary for the receiver and receiving antenna [11].

This ensures maximum power transfer between the transmitter and receiver, when there is no

interaction between the antennas [11].

The impedance of an antenna depends on many factors including its frequency of operation, its

geometry, its method of excitation, and its proximity to surrounding objects. However, because

14
of their complex geometries, only a limited number of practical antennas have been investigated

analytically [11]. One of the problems of antenna analysis is an accurate determination of the

antenna current distribution required to compute the electromagnetic field. An accurate

determination of the current distribution in general involves the solution of an electromagnetic

boundary value problem of considerable complexity [15].

It is however, well known that to carry out an accurate analysis of identical, parallel, co-planar

cylindrical dipoles, one first solves a system of coupled Fredholm integral equations of the first

kind (or a system which is mathematically equivalent) to determine the current distribution on

each dipole. Once the current distributions are known, all other quantities such as self – and

mutual admittances, field patterns, and directivities can in principle be calculated [13], [15], [23].

The main objective of this study is to develop an efficient method of evaluating parallel co-

planar cylindrical dipoles of arbitrary element lengths. To this end, the next section looks at the

available methods for solving the system of coupled Fredholm integral equations to select the

appropriate efficient method.

2.2 Methods of solving set of Fredholm Integral Equations

One method of solution of the set of coupled Fredholm integral equations is the “two-term

theory” developed by King [16] and King et al. [17]. This method has the advantage of

producing relatively simple closed form solutions for the self- and mutual admittances while

providing remarkable agreement with experimental results. Arrays of cylindrical antennas with

15
any number of elements, element length and element distance can be analyzed by this method.

However, this method involves complex computation procedures [18].

The Method of Moments [18], [19], [20] (MoM); another method of solving the set of integral

equations is a numerical approach to the evaluation of the input impedance of an antenna which

is extended to include electromagnetic boundary value problems. The technique is analytically

simple, accurate and versatile and theoretically could be applied to solve a large variety of

antenna problems but computationally intensive.

A drawback of the method is that it yields a dense system of linear equations which effectively

prohibits the solution of large-scale problems [47]. Another drawback is that, formulas in MoM

are not easily expressed in closed form. The few that are expressed in closed form would require

large matrices to invert as a result of discretization of the antenna structure [15], [18]. This

translates into greater requirements for computer storage and also bigger CPU time [21].

In addition, most of the numerical integrations that are required to be carried out to solve

problems using the MoM are not resistant to errors making an easy physical insight to the

problem under consideration impossible [15].

Multielement antennas or dipole array antennas may also be most conveniently analyzed by

circuit theory approach [22]. One of such circuit theory approaches for the input impedance

evaluation for cylindrical antennas is the induced Electromotive Force (EMF) Method. The EMF

method assumes the current distribution is the same for all combinations of the driving voltage,

16
that the self-impedances of elements are not affected by presence of other elements, and that the

mutual impedances of elements are determined by the related two elements only [22]. The

calculated self- and mutual impedances using the EMF method yields satisfactory results in the

case of analysis of thin antennas of length near or at resonance [22], [23]. The assumptions made

by the EMF method are however not consistent with the boundary conditions on the antenna

surface [22]. Additionally, its application is limited to the analysis of single element antennas.

Mathematical formulations based on principle of variations have also been used in the evaluation

of the input impedance. The principle of variation of the input impedance was developed by

Storer [22] for single-element antennas and has successfully been applied to determine the

electric current distribution by a set of two known current functions [22], [24], [25], [26]. This

method of variation resembles the EMF in that the current functions are fixed at the beginning

and may be thought of as an improvement of the EMF method.

However, the problem with this method is modeling the delta-function expression of the driving

voltage. This is because an infinitely small gap distance causes an infinitely large gap capacity

due to edge effect [22], [27] and hence an infinitely large input current. The variational principle

method is valid only if the trial function is a good approximation of the real current distribution.

This requires a judicious choice of trial functions that avoids the trial functions becoming infinite

near the driving points.

Inagaki [22] derived a variational principle method based on the extended variation of the

stationary property of input impedance applicable to a multielement cylindrical antenna having

17
finite gaps at the driving points. His formulation called the Improved Circuit Theory (ICT)

improved the EMF method. The ICT method assumes that the gap at each driving point is wide

enough that the gap capacity can be neglected, and yet narrow enough that the electric and

magnetic fields are constant within it. In addition to being applicable to an array of cylindrical

antennas the theory is also extendable to arrays of antenna elements of any shape just as in the

EMF [22].

Previous [15], [22], [23] studies have shown that, a two-term current function implementation of

ICT provides an efficient method for the analysis co-planar dipole array antennas compared to

MoM. These attributes of the ICT method have therefore made it the subject of interest in this

study. This chapter therefore reviews literature on the ICT method for analyzing co-planar dipole

array antennas. The review also includes literature review on the EMF method to highlight the

evolution of the ICT and on MoM, which will be used to validate the ICT method since the

MoM is a versatile, and an accurate numerical approach of analyzing antennas despite its

computational intensity.

2.3 Method of Moments

The moment method is a numerical technique that has been widely adopted for solving

electromagnetic and antenna problems via the integral equation approach [28]. The current

distribution is not assumed when the MoM is applied to solve antenna problems. The current

distribution is the actual unknown in the integrand of the integral equation. This expands the

number of antenna configurations which can be analyzed [19]. The method when applied to

centre-fed cylindrical dipoles delivers the entire current distribution [29].

18
This section thus reviews the MoM via the integral equation approach with a view to using it to

validate the ICT method been proposed in this study. The review begins with a presentation on

integral equations with regards to their applications to antenna problems solution followed by

their solution by the method of moment and a choice of an appropriate method of moment

technique to validate the ICT method.

2.3.1 Integral Equations

Most electromagnetic and antenna problems can be solved by formulating them as integral

equations The Integral Equation (IE) formulation casts the solution for the antenna problem in

the form of an integral equation where the unknown induced current density (current

distribution) on the surface of the antenna is part of the integrand [11]. The integral equation is

solved for the unknown induced current density using numerical techniques.

Integral equations are most suitable for numerical modeling because the integral equation and

numerical techniques allow for the possibility of not assuming the current distribution. The

current distribution is the actual unknown in the integrand, which must be solved as part of a

generalized boundary-value problem. This is opposed to most analytical techniques, which

invariably require the assumption of the current distribution, thus severely restricting their

generality [7]. The first step in developing the solution for the current on a wire antenna is

determining the appropriate integral equation. For time-harmonic electromagnetics, two of the

most popular integral equations are the electric field integral equation (EFIE) and the magnetic

field integral equation (MFIE) [20].

19
Two most popular EFIEs that are used to determine the current distribution of a finite radius wire

antennas are Hallen’s Integral Equation and Pocklington’s Integral Equation [11]. Hallen’s

equation is limited to the use of a delta gap excitation source model [11]. Pocklington’s integral

equation is adaptable to many other types of feed sources [11]. The general form of

Pocklington’s integral equation, valid for z-directed currents with the thin wire approximation is

given by equation (2.1) [19]

 ∂ 2ψ ( z , z ' ) 
1
( ) ( )
L/2
∫ I z'
 + β 2
ψ z , z '
dz ' = − E zi ( z ) (2.1)
jωε 0 − L / 2
 ∂z
2


It is a Fredholm integral equation of the first kind since the unknown current distribution I ( z ′ )

appears only under the integral [19].

2.3.2 Solution of Integral Equations by Method of Moment

Often electromagnetic problems such as antenna applications cannot be handled analytically.

Numerical methods have been invented to tackle such problems. Method of Moments is one of

the most widely used numerical techniques in the field of antenna engineering. Integral equations

are used to determine the current distribution of antennas. Method of Moments is a numerical

procedure of reducing integral equations to a system of simultaneous linear algebraic equations

[19]. The system of simultaneous linear algebraic equations can then be put in a matrix equation

form. Integral equations such as equation (2.1) can be expressed in the form

L( f ) = g (2.2)

where L is a known linear operator, g is a known excitation function and f is the response

function; L is an integral operator. Method of Moment expands the unknown response

function f , as a linear combination of N terms and equation (2.2) becomes [11]

20
 !
f ( z ′ ) ; a1 f 1 ( z ′ ) + a 2 f 2 ( z ′ ) + ... + a ! f ! = ∑ a n f n ( z ′ ) (2.3)
n =1

Each a n is an unknown constant and each f n ( z ′ ) is a known function usually referred to as

basis or expansion function. The domain of the f n ( z ′ ) functions is the same as that of f ( z ′ ) .

Putting equation (2.3) into equation (2.2) and using the linearity of the operator equation (2.2)

reduces to

!
∑ a nL ( f n ) = g (2.4)
n =1

Expansion of equation (2.4) gives one functional equation with n unknown constants. The n

unknown constants cannot yet be determined because there are N unknown and one functional

equation. It is necessary to have N linearly independent equations. By the process of point-

matching or collocation which is evaluating boundary conditions at N different points N linearly

independent equations are obtained by defining independent weighting or testing W n functions

which are integrated with equation (2.4) [31].

Applying point matching to equation (2.1) at N points gives a matrix equation of the form

 f ( z1, z ′1) f ( z1, z ′2 ) L f ( z1, z ′ ! )   I 1   − E i ( z 1) 

    i 
 f ( z 2, z ′1) f ( z 2, z ′2 ) L f ( z 2, z ′ ! )   I 2   − E ( z 2 ) 
 M M M  M  =  M 
(2.5)
   
 f ( z ! , z ′1) f ( z ! , z ′2 ) L f ( z ! , z ′ ! )   I !   − E i ( z ! ) 
   

or in the compact notation as

[ Z mn ][ I n ] = [Vm ] (2.6)

where

Z mn = f ( z m, z ′n ) (2.7)

21
and

V m = −E z ( z m )
i
(2.8)

Because of the analogy to network equations, the matrices [ Z mn ] , [ I n ] , and [V m ] are referred to

as generalized impedance, current and voltage matrices [19]. The solution of this matrix equation

requires its inversion; the order of which is dependent upon the number of unknown functions

used in representing the current distribution.

2.3.3 Basis Functions

An important step in any numerical solution is the choice of basis functions. In general, it is basis

functions that have the ability to accurately represent and resemble the anticipated unknown

functions that are chosen. The choice of basis functions depends on a compromise among a

number of factors: the numerical accuracy desired, the geometry of the problem, the physical

characteristics of the fields and currents involved, the nature of the integral equations, the

available basis functions and the computational effort required to employ it [31], [32].

In theory there are infinite possible basis functions [31]. In practice, only a few sets are used

[31]. They can be classified into two groups:

• sub-domain bases

• entire-domain bases

For sub-domain bases, they are non-zero only over a part of the domain of the function [11].

Unlike entire-domain bases, they can be used arbitrarily without knowing the nature of the

function they represent [11]. There are quite a few sub-domain basis functions: segmented line,

22
piecewise constant function, pulses function, piecewise linear functions, triangular function,

piecewise sinusoidal function etc [11].

For entire-domain bases, they are defined as non-zero over the entire structure as the name

suggests [11]. One commonly used entire-domain basis function is sinusoidal function [11]. This

basis set would be particularly useful for modeling current distribution on a wire dipole, which is

known to have primarily sinusoidal distribution [11].

2.3.4 Weighting (Testing) Functions

The collocation (point-matching) method is a numerical technique whose solutions satisfy the

electromagnetic boundary conditions (e.g. vanishing tangential electric fields on the surface of an

electric conductor) only at discrete points. Between these points the boundary conditions may not

be satisfied and the deviation is known as a residue [11].

To improve upon the solution, an inner product w, f ; which is a scalar operation is defined

satisfying the laws:

w, f = f , w

bl + cf , w = b l , w + c f , w

∗
f , f > 0 if f ≠ 0

∗
f , f = 0 if f = 0 (2.9)

where b and c are scalars, ( ∗ ) indicates complex conjugation. A typical but not unique inner

product is

23
 w, f = ∫∫s w∗. fds (2.10)

where w ' s are the weighting (testing) functions and S is the surface of the structure being

analyzed. To minimize the residue in such a way that its overall average over the entire structure

approaches zero, the method of weighted residuals is used in conjunction with inner product of

equation ( 2.10 ) . Though this does not lead to a vanishing residual at every point on the surface

of a conductor, it forces the boundary conditions to be satisfied in an average sense over the

entire surface.

To accomplish this, a set of N weighting (or testing) functions {w m} = w1, w 2,..., w ! is defined in

the domain of the operator L. Forming the inner product between each of these functions and

equation (2.4) results in

!
∑ a n w m, L ( f n ) = w n,g m = 1, 2,..., ! (2.11)
n =1

This set of ! equations may be written in matrix form as

[ F mn ][ a n ] =  g m  (2.12)

where

 w1, L ( f 1) w1, L ( f 2 ) L 
 
[ F mn ] =  w2, L ( f 1) w 2, L ( f 2 ) L  (2.13a)
 
 M M 
 

 a1   w1, g 
   
a  w 2, g 
[ a n ] =  M2  [g m] =  (2.13b)
M 
   
a N   w ! , g 

The matrix of equation (2.13) may be solved for a n by inversion and can be written as

24
 [ a n ] = [ F mn ]
−1
 g m  (2.14)

The choice of weighting functions is important in that the elements of {wn } must be linearly

independent, so that the N equations in equation (2.11) will be linearly independent [11].

Additionally, it is advantageous to choose weighting functions that would minimize the

computations required to evaluate the inner product. The condition of linear independence

between elements and advantage of computational simplicity are also important characteristics of

basis functions. Because of this, a particular choice of functions may be to let the weighting and

basis functions to be same. This technique is known as Garlekin’s method [19].

2.3.5 Piecewise Sinusoidal Garlekin Method

It has been shown [19] that the use of piecewise sinusoidal testing (weighting) functions with

piecewise sinusoidal expansion functions leads to a procedure which is numerically efficient and

highly accurate for thin wire antenna problems in free space. Since both the expansion function

and testing function is the same, the procedure is known as piecewise sinusoidal Garlekin

method. The piecewise sinusoid is therefore one of the most useful functions in moment method

of thin wire problems. The sinusoidal function may be expressed mathematically for z-directed

segments by [15], [19]

sin β ( z − zn −1 )
Fn ( z ) = zˆ zn −1 ≤ z ≤ zn
sin β ( zn − zn −1 )
(2.15)
sin β ( zn +1 − z )
Fn ( z ) = zˆ z n ≤ z ≤ zn +1
sin β ( zn +1 − zn )

The piecewise sinusoid function is shown in Fig 2.1. Considering for example a single dipole

with N segments or an array of parallel dipoles of arbitrary number of equal length ( ∆zn )

25
segments which are either coincident with the z-axis or are parallel to it. The mnth impedance

matrix element is given as

sin β ( z − zm −1 ) sin β ( zm +1 − z )
Z mn = ∫zmm−1 zˆ ⋅ Ens dz + ∫zmm+1 zˆ ⋅ Ens dz
z z
(2.16)
sin ( β∆zm ) sin ( β∆zm )

Integrating the first term of equation (2.1) by parts twice and making the following substitutions;

∂ψ ( z , z ′ ) ∂ψ ( z , z ′ ) ∂ 2 ( z , z ′ ) ∂ 2 ( z , z ′ )
=− , = gives
∂z ∂z ′ ∂z 2 ∂z ′2

z′= z
j  dI ( z′) ∂ψ ( z, z′)  1 z2  d I ( z′) 
2 2

E =
1
 ψ ( z, z′) + I ( z′)  + ∫z1  + β 2 I ( z′) ψ ( z, z′) dz′ (2.17)
z
ωεo  dz′ ∂z  z′=z1 jωεo  dz′ 2

where the limits are only over one segment. When the current on the segment is piecewise

sinusoidal the bracketed express in the integrand in equation (2.17) vanishes. Using one-half of

the piecewise sinusoidal function depicted in Fig 2.3a, the z-component of the field from the unit

current on the segment extending from z1 to z2 , E1ρ ( ρ , z ) is

z ′= z2
 β cos β ( z ′ − z1 ) sin β ( z ′ − z1 ) ∂ e − j β r 
j
Eρ ( ρ , z ) =
1
 + 
4πωε 0  sin β ( z2 − z1 ) sin β ( z2 − z1 ) ∂z r  z′= z (2.18)
1

where r = ρ 2 + ( z − z ′ ) . Considering the portion of the source from z2 to z3 , Ez2 ( ρ , z ) is

2

obtained. The total field from both halves of one piecewise sinusoid of unit amplitude is

Ez = E1ρ ( ρ , z ) + Eρ2 ( ρ , z ) (2.19)

The results is generalized for the nth and ( n + 1) segments as

st

 e− jβ Rn−1 e− jβ Rn sin β ( zn+1 − zn−1 ) e− jβ Rn+1 

Ez = − j30  − +  (2.20)
 Rn−1 sin β ( zn − zn−1 ) Rn sin β ( zn − zn−1 ) sin β ( zn+1 − zn ) Rn+1 sin β ( zn+1 − zn ) 

The quantities Rn −1, Rn and Rn+1 are shown in Fig 2.1b and defined in the next page. The

elements of the generalized impedance matrix for z-directed segments in general are given as

26
 Z mn = − ∫zmm−+11 I m ⋅ Ens dz
z

 z sin β ( z − zm −1 ) zm+1 sin β ( zm +1 − z )  j 30

= −  ∫zmm−1 + ∫ zm  (2.21)
 sin ( β∆zm ) sin ( β∆zm )  sin ( β∆zn )
 e− j β Rn−1 e − j β Rn e − j β Rn+1 
. − 2 cos ( β∆zn ) +  dz
 Rn −1 Rn Rn +1 

where

Rn −1 = ρ 2 + ( z − zn −1 ) , Rn = ρ 2 + ( z − zn ) , Rn +1 = ρ 2 + ( z − zn +1 )
2 2

and

∆zn = zn − zn−1 = zn+1 − zn , ∆zm = zm − zm −1 = zm +1 − zm (2.22)

Fig 2.1: (a) Three overlapping sinusoids, (b) Wire segment along z-axis [19]

The radiation field pattern expression for the piecewise sinusoidal Garlekin method for N

expansion functions is given as

27
 In
jωµ − jβ r
sin θ ∑ sin ( β ∆zn )
!
Eθ (θ , φ ) = e
4π r n =1

 ∫zzn sin β ( z ′ − zn −1 ) e j β z′ cosθ dz ′ + ∫zzn−1 sin β ( zn +1 − z ) e jβ z ′ cosθ dz ′

 n−1 n 

which in closed form is given as

jωµ − j β r ! In
Eθ (θ , φ ) = e sin θ ∑ f (θ , φ ) (2.23)
4π r n =1 sin ( β∆z )
n

f (θ , φ ) is given in [19].

2.4 The Electromotive Force (EMF) Method

The classical method of impedance evaluation for cylindrical antennas is the induced

electromotive force, (EMF) method. It is a circuit theory approach to determining the input

impedance of antenna where the self-impedance determination is a generalization of the method

of calculating inductance by considering induced fields from an equivalent current on the axis of

the wire [33], [34].

Only the self-impedance of an antenna can be accurately determined with the method with

current distribution assumed from the beginning. The method gives satisfactory results for thin

antennas of lengths near or at resonance but gives unsatisfactory results for antennas of lengths

near non-resonance [35].

28
2.4.1 Theory of the EMF Method

The Electromotive Force (EMF) method is an analytical technique for the analysis of dipole antennas of

the form depicted in Fig 2.2. To analyze the antenna shown in Fig 2.4, the antenna problem is first cast

as an integral equation [15], [22]

h
∫ I ( z′)G ( z, z′) dz′ = -E =E
i s
(2.24)
−h

where I ( z ′ ) is the unknown current distribution, G ( z , z ′ ) is the Green’s function given in [22]
as
− jkr
1  ∂2 2e
G ( z, z ′) = , r = a 2 + ( z − z′ )
2
 2 + k  (2.25)
j 4πωε  ∂z  r
and Ei and Es are the induced and scattered fields respectively.

Fig 2.2: Dipole antenna excited by Voltage Vo [15]

If it is assumed that except in the gap as shown in the Fig 2.2, the tangential component of the

electric field is zero on the surface of the antenna, then both sides of equation (20.25) can be

29
multiplied by I ( z ) and integrated over the domain of the antenna ( − h, h ) and simplified to give

[15]

h h

Z in =−
∫ ∫ I ( z′) G ( z, z′) I ( z ) dz′dz
−h −h
(2.26)
I 2 ( 0)

The EMF impedance expression for calculating the input impedance of an isolated single

element antenna or self-impedance of an element of an array of antenna Z is given by equation

(2.26). The equivalent EMF formula for the mutual impedance for two coupled antennas ( i, j )

shown in Fig 2.3 is

hi hj

∫ ∫ I ( z ′ ) G ( z , z ′ )I ( z ) dzdz ′
− hi − h j
Zi, j = − (2.27)
I 2 (0)

Fig 2.3: Two coupled wire antennas excited by voltages V0 = V1 = V2 [15]

30
The equations (2.26) and (2.27) are derived using reciprocity relations but alternatively can be

derived using energy relations via the Poynting vector [29].

2.4.2 Conventional EMF Implementation

In the classical EMF implementation, the current function is assumed to be sinusoidal and of the

form [15]

sin k ( h − z )
I (z) = (2.28)
sin kh

This function is used in equation (2.26) and equation (2.27) for the calculation of self and mutual

impedances of centre-fed dipoles respectively thus making it possible for a wide application of

the EMF method in the analysis of practical antenna systems such as single element dipoles,

Yagi-Uda and Log-periodic antennas and many others.

The sinusoidal current distribution or the first-order current distribution [15], [36] makes certain

assumptions, which are inconsistent with the boundary conditions on the surface of a perfect

conductor. These include [22]:

(i) the self-impedance of each element in the array is the same whether the element is in the

array or isolated;

(ii) the effects of the changes in the current distributions due to mutual interactions can be

ignored;

(iii) the only relevant mutual effects on an element in an array are those from elements

adjacent to it.

31
The approximations based on these assumptions are acceptable for some engineering purposes

when the dipoles are thin (ka<<1, a<<h) and half-wavelength ( h ≤ 0.5) [15]. They are not

adequate for longer or thicker antenna [15]. The EMF method cannot therefore be used for the

analysis of longer or thicker antennas. Also, for applications requiring bandwidths greater than

2:1, the EMF method is not adequate [19], [37].

2.4.3 Stationary Property of EMF Impedance Formula

An improvement of the induced EMF method was provided by J.E. Storer and was based on the

stationary property of equation (2.26). Z as given in equation (2.26) is stationary with respect to

variations in I ( z ) . The appearance of the square terms of the current functions in equations

(2.26) and (2.27) is suggestive of stationary characteristics. The importance of this stationary

property is that it explains the accuracy of the impedances calculated with the arbitrary

sinusoidal distribution [15].

In the language of calculus of variation, the impedance results using the sinusoidal distribution

are insensitive to small changes in the assumed current distribution [15]. What this means is that,

for structures whose current distributions come near the sinusoidal distribution their computed

impedances will have zero errors (∂Z in = 0) for the first order errors ( ∂I ( 0 ) ) in the assumed

current [15]. This stationary property of the impedances can be exploited to improve the results

of the classical method using the well-known calculus of variation [15]. The next section

presents the ICT method which is based on this stationary property of input impedance

expression of the EMF method.

32
2.5 The Improved Circuit Theory (ICT) Method

The Improved Circuit theory (ICT) is an attractive analytical/semi-analytical method for

analyzing multielement dipole array antennas. ICT improves on the EMF method, which

assumes that the self-impedance of each element in an array is the same as when the elements are

isolated and that the effects of changes in the current distribution due to mutual interactions are

negligible. The EMF method also assumes a symmetric sinusoidal current distribution on the

dipoles. These assumptions violate the boundary conditions (i.e. vanishing tangential component

of the electric field) on the antenna. Thus, the EMF method is not adequate for the analysis of

longer or thicker antennas [19]. The input impedance expression of the EMF method however,

has stationary properties, which permits variational improvement of the method.

The ICT method uses a variational principle method based on the extended variation of the

stationary property of input impedance of the EMF method to improve on it. The ICT is

applicable in the analysis of a multielement cylindrical antenna having finite gaps at the driving

points. The method starts with an analytical approach by deriving an integral equation for

multielement having finite gaps at the driving points. An approximation of the equation is

calculated based on the assumption that the gap at each driving point is wide enough that the gap

capacities are negligible and at the same time these gaps are wide enough for the electric and

magnetic fields to remain constant within them. The impedance expression is stationary to

changes in the current distribution thus permitting the current distribution to be expressed as a

sum of the number of trial functions whose coefficients are found from this condition of

stationary property.

33
2.5.1 ICT Integral Equation for a Multielement Antenna

The derivation of the ICT integral equation for multielement follows the procedure in [22].
Zi

hi Zj

(Z i,oi) hj

R ij(Z i,Z j) Sj

(Z j ,oj )
(Z i, i)
i/2
J/2

Vi Vj

- - J/2
i/2

oi dij oJ

-hj
2a j
-hi

2a i

Fig 2.4: An array of cylindrical Antennas [22]

Fig 2.4 shows two arbitrary elements of an array of parallel antennas. This array could be

expanded to include N elements. For the i th element, the electric field Ei and electric current J i

in the direction of zi on the antenna surface can be related to each other by extending the results

of the single-element antenna [38] as

∑ ∫− hj j ∫0 G ijJ ( zi ,θ i; z j ,θ j ) J j ( z j ,θ j ) + G ijM ( zi ,θ i ; z j ,θ j ) E j ( z j ,θ j ) dz j dθ j = Ei ( zi ,θ i ) (2.29)

!
h 2π

where G ijJ is the Green’s function of the electric current in the z j direction, and G ijM is that of

the magnetic current in the θ j direction.

34
If the antenna is made of ideal conductors, the equivalent magnetic current M θi = Ei exists only

within the gap zi = ∂ i / 2 and can be approximated as a constant if ∂ i is not large:

Ei ( zi ,θ i ) = −Vi ui ( zi ) (2.30)

0 zi ≥ ∂ i 2
ui ( zi ) =  (2.31)
1 ∂ i zi < ∂ i 2

The integrand including Ei in equation (2.29) cannot be neglected if the gap width ∂ i is very small.

Neglecting Ei under this condition gives a gap capacity C gt , which is twice larger. If ∂ i has a

magnitude of ai , C gt may be neglected hence the integration of Ei in equation (2.29) can be omitted. In

equation (2.29), J i on the antenna surfaces zi ≥ ∂ i 2 means the real electric current, while J i on the

gap zi < ∂ i 2 means the equivalent proportional to the magnetic field H θ i .

The range of integration covers the entire antenna surface S j except at each antenna end zi = h j ,

where the electric current is negligibly small. If ∂ i has a magnitude of the order of ai , J j is

smooth on S j and is approximately constant in the θ j direction. This permits one to consider

that a line current I j = 2π a j J j flows on the z j axis of the antenna in the calculation of the

electric field. Equation (2.29) may be reduced to the following if the gap width is moderate (of

the order, for instance, of the radius of the conductor):

∑ ∫− hj j Gij ( zi , z j )I j ( z j ) dz j = −Vi ui ( zi ) i = 1,L , !

!
h
(2.32)
j =1

where Gij is the Green’s function given by

 
− jk ( zi − z j ) + d 2 
2

jωµ  1 ∂   2
Gij ( zi , z j ) = −  
1 + 2  exp (2.33)
4π  k ∂z j 2 
( zi − z j ) + d 2
2

where d = dij ( i ≠ j) , ai ( i=j)

35
2.5.2 Stationary property of the Input Impedance

Multiplying both side of equation (2.32) by I i ( zi ) and integrating from − hi to hi gives

∑ ∫− ihi ∫− hj j I i ( zi )Gij ( zi , z j ) I j ( z j ) dzi dz j = −

! Vi ∂i 2
I i ( zi )dzi
h h
∫ (2.34)
j =1 ∂ i −∂i 2

If ∂ i has a magnitude of the order of a j , I i ( zi ) can be approximated as a constant in the

range [ −∂ i 2, ∂ i 2] . Then the right-hand side of equation (2.34) becomes −Vi I i ( 0 ) , and the input

Vi
impedance of the i th element Z i = in integral form is
Ii ( 0 )

∑ ∫− ihi ∫− hj j I i ( zi ) Gij ( zi , z j ) I j ( z j ) dzi dz j

!
h h

j =1
Zi = − (2.35)
I i2 ( 0 )

The variation of input impedance Z i with respect to the current distribution I i ( zi ) is

I i2 ( 0 ) ∂Z i = −2 I i ( 0 ) Z i

− ∑ ∫− ihi ∫− hj j ∂I i ( zi ) Gij ( zi , z j ) I j ( z j ) dzi dz j

!
h h
(2.36)
j =1

− ∑ ∫− ihi ∫− hj j I i ( zi ) Gij ( zi , z j ) ∂I j ( z j ) dzi dz j

!
h h

j =1

For N=1 and noting that I ( 0 ) Z = V , equation (2.36) reduces to

I i2 ( 0 ) ∂Z = −2 I ( 0 ) ∂I ( 0 ) Z − 2 ∫− h ∂I ( z )  ∫− h Gij ( zi , z j ) dz ′ dz
h h

V
= −2∂I ( 0 ) V + 2 ∫∂ 2 ∂I ( z )
∂ 2
dz (2.37)
∂
If it is assumed that ∂I ( z ) as well as I ( z ) are approximately constant in the range of z < ∂ 2,

1 ∂2
∫ I ( 0 )dz = ∂I ( 0 )
∂ −∂ 2

which when substituted into equation (2.37) leads to the following condition for stationary

properties:

36
 ∂Z = 0. (2.38)
For N=1, equation (2.35) is a variational expression for the input impedance. It is stationary with

respect to changes in the current distribution. However, when N>1, ∂Z i cannot be individually

zero, and equation (2.35) is not a variational expression for each impedance. Summing equation

(2.37) with respect to i , for each input impedance and making use of the symmetry of the

Green’s function Gij ( zi , z j ) = G ji ( z j , zi ) gives:

∑ I i ( 0 )∂Z i = ∑  −2Vi ∂ i ( 0 ) − 2 ∑ ∂I ( zi )g ∫− ihi Gij ( zi , z j ) I j ( z j ) dzi dz j  

! ! !
2 h
(2.39)
i =1 i =1  i =1 
Putting equation (2.32) into equation (2.39) and assuming that ∂I i ( zi ) is approximately constant

within the gap, the right hand side of equation (2.39) becomes

2 ∑ ∫− ihi ∂I ( zi )g ∫− ihi Gij ( zi , z j ) I j ( z j ) dzi dz j  = 2 ∫−∂ 2 ∂I ( 0 ) ⋅Vi

! 1
= 2Vi ∂I i ( 0 )
h h ∂ 2

j =1 ∂

making the right hand side of equation (2.39) zero and therefore

!
∑ I i ( 0 )∂Z i = 0
2
(2.40)
i =1

Equation (2.40) shows that, in calculating the input impedance Z i from equation (2.35) ∂Z i is

not individual zero but if it is weighted by I i ( 0 ) the summation is zero. This is an extended

variational principle for the multielement antenna. Thus, the input impedance expression for

multielement antennas is shown to be stationary with respect to small changes in the current

distribution.

2.5.3 An Improved Circuit Theory for Multielement Antennas

Because the stationary property of equation (2.40) is derived with the boundary conditions of

equation (2.32), equation (2.40) can be used to determine the electric current distribution I i ( zi )

37
for any set of voltages for multielement antennas. The ICT method makes use of stationary

property of input impedance evaluated by the EMF method using extended variation principle to

improve on the EMF method.

The current distribution I i ( zi ) is represented as a linear combination of trial functions, each

normalized to unity at the driving points and expressed as

M
I i ( zi ) = ∑ I il f i l ( zi ) fi l ( 0 ) = 1 (2.41)
i =1

where f i l ( zi ) must be assumed to be smooth near the driving points zi = 0 . This assumption

changes the unknown function I i ( zi ) to M unknown coefficients I il , l = 1,L , M . The EMF

method in its conventional usage fixes the electric current distribution at the beginning which

corresponds to the distribution in equation (2.41) for M=1.

2.5.4 Generalized Mutual Impedance

Putting equation (2.41) into equation (2.35) gives

( ) Z = ∑∑∑ IZ
M 2 ! M M
∑ Ii
l
i i ijI , i = 1,L , !
lm m
j (2.42)
i =1 j =1 i =1 m =1

where Z ijlm is the generalized mutual impedance defined by

Z ijlm = − ∫−ihi ∫− hj j fi l ( zi )Gij ( zi , z j ) f jm ( z j ) dzi dz j

h h
(2.43)

If the deviation of the unknown coefficient, ∂I il , i = 1,L , ! ; l = 1,L , M , from the most proper

value I il yields an error of input impedance ∂Z i in equation (2.39) and the following relation

exist:

( )
2
l  m lm 
! M ! M M ! M
∑ ∑ I i ∂Z i = 2 ∑ ∑ ∂I i ⋅  − Z i ∑ I i + ∑ ∑ I j Z ij 
m

i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1  m =1 j =1 m =1 

38
or

l  m lm 
! ! M ! M
∑ I i ( 0 )∂Z i = 2 ∑ ∑ ∂I i  −Vi + ∑ ∑ I j Z ij 
2
(2.44)
i =1 i =1 l =1  j =1 m =1 

From equation (2.40), the left hand side of equation (2.44) is zero and therefore

! M
∑ ∑ Z ij I j = Vi , i = 1,L , ! ; l = 1,L , M
lm m
(2.45)
j =1 m =1

Equation (2.45) is used to determine NM unknown coefficients I mj and may be considered to

improve the EMF method. It can be written in matrix form as:

M
∑  Z   I  = [V ] , l = 1,L , M .
lm m
(2.46)
m =1

where  I m  , [V ] and  Z lm  are column matrices of the ! th order with I mj and V j as the

( j,1) th elements and a square matrix with Z ijlm as the ( j ,1) th element respectively.

2.5.5 Storer Two-term ICT (SICT)

The classical EMF method uses the first order current function of equation (2.28) for the analysis

of co-planar arrays. The application restricts the width of the antenna structure to 2:1 [19]. To

improve on the results of the EMF method, ICT uses Storer two-term function of equation (2.28)

and

1 − cos k ( hi − zi )
f ( zi ) = (2.47)
1 − cos khi
to derive the generalized impedance matrix. Storer used these two functions in a variational

implementation of the EMF method. The ICT implementation based on these trial functions is

designated Storer two-term ICT or SICT. SICT dramatically improved the classical EMF method

by removing the inconsistencies [15].

39
The SICT when applied in the centre-fed dipoles of length 2λ ( λ is the wavelength in meters)

and around this length provides very high impedances thereby rendering the conventional ICT or

SICT inapplicable for such antenna structures. The high impedances are as a result of functions

simultaneously going to zero at the antenna input for antennas of length 2λ or even multiples

of 2λ thus predicting infinite impedance at the input (impedance is defined as a ratio of voltage

and current at the input) [15].

2.5.6 Tai Two-Term ICT (TICT)

The ICT implementation of a Tai two-term (TICT) uses the combination of the sinusoidal

function of equation (2.28) and the Tai function

k ( hi − zi ) cos k ( hi − zi )
f ( zi ) = (2.48)
khi cos khi
Equation (2.48) was proposed by C.T. Tai in his variational improvement of the classical EMF

method. The Tai two-term ICT implementation as applied to co-planar dipole array antennas of

identical lengths has been shown to provide considerable improved results as compared to the

EMF method. In [15]-[23], it has been shown that, the TICT implementation is most general

form of implementing the ICT method. Its drawback is that it requires more than two and half

times the computational time required by the conventional implementation of the ICT method

via Storer Faster Two-term or SFICT.

2.6 Summary

The review has presented current approaches for analyzing cylindrical dipole array antennas in a

co-planar arrangement. The ICT method has been identified as an approach suitable for

analyzing parallel co-planar dipole array antennas. Compared to MoM, ICT is a much more

40
efficient method of analyzing co-planar dipole arrays because it uses two-term current functions

with all the formulas expressible in closed form [22]-[23].

However, the conventional ICT implementation, which uses Storer’s two-term representation,

restricts the application of the method to antenna lengths to less than two wavelengths [15], [23].

To implement ICT, elements of the generalized impedance formulas in equation (2.46) are

necessary.

Any number of trial functions can be used in equation (2.41) to derive these elements. Also

depending on quality of the trial functions used in equation (2.41), relatively fewer terms of

equation (2.41) could be applied to achieve reasonably accurate results of the figure-of-merit of

an antenna compared to those computed with MoM at lower CPU time and computer storage

[15],[23].

Hence, this study is proposing a three-term current implementation of the ICT method to expand

the application of the ICT method to dipole arrays of arbitrary (any) element length, the accuracy

of it’s generalized impedance formulas is in good agreement with MoM. The next chapter sets

out to develop a three-term current function representation of the ICT algorithm and a Computer-

Aided Design (CAD) tool for the analysis of parallel co-planar dipole array antennas.

41
 CHAPTER THREE

DEVELOPMET OF THE TAI THREE-TERM ICT ALGORITHM

AD THE TAI THREE-TERM ICT COMPUTER AIDED DESIG
(CAD) SYSTEM

3.1 Introduction

Even though in the analysis of multielement antennas, the Method of Moment (MoM) is capable

of delivering the entire current distribution on the surface of the antenna, which can be used to

calculate both self- and mutual impedances, it is still computationally intensive. The classical

EMF method has been found to be inadequate for the analysis of multielement because it fails to

adequately take into consideration the mutual coupling between various elements in the array.

This is as a result of the current distribution taken to be ideally sinusoidal which the case is not

always in practical antenna systems [15].

However, the impedance expression of the EMF method has variational characteristics, which

allows the EMF method to be treated as a variational problem. The input impedance expression

in terms of the current distribution by EMF method coincides with the variational expression

except for the definition of the inner product. The inner product takes the complex conjugate

form in EMF method whiles it takes the direct symmetric product form in the variational method

[15].

An improvement on the results of the EMF method based on variational method of implementing

the classical EMF method was suggested by Storer, Tai and Inagaki; based on the stationary

property of the input impedance expression, which is a variational characteristic of the EMF

42
method. The stationary property of the input impedance expression of the EMF makes the input

impedance expression insensitive to small variations in the current distribution [15], [22].

The Improved Circuit Theory (ICT) by Inagaki [22] is a powerful tool for the analysis of

multielement antennas of any arrangement. It is one of such variational implementations based

on the stationary property of the input impedance expression of the EMF method using extended

variational principle. In the two-term representation of the ICT method in both the conventional

or Storer two-term and Tai two-term representations, it has been shown [15], [22], [23] that, the

ICT method can be used to analyze multielement antennas of arbitrary number of elements.

However, the conventional two-term representation which is the use of the first order sinusoidal

current function and Storer’s trial function in the ICT method restricts the application of the

method to antenna lengths in excess of a wavelength [15], [23]. To implement the ICT method

as defined by equation (2.46), the elements of the generalized impedance formula are necessary.

According to equation (2.41), any number of trial functions can be used to derive these elements.

But since the labour of calculations increases approximately as the square of the number of terms

in equation (2.41), it is desirable to keep M in equation (2.41) low [23]. Also, depending on the

quality of the trial functions chosen, relatively fewer terms of equation (2.41) could be applied to

achieve reasonably accurate results at lower CPU time and computer storage [23]. The subject

matter of this chapter is to extend the range of application of the ICT method to include antennas

of arbitrary (any) dipole elements lengths by increasing the number of trial functions in equation

(2.41) to three in a so-called three-term ICT representation at a reduced CPU time and a small

43
computer storage space as compared to the Method of Moment. The subject matter also includes

the development of a three-term ICT computer-aided design (CAD) tool for the analysis of co-

planar dipole array antennas of arbitrary dipole length.

3.2 The Improved Circuit Theory Equation

The general co-planar dipole array of arbitrary configuration that can be best analyzed using the

Improved Circuit Theory (ICT) method is as shown in Fig 3.1. This arrangement includes arrays

with elements of different lengths, spacing and radii, which are symmetrical in the X-Y plane

with feeds on a common (same) plane [15]. This study is on parallel co-planar dipole array

antennas of which antenna configurations such as Yagi-Uda and the Log-Periodic Dipole Array

(LPDA) are examples.

2
hi i
2a i
Ii(zi)
1 i-1 K
V i

K-1
d11
d12 -h i
X

Fig 3.1: Co-planar dipole array of arbitrary configuration [15].

The ICT equation incorporating the generalized impedance matrix, the voltage and current

distribution matrices is given as [22]:

M
∑  Z   I  = [V ] , l = 1,L , M
lm m
(3.1)
m =1

44
where Z lm is an M by M matrix given as:

 Z11lm
Z12lm L Z1lm! 
 lm lm

L Z 2lm! 
 Z  =  21
lm Z Z 22
M M O M 
 
 Zlm
N1 Z !lm2 lm
Z !! 
and
 I1m   V1m 
 m  m
 I j  =  2  [V ] =  2 
m I V
M  M
   
 I !m   VNm 

with Z ijlm being the ( i, j ) element of the generalized self- and mutual impedances defined by [22]

Z ijlm = − ∫−ihi ∫− hj j fi l ( zi ) Gij ( zi , z j ) f jm ( z j ) dzi dz j

h h
(3.2)

The current distribution I i ( zi ) is represented as a linear combination of trial functions, each of

which is normalized to unity at its driving point and is expressed by [15],[22],[23]:

M
 I m  = ∑ I il fi l ( zi ) fi l ( 0 ) = 1 (3.3)
i =1

where f i l ( zi ) must be smooth near the driving points zi = 0

In sections 2.4.5 and 2.4.6 it is stated that, it is possible to extend the application of ICT to much

longer dipoles of similar lengths [38] by the use of trial functions adopted from Tai’s modified

implementation of Storer variational formula for single elements [29] called Tai two-term ICT or

TICT. The variational method is valid if only the trial function is a good approximation of the

real current distribution. This requires a judicious selection of trial functions such that these trial

functions do not become infinite near the driving points. Since the ICT method is an

improvement of the EMF method using extended variational principle based on the stationary

45
expression of the input impedance expression of the EMF method depends on the representation

of the current distribution by trial functions, the next section looks at the representation of the

current distribution by trial functions.

3.3 Representation of the Current Distribution by Trial Functions

It has been mentioned above that, the current distribution I i ( zi ) in the ICT method can be

represented as a linear combination of trial functions, each of which is normalized to unity at its

driving point and expressed by equation 3.3. According to variational procedure, in such a

representation, if the current distribution is expressed as a series of trial functions with

undetermined coefficients, then the coefficients can be adjusted by Rayleigh-Ritz procedure [15],

[39].

What this implies in terms of calculus of variations is that, instead of using only the classical

sinusoidal current distribution of equation (2.28) in equation (3.3), one other function or two or

more functions can be added to equation (3.3) to make up for cases where the classical sinusoidal

current distribution fails [15]. For instance, the application of this first order current (i.e. the

classical sinusoidal) distribution in the analysis of arrays restricts the bandwidth of the structure

to less than 2:1 [15], [19]. Furthermore, the extension of the ICT method for the analysis of

dipole antennas of arbitrary length is possible if only the trial functions are a good approximation

of the real current distribution. This requires a judicious selection of trial functions that avoids

the trial functions becoming infinite near the driving points. The next section therefore does a

trial function analysis to select the appropriate third trial functions from a list of known functions

to represent the current distribution so as to implement the three-term ICT method.

46
3.4 Selection of Trial Functions

Relatively fewer terms of equation (3.2) could be applied to achieve reasonably accurate results

at lower CPU time and computer storage if the quality of the trial functions chosen to represent

the current distribution in equation (3.3) is good [23]. To this end, this section does a trial

function analysis to select a third trial function in addition to the two trial functions of the two-

term conventional ICT algorithm to be used in the current distribution equation (3.3) in a three-

term current function representation to derive elements of the generalized input impedance

matrix to modify the conventional two-term trial function ICT algorithm to develop the three-

term ICT algorithm proposed by this study.

The following trial functions are available in literature [15], [23] for use in representing the

current distribution in the proposed three-term ICT representation:

sin k ( hi − zi )
f ( zi ) = (3.4)
sin khi

1 − cos k ( hi − zi )
f ( zi ) = (3.5)
1 − cos khi

k ( hi − zi ) cos k ( hi − zi )
f ( zi ) = (3.6)
khi cos khi

k ( hi − zi ) = triangular function
f ( zi ) = (3.7)
khi

kzi kh
cos − cos i
f ( zi ) = 2 2 (3.8)
khi
1 − cos
2

47
Equation (3.4) is the normalized sinusoidal current distribution, which was used as the first order

current in the implementation of the induced EMF method. Equation (3.5) is referred to as

Storer’s trial function because it was first used by Storer to improve upon the results of the

induced EMF method. Equation (3.6) is called Tai trial function because C.T. Tai used it in the

modification of Storer’s variational implementation of the EMF method. Equation (3.7) is due to

Harrington whilst equation (3.8) can be found in [40].

The conventional two-term ICT method to be modified to include a third trial function involves

trial functions of equations (3.4) and (3.5). What is left to be done to develop the three-term ICT

algorithm proposed by this study is to select a third trial function from those of equation (3.6) to

equation (3.8). In the analysis of a centre-fed parallel co-planar dipole array antenna of the

configuration depicted in Fig. 3.1. The third trial function to be selected from the trial functions

in equation (3.6) to equation (3.8) is used together with those of equation (3.4) and (3.5) to

represent the current distribution in the three-term development and implementation of the three-

term ICT method apart from satisfying the Rayleigh-Ritz procedure should also possess the

following properties [15], [23]:

1. the function must vanish at the end of a dipole in order to satisfy the boundary conditions

of vanishing tangential components of the field on the surface of the antenna which is

assumed to be a perfect electric conductor (PEC);

2. for any length of the antenna or a system of antennas, the trial current functions

represented as a linear combination of functions and variational constants in equation

48
 (3.3) of the current distribution, must not simultaneously vanish or be zero at the feed

point. This is because the input impedance of the antenna is defined as the ratio of the

feed voltage and current at the input terminals. Practical results obtained through

measurement in the laboratory and from numerical methods such as MoM show that even

though the current at the antenna feed point and its vicinity could be small giving rise to

high input impedances, they may not necessarily be zero. Therefore, a trial function,

which vanishes at the feed point, is suggestive of the fact that, it has failed to represent

accurately the current distribution for the particular antenna structure;

3. in the evaluation of an antenna or a system of antennas where computational time is

paramount, the selection of the trial functions must lead to formulas which should as

much as possible avoid numerical integrations in their evaluations. ICT as a semi-

analytical approach for the evaluation of co-planar dipole array antennas has the ability to

provide very simple formulas, which in most cases are expressible in closed-form leading

to a reduction in computational time. Therefore, in the selection of trial functions to be

used in the representation of the current distribution this property of the ICT method

should be preserved.

The selection of a third trial function to modify the conventional two-term ICT algorithm to

include a third current function to develop the three-term ICT algorithm will be done based on

these three main factors.

49
3.4.1 Vanishing Trial Functions at Antenna Ends

The normalized sinusoidal current function represented in equation (3.4) has been used as a first

order current function in the implementation of the EMF method. When the EMF method was

introduced, it was natural to assume that the current distribution was sinusoidal, since techniques

did not yet exist for determining the distribution more accurately [29].

In applying equation (3.4) in the analysis of co-planar dipole array antenna, the assumption that

the current distribution is ideally sinusoidal which is not always the case in practical antenna

systems is inconsistent with the requirement that, the functions must vanish at the end of a dipole

in order to satisfy the boundary conditions of vanishing tangential components of the field on the

surface of the antenna thus leading to inaccurate results unless the antennas are operated below

2:1 bandwidth [19].

However, the stationary property of the input impedance expression of the EMF method was

exploited by Storer using variational principle to derive an input impedance expression for single

element antennas in a two-term current distribution comprising of equations (3.4) and equation

(3.5). The particular selection of equation (3.4) is justified by the knowledge that, in the limit as

the radius of the antenna approaches zero the current distribution becomes truly sinusoidal [29].

The form of equation (3.5) is cusp-like and permits an even perturbation on equation (3.4), with

either bulging or indenting near the middle of [ − hi , hi ] [29]. Inagaki in deriving the Improved

Circuit Theory (ICT) method used these two trial functions given in equations (3.4) and (3.5) to

derive generalized impedance elements for the analysis of multielement antennas. The

50
combination addressed the problem of satisfying the boundary condition, which the first order

current function of equation (3.4) does not when it is assumed to be ideally sinusoidal [15].

3.4.2 Zero Currents at Feed Point

With regards to the second condition, a close study of Equations (3.4) and (3.5) shows that this

condition is not satisfied for antennas of length khi = 2π or even multiple of such lengths. For

when khi = 2π , the denominators of Equations. (3.4) and (3.5) simultaneously become zero at the

antenna input z = 0 as show in Fig 3.2.

Fig 3.2: Value of trial functions at antenna input for khi = 2π [15]

From Table 3.1, it can be seen that, equation (3.7) is non-vanishing at the input z = 0 . However,

its unsuitability for selection for inclusion in the three-term ICT would be arrived at after

considering condition three. Also from Table 3.1, it can be seen that equation (3.8) has an

expanded application as far as longer dipole lengths are concerned but when combined with the

zero order current of equation (3.4) and Storer’s trial function of function of equation (3.5), they

51
simultaneously vanish at the input for antenna element lengths of khi = 4π thus limiting its

selection to be used as one of the trial functions in the three-term ICT implementation.

Table 3.1: Value of Trial Functions at Antenna Feed Point ( z = 0 ) [15],[50]

khi π 2 π 3π 2 2π 3π 4π

1. sin khi 1 0 −1 0 0 0

2. 1 − cos khi 1 2 1 0 2 0

3. khi cos khi 0 −π 0 2π −3π 4π

4. khi π 2 π 3π 2 2π 3π 4π

khi 2 1 2 2 1 0
5. 1 − cos 1− 1+
2 2 2

3.4.3 Closed-Form Expressions

Closed-form expressions are desirable in the solution of electromagnetic and antenna problems

because they converge at a faster rate as compared to numerical integration leading to a reduced

CPU time in the solution of electromagnetic and antenna problems. It can be shown that, the

application of equations (3.7) and (3.8) in the derivation of the generalized impedance matrix in

a three-term ICT representation involve components which include [15]:

d 2 +t 2
x t x e− j
∫0 cos 2 f ( t ) dt , ∫ t f ( t )dt , f ( t ) =
2
(3.9)
0
d 2 + t2

The expressions in equation (3.9) cannot be easily expressed in closed-form. Their solutions can

therefore only be carried out using numerical integration thus making the use of equations (3.7)

and (3.8) unsuitable for use as trial functions in the proposed three-term ICT representation due

to CPU time considerations.

52
From the above trial functions analysis, trial functions given by equations (3.4), (3.5) and (3.6)

are the best among the above listed trial functions which can be used to derive the generalized

impedance elements matrix for the three-term ICT representation. The selected third trial

function is equation (3.6) . The next section presents the three-term algorithm.

3.5 The Tai Three-term ICT Algorithm

The conventional ICT [15],[23] implementation makes use of trial functions of equations (3.4)

and (3.5) in a two-term representation, which is designated as Storer Two-Term ICT (SICT) since

these two trial functions were originally used by Storer in his single element variational

improvement of the classical EMF method. However, for centre-fed dipoles, a close examination

of equations (3.4) and (3.5) show that both functions become zero at the antenna input if their

lengths are 2λ or even multiples of such lengths [15]. What this implies is that, dipole elements

with lengths around these values would provide very high impedances thus making the

conventional ICT not applicable for such lengths. The application of the conventional ICT is

restricted to antenna lengths for which the current functions are valid [23].

Another two-term ICT implementation in [15] involves the use of equations (3.4) and (3.6) in a so-called

Tai Two-term ICT or TICT representation because of the use of Tai’s trial function in equation (3.6).

From Table 3.1, the combination of equations (3.4) and (3.6) does not simultaneously vanish or become

zero at the feed point for all practical antenna lengths. The TICT can therefore be applied to analysis

antennas of both shorter and longer antenna lengths.

In [15] SFICT which is SICT with a function requiring numerical integration imbedded in it replaced

with it approximated closed form is known to give input impedance results which are more accurate as

53
compared to the more versatile MoM than TICT when they are applied in the analysis of antennas

geometries to which they are applicable. Also in [15], it is shown that CPU time associated with TICT is

two and half times that of SFICT which necessitated a proposed hybrid implementation of ICT of the

form [15],[23]:

SFICT, khi ≤ 1.5π

ICT Implementation =  (3.10)
TICT, khi > 1.5π

In this section, the proposed Tai three-term ICT algorithm is presented. It would be found to be

applicable in the analysis of parallel co-planar dipole array of arbitrary element lengths and

would provide more accurate input impedance results compared to MoM than TICT. Its

implementation would require much shorter CPU time and lesser computer storage compared to

MoM. The CPU time associated with TTICT would be found to be close to that of TICT and

would present a relatively very efficient method and would therefore be found useful in

applications such as CAD/CAE systems in place of equation (3.10). The next two subsections

present the derivations of the elements of generalized impedance matrix of the Tai three-term

ICT, which are necessary for the implementation of the Tai three-term ICT method and its field

pattern expression.

3.5.1 Generalized Impedance Matrix of the Tai Three-term ICT

The implementation of the ICT method as defined in equation (3.1) requires the elements of the

generalized input impedance matrix. In the implementation of Tai three-term ICT, the elements

of the generalized impedance matrix are required as well since its implementation is that of the

conventional ICT but with the number of trial function increased to three. The elements of the

54
generalized input impedance matrix are derived from equation (3.2) [22]. In the three-term

implementation l = 1, 2,3 and m = 1, 2, 3.

Trial functions of equations (3.4), (3.5) and (3.6) are used to derive the elements

zij11 , zij12 , zij13 , zij21 , zij22 , zij23 , zij31 , zij32 and zij33 of the generalized impedance matrix. However,

zij11 , zij12 , zij13 , zij21 , zij22 , zij31and zij33 have been derived in [15] and [22]. What is left to be derived

are zij23and zij32

.

Suitable Jacobian transformations are also used to transform the double integration in equation

(3.2) into single integrals and mathematics software; MATHEMATICA [41] is used to do the

mathematical chores in the derivation of zij23 and zij32 . Details of the derivations of the elements

Z ij23 , Z ij32 are given Appendix A.

3.5.2 Field Patterns

The use of trial functions in equations (3.4), (3.5) and (3.6) in the Tai three-term ICT

implementation makes it possible for the far-field radiation pattern expression to be put in

closed-form as [15]:

! 3
F (θ , φ ) = ∑∑ I im g im (θ , φ ) (3.11)
i =1 m =1

where details of gi1 (θ , φ ) , gi2 (θ , φ ) and gi3 (θ , φ ) are given in [15]. The representation of the far-

field radiation expression in equation (3.11), which is devoid of numerical methods solution in

55
its computation, leads to a considerable saving in the computation of the radiation pattern of ICT

as compared to that of MoM, which is a numerical method.

3.6 The Tai Three-term ICT (TTICT) CAD

The main challenge of antenna analysis and design is the accurate determination of the induced

current on the elements. This makes the design of an antenna a difficult task. But as personal

computers (PCs) increased in speed, so did the proliferation of antenna computer-aided design

(CAD) software making the design of an antenna a less difficult task. Computer-aided design

(CAD) is the use of a wide range of computer-based tools that assist engineers, architects and

other design professionals in their design activities. Modern computer-aided design (CAD) tools

for antenna modeling permit the rapid analysis of composite antenna systems and the

visualization of their radiation patterns

The study therefore proposes one of such antenna CAD tools based on the three-term ICT

algorithm known as the Tai Three-term ICT (TTICT) CAD system to aid antenna designers in

the design of parallel co-planar dipole array antennas. The designed TTICT CAD system is

presented in Appendix B.

This section presents a complete description of the Tai Three-term ICT (TTICT) CAD system.

The block diagram in Fig 3.3 is the conceptual model of the CAD outlining the various

components that comprise the TTICT CAD system.

56
 Fig. 3.3: Conceptual Model of Three-term ICT (TTICT) CAD System

TTICT is a windows-based, user-oriented, Tai Three-term ICT algorithm, personal computer

(PC) system, suitable for analyzing the radiation characteristics of parallel co-planar dipole array.

Capabilities of TTICT include evaluations of the currents distribution on the dipole elements,

input impedance, Gain, Front-to-Back Ratio, and CPU time and far-zone radiation patterns. A

detail description of each block of Fig. 3.3 is presented in the subsections that follow this section.

3.6.1 User Interface

The user interface component of TTICT allows the user to interactively define the geometry of a

Yagi-Uda or a LPDA antenna, display computed figure-of-merits such as input impedance and

Gain and to plot their radiation patterns. The user interface is designed with reference to MOMIC

[42] using Visual Basic software. It is linked to the computation block (calculating engine) and

data visualization block of TTICT mainly through a system of dialog text Visual Basic boxes.

3.6.2 Computation Block

The performance of an antenna depends on certain basic parameters called figures-of-merit.

These parameters must first be determined for the design of an antenna. The most important

57
parameters are input impedance, Gain, Front-to-Back Ratio, radiation pattern, directivity,

bandwidth, and polarization. All these parameters are perfectly symmetric, that is, they apply

equally to transmitted and received signals. The Computation Block of Fig. 3.3 consists of a

number of algorithms for the computation of these parameters. These algorithms are coded in

FORTRAN90 programming language. FORTRAN is an acronym of FORMULA

TRANSLATION. FORTRAN is a high-level programming language designed specifically for

engineering and scientific data-processing applications [48]. The various equations and

descriptions of these algorithms are outlined below:

3.6.2.1 ArrayGeo

ArrayGeo is a subroutine of TTICT CAD that allows the user to define the geometry of a

particular antenna. ArrayGeo defines the height, radius and spacing between elements in the

array. ArrayGeo also addresses the critical area of the computation of the coordinates of the

antenna been analyzed.

3.6.2.2 Input impedance

The input impedance is defined as “the impedance presented by an antenna at its terminals or the

ratio of the voltage to current at a pair of terminals or the ratio of the appropriate components of

the electric to magnetic fields at a point”[11]. An antenna’s input impedance is generally a

function of frequency with real and imaginary parts. Thus the antenna will be matched to the

interconnecting transmission line and other associated equipment only within a bandwidth. The

impedance is important for determining antenna efficiency. Maximum power is transferred to an

external device when its impedance matches the source internal impedance [11].

58
For a Yagi-Uda dipole array antenna, where the feed point is at the second dipole element, the

formula for deriving the input impedance is given by

1
Z in = (3.12)
Y22

where Y22 is the input admittance at the second dipole element of the Yagi-Uda dipole array

antenna. In the case of a log-periodic dipole array (LPDA), the input impedance is the input

current on the nth element. This is because the feed point of the LPDA is at the nth element.

3.6.2.3 Antenna Gain

Antenna gain is the most important figure-of-merit [11]. Antenna gain is defined as the ratio of

the power required at the input of a loss-free reference antenna to the power supplied to the input

of the given antenna to produce, in a given direction, the same field strength at the same distance.

Antenna gain is usually expressed in decibels (dB) and unless otherwise specified, antenna gain

refers to the direction of maximum radiation.

The formula for the computation of the Gain (G) of a co-planar dipole array antenna in the

computation block of TTICT CAD taken from the definition above is given by [43]

G ( dB ) = 10*log ( Pout Pin ) (3.13)

3.6.2.4 Antenna Radiation Pattern

The Antenna radiation pattern is defined as a mathematical function or a graphical representation

of the radiation properties of the antenna as a function of space coordinates. The radiation pattern

is the two- or three-dimensional spatial distribution of radiated energy as a function of the

observer’s position along a path or surface of constant radius [44].

59
For a z-directed centre-fed straight wire dipole antenna, the currents on each dipole are equal in

magnitude and opposite in direction. The normalized electric field pattern of a single antenna

F (θ , φ ) is expressed as a product of a normalized element factor and a normalized pattern factor

as [19]

F (θ , φ ) = g (θ , φ ) f (θ , φ ) (3.14)

where g (θ , φ ) is the element factor and f (θ , φ ) is the pattern factor. The concept is expanded for

an array antenna to give a normalized pattern of an array as

F (θ , φ ) = g a (θ , φ ) f (θ , φ ) (30.15)

where g a (θ , φ ) is the normalized pattern of a single element antenna of the array (the element

pattern) and f (θ , φ ) is the normalized array factor. Equation (30.15) is known as the principle

of pattern multiplication. It provides a simple but powerful tool for visualizing the first order

behavior for an array antenna pattern.

The θ − var iation determines the far-field pattern and is given by [19]

cos ( β L / 2 ) cos θ  − cos ( β L / 2 )

F (θ ) = (3.16)
sin θ

3.6.2.5 Current distribution

The computation of the current distributions on each element in a co-planar dipole array involves

equation (3.1). The impedance matrix that appears in equation (3.1) is used with the feed

voltages to determine the current distributions on each element in the array.

60
In [22], equation (3.1) is solved for the M current matrices  I l  , l = 1,L , M using the following

expression

 I l  = Y l  [V ] , l = 1,L , M (3.17)

Where Y l  is a square admittance matrix of the !th order that can be written in terms of  Z lm  . Thus,

the mutual impedance matrix is derived from the mutual admittance matrix for M=3 follow using the

following relations below:

 Z 11   I 1  +  Z 12   I 2  +  Z 13   I 3  = [V ]
 Z 21   I 1  +  Z 22   I 2  +  Z 23   I 3  = [V ] (3.18)
 Z 31   I 1  +  Z 32   I 2  +  Z 33   I 3  = [V ]

In matrix form equation (3.21) becomes

 Z 11 Z12 Z13   I 1  V 
 21 22 23   2   
 Z Z Z   I  = V  (3.19)
 Z 31 Z 32 Z 33   I 3  V 
    
 I 1   I 2   I 3 
where Y =
1
,Y =
2
and Y = 3
are derived as in appendix B1.
[V ] [V ] [V ]
The mutual admittance and mutual impedance matrices for M=3 are given respectively as:

[Y ] = Y 1  + Y 2  + Y 3 

M =3 (30.20)
= ∑ Y
l =1
l


−1
[ Z ] =  Y 1  + Y 2  + Y 3  
M =3 −1 (3.21)
= ∑  Y l  
l =1

61
However the computation of elements zij11 , zij12 , zij13 , zij21 , zij22 , zij23 , zij31 , zij32 and zij33 of the impedance

matrix involves sin khi , 1 − cos khi and khi cos khi in their denominators which produce singular

results when khi = 2π in sin khi and 1 − cos khi and when khi = π in khi cos khi . This situation
2

creates poles when it comes to the implementation of equation (3.1) in a program on the

computer.

The problem of poles creation is solved using a method outlined in [15] as below. For three-term

representation (i.e. M=3 in Equation (3.1)) the ICT circuit equations can be written as follows:

∑(Z
j
I + Z ij12 I 2j + Z ij13 ) = Vi
11 1
ij j (3.21)

∑(Z
j
ij I + Z ij22 I 2j + Z ij23 ) = Vi
21 1
j (3.22)

∑(Z
j
ijI + Z ij32 I 2j + Z ij33 ) = Vi
31 1
j (3.23)

Now letting

ai = sin khi , bi = 1 − cos khi , ci = khi cos khi (3.24)

and

zij11 = ai Z ij11a j , z12

ij = ai Z ij b j , z ij = ai Zij c j
12 13 13

zij21 = bi Z ij21a j , zij22 = bi Z ij12b j , zij23 = bi Z13

ij c j (30.25)
zij31 = ci Z ij31a j , z 32
ij = ci Z ij b j , z ij = ci Zij c j
32 33 33

ai ii1 = I 1j , b iii1 = I 2j , cii13 = I 3j

(3.26)
aiVi1 = vi1 , bV
i i = vi , ciVi = vi
1 2 3 3

The ICT circuit equations (3.21) to (3.23) can be rewritten as

62
 ∑( z
j
11
ij + zij12 + zij13 ) = vi1 (3.27)

∑( z
j
21
ij + zij22 + zij23 ) = vi2 (3.28)

∑(z
j
31
ij + zij32 + zij33 ) = vi3 (3.29)

Equations (3.27), (3.28) and (3.29) can be expressed in matrix form and the matrix inverted and

multiplied by the constant factors of equation (30.25) to give

 Yij11 Yij12 Yij13  V   I 1 

 21  i  2
 Vi  =  I 
22 23
 Yij Yij Yij (3.37)
 31  V   3 
  i   I 
32
Yij Yij Yij33

It can be observed that, throughout the formulation above the division by factors in equation

(30.25) has been avoided thereby avoiding the creation of poles in the implementation of the

current distribution model on a computer.

3.6.2.6 Front-to-Back Ratio

Another popular antenna specification is the "front-to-back" (F/B) ratio. It is defined as the

difference in dB between the maximum gain or front of the antenna (usually 0 degrees) and a

point exactly 180 degrees behind the front. With a Yagi-Uda array, there is a main lobe and a

back lobe generated. The Front-to-Back Ratio (FBR) in the case of the Yagi-Uda is computed as

the ratio between the main lobe and the back lobe and is given by [45]

 main lobe(max) 
FBR = 20 log10  
 Back lobe(max) 
(3.38)
 E (θ = 900 , φ = 900 ) 
= 20 log10  
 E (θ = 90 , φ = 270 ) 
0 0

63
3.6.3 Data Visualization Block

The data visualization component of TTICT uses LabVIEW for data visualization for antenna

radiation characteristic of far-field radiation patterns. LabVIEW delivers a powerful graphical

development environment for data presentation [49]. Radiation pattern values are computed in

the computation block, put in a text file, and these values are picked up by LabVIEW to plot the

radiation pattern. A user request is made through the user interface for the plot to be displayed by

Lab VIEW.

3.7 Conclusion

Judicious selection of a third trial function used with Storer’s two-term trial functions in a three-

term ICT representation from a set of trial functions which can best represent the current

distribution of arbitrarily configured co-planar array of dipoles has been done through a trial

function analysis to developed a three-term ICT algorithm. A three-term ICT CAD (TTICT) tool

has also been developed using the new ICT algorithm.

Before the three-term ICT algorithm and ICT CAD tool can be used in the analysis of Yagi-Uda

and LPDA antennas it has to be validated. The proceeding chapter; Chapter 4 presents the results

on the input impedance and radiation characteristics (admittances, radiation pattern, gain, front-

to-back ratio and mutual impedance) obtained by the proposed three-term ICT algorithm, MOM,

SICT and TICT and discussions on these results as a way of validating the three-term ICT

method.

64
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AD DISCUSSIOS

4.1 Introduction

The ICT method is generally known in literature to be efficient in terms of CPU time and

computer storage space than the MoM [7], [15], [23]. In Chapter 3, the formulation of the Tai

Three-term ICT algorithm and the Tai Three-term CAD system were presented. This chapter

presents the results and discussions on the developed three-term ICT algorithm as it is validated.

The validation is done by comparing the input impedance and radiation characteristics

(admittances, radiation pattern, gain, Front-to-Back Ratio and mutual impedance) obtained by

using the three-term algorithm in analyzing two parallel co-planar arrays namely Yagi-Uda and

LPDA with those obtained by SICT, TICT and MOM algorithms when these algorithms are used

to analyze these arrays.

4.2 Input Admittances

To validate the Tai Three-term ICT algorithm, the input admittances for various single element

 2h 
dipole antennas lengths are computed for a moderate Hallen parameter  Ω = 2 ln = 10  [15],
 a 

[23] where 2h λ is the antenna length in wavelength and a λ is the radius in wavelength using

the MoM, Storer’s Two-term ICT, Tai’s Two-term ICT and the Tai Three-term ICT. The results

are shown in Fig 4.1.

65
 (a)

(b)

Figure 4.1: Input admittance (a) conductance, (b) subsceptance for Ω = 10

66
It is clear from Figure 4.1 (a) that, there is general agreement between the input admittance

results of the three-term ICT, MoM, Tai’s two-term ICT and Storer’s two-term ICT. It is also

clear from Figure 4.1 (a) that, Storer’s two-term ICT breakdowns at antenna length of 2λ .

TTICT, TICT and MoM give finite impedances for the whole range. It is noticed that, SICT

cannot be valid at kh = 2π . It can be concluded that, the input admittance computed with the

SICT method cannot be valid in the vicinity of kh = 2π . The estimated valid length of co-

planar dipole array which the SICT can be applied to analyze is about kh ≤ 2π . It is also clear

from Figure 4.1 (a) that, TICT and TTICT can be used to analysis parallel co-planar dipole

arrays of arbitrary (any) element lengths. This assertion is further buttressed by values of

Table 3.1 of the trial function analysis of section 3.4. From Table 3.1, it is clear that, the use of

Tai’s trial function of equation 3.6 together with Storer’s two-term trial functions of equations

(3.4) and (3.5) do not simultaneously vanish or become zero at the feed point for all values

of khi .

4.3 Mutual Impedance Computation

Mutual coupling between antenna elements is one of the most important properties to consider

in antenna design. The performance of an antenna depends not only on its own current but also

on the current of its neighboring elements [11]. The input impedance of an antenna in the

presence of other elements, which is referred to as driving-point impedance, depends upon the

self-impedance (input impedance in the absence of any obstacles or other elements) and the

mutual impedance between the driven element and the other elements [11]. Mutual impedance

thus plays an important role in the performance of an antenna.

67
In this section, the mutual impedances of various co-planar dipole antennas computed with

TTICT, ICT, TICT, SICT and MoM algorithms are shown in Figures 4.2 and 4.3 below. It is

seen from Figs. 4.2 and 4.3 that, the four methods produce mutual impedance results, which

are in good agreement. This is because; the selected trial functions to represent the current

distributions in the three ICT methods are a good representation of the current distributions

leading to this good agreement with the MoM.

50
40 Resistance MoM
Mutual Impedance(ohms)

SICT
30 TICT
20 Three-Term ICT

10

-10 Reactance

-20
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Element Spacing (Wavelengths)

Figure 4.2: Mutual impedance of two co-planar dipoles of lengths 2hi = 0.5λ, 2hj = 0.25λ for Ω=10

100
50
Resistanc e
pedance(ohms)

0
-50

-100 MoM
SICT
TICT
utualIm

-150
Three-Term ICT
-200
Reac tance
M

-250
-300
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Element Spacing (Wavelengths)

Figure 4.3: Mutual impedance of two co-planar dipoles of lengths 2hi = λ, 2hj = 0.5λ for Ω=10

68
4.4 A Case Study of the Tai Three-term ICT Method

This section presents a validation of the Tai Three-term ICT algorithm by comparing its results

with those of MoM, SICT and TICT in the analysis of two co-planar dipole array antennas

namely a Yagi-Uda antenna and a Log-periodic Dipole Array (LPDA) antenna

4.4.1 Analysis of a Yagi-Uda Antenna

The Yagi-Uda antenna consists of a number of linear dipole elements, one of which is energized

directly by a feed transmission line, while the others act as parasitic radiators. They are widely

used in the HF (3-30 MHz), VHF (30-300 MHz), and UHF (300-3,000 MHz) bands for TV

broadcast systems. The original design and operating principles of this array were first described

in Japanese, in articles published in the Journal of I.E.E. of Japan by S. Uda of the Tohoku

Imperial University of Japan [11].

A Yagi-Uda array is an end-fire array antenna consisting of three parts: driven element, reflector

and directors. To achieve the end-fire beam formation, the parasitic elements in the direction of

the beam are somewhat smaller in length than the feed element and typically the driven element

is resonant. A considerable amount of work both experimental and theoretical has been done to

extend the Yagi array beyond the basic three units [19]. The reflector is somewhat larger and the

directors somewhat smaller than the driven element. The radiation characteristics that are usually

of interest in a Yagi-Uda antenna are forward and backward gains, input impedance, bandwidth,

the front- to-back ratio and the size of the minor lobes [11].

69
The Yagi-Uda antenna does not only have a unidirectional radiation and response pattern but it

also concentrates the radiation and response. The more directors a Yagi-Uda has, the greater the

forward gain. The general Yagi-Uda array including several directors is shown in Fig. 4.4.

LR L LD Z

SD
Sa

Figure 4.4: Configuration of a general Yagi-Uda array [19]

The lengths and diameters of the directors and reflectors as well as their respective spacing

determine the optimum characteristics [11]. Among them, the size and the separation between

the directors have the largest influence on the properties of the antenna. The Yagi-Uda array can

be summarized by saying that its performance can be considered in three parts [11]:

1. the reflector-feeder arrangement

2. the feeder

3. the rows of directors

Because the Yagi-Uda array is parasitic, the current on the director elements further out from the

driver have decreasing current amplitudes. If the amplitudes and phases of the currents on each

element are known array analysis can be used to determine the radiation characteristics of

interest in a Yagi-Uda antenna [15], [19].

70
In this section, the Tai Three-term ICT algorithm is used to analyze various equally spaced and

equal radii of 0.0025λ three-element, four-element, five-element six-element and seven-element

Yagi-Uda arrays. To validate the Tai Three-term ICT algorithm, these equally spaced and equal

radii of 0.0025λ three-element, four-element, five-element six-element and seven-element

Yagi-Uda arrays are also analyzed with the other two ICT algorithms (SICT and TICT). The

radiation characteristics (namely input impedance and gain) of these equally spaced and equal

radii arrays obtained by the SICT, TICT and the Tai Thhree-term (TTICT) algorithms are

compared with those of MoM taken from [19]. Tables 4.1A, 4.1B, 4.1C, 4.1D, and 4.1E show

the various radiation characteristics obtained by SICT, TICT and TTICT and those of MoM

taken from [19]. All the results in Tables 4.1A, 4.1B, 4.1C, 4.1D and 4.1E are in reasonable

agreement. A striking observation is that the radiation characteristics obtained by TTICT are

more accurate compared to MoM than those obtained by TICT.

Table 4.1A: Characteristics of Equally Spaced Three-element Yagi-Uda Antennas

Analysis No of Spacing Reflector Driver Directors Input Gain
Method Elements (λ ) LR L LD Impedance (dB)
N (λ ) (λ ) (λ ) [Ω]
MOM[19] 3 0.25 0.479 0.453 0.451 22.3+j5.0 9.4
SICT 3 0.25 0.479 0.453 0.451 22.3+j10.4 9.5
TICT 3 0.25 0.479 0.453 0.451 20.4+j5.5 9.7
TTICT 3 0.25 0.479 0.453 0.451 21.9+j6.1 9.2

71
Table 4.1B: Characteristics of Equally Spaced Four-element Yagi-Uda Antennas
Analysis No of Spacing Reflector Driver Directors Input Gain
Method Elements (λ ) LR L LD Impedance (dB)
N (λ ) (λ ) (λ ) [Ω]
MOM[19] 4 0.15 0.486 0.459 0.453 36.7+j9.6 9.7
SICT 4 0.15 0.486 0.459 0.453 29.1+j6.4 9.7
TICT 4 0.15 0.486 0.459 0.453 23.0+j3.3 10
TTICT 4 0.15 0.486 0.459 0.453 28.7+j5.3 8.3

MOM[19] 4 0.20 0.503 0.474 0.463 5.6+j20.7 9.3

SICT 4 0.20 0.503 0.474 0.463 7.5+j13.4 9.7
TICT 4 0.20 0.503 0.474 0.463 8.0+j6.9 10.6
TTICT 4 0.20 0.503 0.474 0.463 5.1+j6.7 12.2

MOM[19] 4 0.25 0.486 0.463 0.456 10.3+j23.5 10.4

SICT 4 0.25 0.486 0.463 0.456 11.1+j16.2 10.8
TICT 4 0.25 0.486 0.463 0.456 10.9+j9.0 11.5
TTICT 4 0.25 0.486 0.463 0.456 9.1+j9.5 11.8

MOM[19] 4 0.30 0.475 0.453 0.446 25.8+j23.2 10.7

SICT 4 0.30 0.475 0.453 0.446 25.5+j16.2 11.0
TICT 4 0.30 0.475 0.453 0.446 23.5+j8.0 11.4
TTICT 4 0.30 0.475 0.453 0.446 23.5+j9.5 11.7

72
Table 4.1C: Characteristics of Equally Spaced Five-element Yagi-Uda Antennas
Analysis No of Spacing Reflector Driver Directors Input Gain
Method Elements (λ ) LR L LD Impedance (dB)
N (λ ) (λ ) (λ ) [Ω]
MOM[19] 5 0.15 0.505 0.476 0.456 9.6+j13.0 10.0
SICT 5 0.15 0.505 0.476 0.456 10.9+j8.0 10.0
TICT 5 0.15 0.505 0.476 0.456 11.1+j3.3 10.5
TTICT 5 0.15 0.505 0.476 0.456 9.8+j6.3 11.0

MOM[19] 5 0.20 0.486 0.462 .449 18.4+j17.6 11.0

SICT 5 0.20 0.486 0.462 .449 17.8+j12.1 11.1
TICT 5 0.20 0.486 0.462 0.449 15.5+j6.5 11.5
TTICT 5 0.20 0.486 0.462 0.449 16.5+j8.5 11.4

MOM[19] 5 0.25 0.477 0.451 0.442 53.3+j6.2 11.0

SICT 5 0.25 0.477 0.451 0.442 49.7+j5.1 11.0
TICT 5 0.25 0.477 0.451 0.442 41.9+j3.6 11.3
TTICT 5 0.25 0.477 0.451 0.442 45.6+j9.3 11.6

MOM[19] 5 0.30 0.482 0.459 0.451 19.3+j39.4 9.3

SICT 5 0.30 0.482 0.459 0.451 17.5+j27.8 10.8
TICT 5 0.30 0.482 0.459 0.451 16.2+j14.1 12.3
TTICT 5 0.30 0.482 0.459 0.451 12.7+j17.4 12.1

Table 4.1D: Characteristics of Equally Spaced Six-element Yagi-Uda Antennas

Analysis No of Spacing Reflector Driver Directors Input Gain
Method Elements (λ ) LR L LD Impedance (dB)
N (λ ) (λ ) (λ ) [Ω]
MOM[19] 6 0.20 0.482 0.456 0.437 51.3-j1.9 11.2
SICT 6 0.20 0.482 0.456 0.437 50.3-j2.5 11.2
TICT 6 0.20 0.482 0.456 0.437 44.1-j6.6 11.5
TTICT 6 0.20 0.482 0.456 0.437 46.2-6.6j 11.4

MOM[19] 6 0.25 0.484 0.459 0.446 23.2+j21.0 11.9

SICT 6 0.25 0.484 0.459 0.446 22.7+j15.0 11.9
TICT 6 0.25 0.484 0.459 0.446 21.5+j7.6 12.2
TTICT 6 0.25 0.484 0.459 0.446 20.4+10.8j 11.8

MOM[19] 6 0.30 0.472 0.449 0.437 61.2+j7.7 11.6

SICT 6 0.30 0.472 0.449 0.437 59.3+j5.9 11.6
TICT 6 0.30 0.472 0.449 0.437 51.0+j3.5 11.9
TTICT 6 0.30 0.472 0.449 0.437 54.8+2.2j 11.6

73
 Table 4.1E: Characteristics of Equally Spaced Seven-element Yagi-Uda Antennas
Analysis No of Spacing Reflector Driver Directors Input Gain
Method Elements (λ ) LR L LD Impedance (dB)
N (λ ) (λ ) (λ ) [Ω]
MOM[19] 7 0.20 0.489 0.463 0.444 20.6+j16.8 11.8
SICT 7 0.20 0.489 0.463 0.444 20.4+j13.0 11.8
TICT 7 0.20 0.489 0.463 0.444 17.9+j6.2 12.4
TTICT 7 0.20 0.489 0.463 0.444 18.5+j10.6 11.5

MOM[19] 7 0.25 0.477 0.454 0.434 57.2+j1.9 12.0

SICT 7 0.25 0.477 0.454 0.434 56.7+j5.2 12.0
TICT 7 0.25 0.477 0.454 0.434 49.7+j2.0 12.3
TTICT 7 0.25 0.477 0.454 0.434 52.9-j3.0 11.5

MOM[19] 7 0.30 0.475 0.455 0.439 35.9+j21.7 12.7

SICT 7 0.30 0.475 0.455 0.439 35.6+j18.2 12.7
TICT 7 0.30 0.475 0.455 0.439 31.2+j8.6 13.3
TTICT 7 0.30 0.475 0.455 0.439 33.2+j12.4 13.1

Again, the ICT algorithms (SICT, TICT and TTICT) are used to analyze a six element Yagi-Uda

array antenna to operate in the midband frequency of TV Channel 22, which is 479 MHz with

the geometry below [19]:

LR = 0.5λ , L = 0.47λ , L D = 0.43λ , S R = 0.25λ , S D = 0.30λ . The results together with that of

MoM taken from [19] are shown in the Table 4.2

Table 4.2: Characteristics of a Six-element Yagi-Uda Array Antenna for TV Channel 22 Operation

Method Input Impedance Gain Front-to-Back

[Ω] (dB) Ratio
(FBR)
MoM [19] 59.5+j47.5 11.5 dB 9.7 dB
SICT 590.20+j43.5 11.5 dB 6.6 dB
TICT 53.7+j38.0 11.5 dB 11.1 dB
TTICT 59.1+j37.5 11.0 dB 7.2 dB

74
Again, the results of MoM, SICT, and TTICT are in close agreement and in general, the results of

TTICT are in good agreement with those of MoM, SICT than those of TICT. Thus, each of these

methods can be used to analyze the Yagi-Uda array of the geometry given above to design it

without any significant degradation in its performance.

4.4.1.1 Computation of Time Statistics

Time determination subroutines are included in the FROTRAN programs of TTICT, TICT and

SICT methods to determine the computer running time required to compute the input impedance,

Gain, Front-to-Back Ratio and radiation pattern of a six element Yagi-Uda antenna on a Pentium

III personal computer (PC). For the Yagi-Uda array of the geometry to operate in TV channel 22

given above, the CPU time required for the computation of the above figure-of-merits was

computed with TTICT, SICT and TICT. The results are shown in Table 4.3.

Table 4.3: Computed CPU times of SICT, TICT and TTICT Algorithms

METHOD OF AALYSIS CPU TIME [S]

SICT 0.020

TICT 0.030

TTICT 0.040

The main advantage of the ICT method is its relatively lower computational time and computer

storage space compared to MoM [50]. It is clear from the results in Table 4.3 that, the new ICT

algorithm (TTICT) uses twice the CPU time used by SICT and 10.25 the CPU time of TICT. The

CPU time of TTICT is close to the CPU time of TICT. TTICT has CPU time which is far shorter

than the CPU time of MoM as in [50] even though the CPU time of MoM was computed with a

75
different computer. This is a because all the three ICT methods have a fast convergence rate due to

their functions been expressible in closed-form as against the MoM which involves a dense

systems of linear equations resulting in a large matrix of these linear equations which require very

high CPU time to invert it . A considerable saving in time is thus obtained with TTICT than with

MoM [15]

4.4.2 Analysis of a Broadband Antenna: Log-periodic Dipole Array

Modern communication systems need to operate over multiple bands and broadband due to various

applications such as Global System for Mobile communications (GSM), Wideband Code Division

Multiple Access (WCDMA) and Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) [46]. Therefore to

implement these broadband applications, there is the need for antennas with broad bandwidths. A

broadband antenna is one that has a wide bandwidth. A broadband antenna must maintain

reasonably constant radiation characteristics over the range of frequencies it is operating. The

LPDA is one of such broadband antennas. This section further validates the three-term ICT

algorithm by applying it in the analysis of a Log-Periodic Dipole Array (LPDA) antenna. Before

the validation process, literature on LPDA is presented to assist in the discussions of the results of

the analysis.

The Log-periodic dipole array is a series-fed array of parallel wire dipole of successively

increasing lengths outward from the feed point at the apex, forming a co-planar structure [19] as

shown in Fig 4.5.

76
 Fig 4.5: Log-Periodic Dipole Array geometry

It is this feature upon which the design of the LPDA is based, and which permits changes in

frequency to be made without greatly affecting the radiation characteristics. With changes in

operating frequency, there is a smooth transition along the array of the elements which comprise

the active region.

The LPDA has an active region, where the few dipoles near the one that is a half-wavelength

long support much more current than the other radiating elements [19]. These elements constitute

the active region of the antenna. The location of the active region shifts on the antenna as the

operating frequency changes. The geometrical dimension of the LPDA follows a set pattern with

( ) ( )
lengths ln′ s , spacing Rn′ s , and diameters ( d n ' s ) and gap spacing at dipole centers ( sn ' s ) of

the LPDA increasing logarithmically as defined by the inverse of the geometric ratio τ . That is

[11],

1 l2 ln +1 R2 Rn +1 d 2 d n +1 s2 sn +1
= = = = = = = = (4.1)
τ l1 ln R1 Rn d1 dn s1 sn

77
Another parameter that is usually associated with a dipole array is the spacing factor σ defined

by [11]

Rn +1 − Rn
σ= (4.2)
2ln +1

The general configuration of a LPDA is described in terms of the design parameters τ , α , and σ

related by [11]

1 − τ 
α = tan −1  (4.3)
 4σ 

Straight lines through the dipole ends meet to form an angle 2α which is a characteristic of

frequency independent structures. The pattern, gain and impedance of an LPDA depend the

design parameters τ and σ [19].

4.4.2.1 Design Example of LPDA

To validate the three-term ICT algorithm by applying it in the analysis of an LPDA for its

design, the example in [19] which examines the characteristics of a 200-600 MHz LPDA is used.

The characteristics of this 200-600 MHz LPDA are also obtained by applying the other two ICT

algorithms (SICT and TICT) in analyzing it. The gain, radiation pattern, impedance and front-

to-back ratios obtained by the SICT, TICT and the Tai Three-term (TTICT) algorithms together

with those of MoM taken from [19] are used in validating the proposed three-term ICT

algorithms.

In the example, the gain, pattern and impedance of a LPDA as a function of frequency is

examined. Suppose it is to be constructed for operation over the 200 to 600 MHz band. For

78
optimum performance and design goal of 10dB, design parameters τ = 0.917 and σ = 0.169 are

used. The lowest frequency of operation (200MHZ) has a wavelength of λL = 1.5m , so the first

has a length of L1 = λL 2 = 0.75 . The length of the shortest element should be on the order of a

half-wavelength at 600MHz, and λU 2 = 0.500m 2 = 0.250m .

Fig 4.6: Amplitude of Current distribution of an optimum log-periodic dipole

antenna for operation in 200 to 600 MHz band

Fig. 4.6 shows the current distribution for three different frequencies on the log-periodic dipole

antennas. As the frequency changes, the relative current remains essentially the same, but they

move toward the direction of the active region. The movement of the maximum current

distribution is an indication of broadband behavior. The input impedance and gain as a function

of frequency is shown in Table 4.4

79
Table 4.4: Characteristics of 150-600 MHz LPDA, τ = 0.917, σ = 0.169

Frequency MoM [19] SICT TICT TTICT

MHz
150 Gain (dB) 89+j20 36+j17 35+j16 38+j16
Zin (Ω) 5.54 6.85 6.92 7.96
200 Gain (dB) 69-j7 79-j11 79-j11 87-j2
Zin (Ω) 8.75 9.36 9.34 7.49
300 Gain (dB) 72-j4 72-j3 73-j3 80+j2
Zin (Ω) 9.43 9.64 9.51 80.15
450 Gain (dB) 76-j6 72-j4 72-j4 77+j
Zin (Ω) 9.51 9.94 9.94 8.87
600 Gain (dB) 78-j11 68-j2 68-j2 69-j4
Zin (Ω) 9.37 9.66 9.43 8.61
650 Gain (dB) 71-j27 78-j11 78-j11 77-j8
Zin (Ω) 8.98 8.17 7.88 6.73

Between 200MHz and 600MHz bands, the gain obtained by the three ICT methods and the MoM

are in good agreement and also these gains approach the 10-dB design value. Between the

200MHz and 600 MHz frequency bands, the impedance and gain remain reasonably constant,

indicating frequency independent behavior [19]. The radiation patterns in Fig 4.7 at the various

frequencies are in good agreement with those in [19]. In order to maintain the radiation

characteristics constant, the active region on the LPDA moves to different regions of the antenna

as the frequency changes.

80
Fig 4.7: H-plane radiation patterns at several frequencies for an optimum log-periodic dipole
antenna for operation in the 200 to 600 MHz band

81
4.5 Conclusion

The radiation characteristics of two parallel co-planar dipole arrays, Yagi–Uda and LPDA

obtained by Tai Three-term (TTICT), STICT, TICT and those of MoM taken from [19] has been

presented. It has been demonstrated that the ICT method offers a much faster method of

analyzing multielement antennas compared with the conventional method of moment (MoM).

From the results of input admittance (Fig. 4.1 (a)), it has been shown that, the conventional ICT

(SICT) method cannot be applied in situations where the trial functions of equations (3.4) and

(3.5) are a poor representation of the current distribution on the array of antennas.

From the same Fig 4.1 ((a), it has also been shown that (TICT) and TTICT methods could be

used in analyzing co-planar dipole array of arbitrary length. Also a comparison of the CPU

times (Table 4.3) shows that TTICT requires about twice the computational time of SICT and

one and quarter the CPU time of TICT to compute the figures of a Yagi-Uda to design to operate

in TV channel 22. The TTICT requires a far shorter CPU time than MoM in this case. The new

Tai Three-term (TTICT) algorithm is thus a relatively efficient ICT algorithm for the analysis of

co-planar dipole array of arbitrary length.

82
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, COCLUSIO AD REMARKS

5.1 Introduction

The goal of this thesis has been to develop an efficient Improved Circuit Theory (ICT) algorithm

using a three-term current function representation and to develop a Computer Aided Design

(CAD) tool (computer program) using this efficient Improved Circuit Theory (ICT) algorithm for

the analysis of parallel co-planar dipole array antennas. This CAD tool allows antenna designers

to obtain the radiation characteristics of two parallel co-planar antennas namely Yagi-Uda and

LPDA at a faster rate to aid in the design of such antennas.

This chapter presents a summary of the results of the study undertaken to achieve the objectives

outlined in section 1.7 of Chapter 1. A general conclusion is drawn based on these results and

recommendations made for further studies into ICT method for analysis of multielement

antennas or other parallel co-planar dipole array antennas which this study did not cover.

5.2 Summary

As a step towards the attainment of the goal of the thesis, in Chapter 2 a literature review of

current approaches for analyzing cylindrical dipole array antennas in co-planar arrangement

available in literature is made. The review showed that, the method of moments (MoM) is a

general procedure for the solution of antenna problems because it can deliver the entire current

distribution for both single and multielement antennas for the computation of both the self- and

mutual impedances.

83
It has been established in the review that problems of multielements antennas may be most

conveniently analyzed by circuit theory such as the EMF method with the calculated self- and

mutual impedances been satisfactory results in the case of thin antennas. The method is however

based on certain assumptions, which are inconsistent with the boundary conditions on the

antenna surface leading to poor results for longer and thicker antennas.

For the analysis of co-planar dipole array antennas, it has been established that, the Improved

Circuit Theory (ICT) is a relatively very efficient method in terms of computer storage and CPU

time. It is also as accurate as the MoM. It has also been established that, the ICT method

improves on the EMF method using extended variational principle based on the stationary

property of the input impedance expression of the EMF method.

The review has also shown that ICT takes into account all mutual couplings thus making it

unnecessary to assume the current distribution on the elements in a co-planar dipole array. In

Chapter 3, a trial functions analysis to select the appropriate third trial function for the

development of the Three-term algorithm and design of the CAD tool was presented. The

elements of generalized input impedance matrix were derived using the selected trial functions

was also presented. Mathematics software MATHEMATICA was used to overcome the

computational effort needed to compute the elements of the generalized input impedance matrix.

In implementing the CAD tool, a non-singular implementation of the new ICT algorithm was

considered to avoid occurrence of poles in the algorithm to be implement on a computer.

84
Comparison of the radiation characteristics of a Yagi-Uda array, a parallel co-planar dipole array

antenna obtained from the use of the three-term ICT algorithm in its analysis with those obtained

by MOM, SICT and TICT algorithms are captured in Chapter 4. A close agreement is seen

between the results of the three-term ICT method and those of MOM that verify the accuracy of

the three-term ICT representation. This comparison has validated the three-term ICT algorithm

proposed in this thesis. Convergence issues of the Tai Three-term ICT representation were also

investigated. The three-term ICT representation showed a faster rate of convergence compared to

the MOM and TICT. In the analysis of the LPDA, the results of the Tai Three ICT methods are

in good agreement with the MoM.

5.3 Conclusion

The results of the study have shown that:

1. For the analysis of a Yagi-Uda array, the ICT method is an efficient method in terms of

computer storage and CPU time compared to the conventional numerical method of

moment (MoM).

2. The conventional ICT (SICT) method is inadequate for the analysis of co-planar arrays of

much longer dipole lengths that is those dipole lengths longer than 2λ. The valid lengths

of co-planar centre-fed dipole antennas to which the conventional ICT (SICT) can be

used in the analysis of parallel co-planar dipole array have therefore been confirmed by

Fig 4.1 and Table 3.1 of the study.

85
 3. To expand the valid region of the ICT method to cover longer dipole lengths, a judicious

selection of trial functions leads to an impedance formula which expands the region of

validity of the ICT method in the analysis of co-planar array antennas is needed.

4. The Tai Three-term ICT algorithm gives results, which are comparable in accuracy to the

conventional method of moments. This has been confirmed by results of the analysis of

Yagi-Uda and LPDA using the three-term ICT algorithm.

5. Because all the formulas of Tai Three-term ICT algorithm are expressible in closed-form,

it is an ICT implementation, which still requires much shorter CPU time and lesser

computer storage compared to the computationally intensive Method of Moments. This

has been established by the comparison of the CPU time shown in Table 4.3.

The study therefore concludes that, for the analysis of practical range of parallel co-planar dipole

arrays of arbitrary dipole lengths such as in the case of Yagi-Uda antenna, devoid of time

intensive numerical integration, the proposed Tai Three-term ICT algorithm presents a relatively

very efficient method and would be found useful in applications such as CAD/CAE systems. In

the case of LPDA, the results of TTICT, SICT and TICT are in good agreement with the MoM..

5.4 Recommendations for Further Work

There is a wide range of parallel co-planar dipole array antennas; including Yagi-Uda, Log-

Periodic Dipole Antennas (LPDA) and the Corner Reflector. The study focused on the evaluation

of two parallel co-planar dipole array antennas namely, the Yagi-Uda and Log-Periodic Dipole

Array (LPDA) antennas since due to time constraint it was not possible to research into the other

parallel co-planar dipole array antennas in this study.

86
It is therefore recommended that, future studies should be done in the area of the application of

Tai Three-term ICT implementation in the analysis of the corner reflector and other types of

parallel co-planar dipole array. Until this is done, the reported results on the analysis of the Yagi-

Uda and LPDA alone are not enough to come to a general conclusion that the proposed three-

term ICT method is an efficient for the analysis of parallel co-planar dipole array antennas.

87
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88
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pp.809-812, September, 1996.
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91
 APPEDICES

APPEDIX A

Generalized Impedance Matrix for Array of Arbitrary Element Lengths

Here, details of the elements of Z ij23 = Z ij32 of the generalized three-term impedance matrix for

arrays of arbitrary configuration depicted in Fig. 3.1 are given. Equation (3.2) of Chapter 3,
defines elements of the generalized impedance matrix of the three-term ( l = 1, 2, 3, m = 1, 2, 3 )

ICT representation. Z ij11 , Z ij12 = Z ij21 , Z ij13 = Z ij31 , Z ij22 and Z ij33 are derived in [15] and[22]. What is left

to be derived are Z ij23 = Z ij32 . From equation (3.2) Z ij23 = Z ij32 is defined as:

f i 2 ( zi ) Gij ( zi , z j ) f j 3 ( z j ) dzi dz j
hi hj
Z ij 23 = Z ij 32 = − ∫ ∫ (A.1)
− hi −hj

where G ( zi , z j ) is the Green function defined as [22]:

 
exp  − jk ( zi − z j ) + d 2 
2

jωµ  1 ∂  
2

Gij ( zi , z j ) = − 1 + 2 2 
(A.2)
4π  k ∂z j  
( zi − z j ) + d 2
2

ai i = j
d = (A.3)
d ij i ≠ j

In Eq. A.3, dij is the spacing between the ith and the jth elements in an array whilst ai is the
radius of any element in the array. The general solution for an element Z ij lm of the generalized
impedance matrix is given as:

 ∂f i l ( xi ) ∂f j ( x j ) 
m

= −30 j ∫ ∫  f i ( xi ) f j ( x j ) −  G ( xi , x j ) dxi dx j
Li Lj
lm l m
Z ij
− Li − L j
 ∂xi ∂x j 


Therefore for zij23 ( = zij32 ) we have,

92
  ∂f i 2 ( xi ) ∂f j ( x j ) 
3

= −30 j ∫ ∫  fi ( xi ) f j ( x j ) −  G ( xi , x j ) dxi dx j (A.4)

Li Lj
Z ij = Z
23 32
ij
2 3
− Li − L j
 ∂xi ∂x j 


making the substitutions khi = Li , kh j = L j , kzi = xi , kz j = x j and kd = D

With these substitutions, the trial functions involved in the derivation of Z ij23 = Z ij32 are given as:

1 − cos ( Li − xi )
f l ( zi ) = (A.5)
1 − cos Li

f m (zj ) =
(L j ) (
− x j cos L j − x j ) (A.6)
L j cos L j

and
 
exp  − j ( xi − x j ) + D 2 
2

G ( xi , x j ) =  
( xi − x j ) + D 2
2

With A.5 and A.6, equation A.4 is expressed as:

 f i 2 ( xi ) f j 3 ( x j ) − f 2' ( xi ) f 3' ( x j )  G ( xi , x j ) dxi dx j (A.7)

Li Lj
Z ij 23 = Z ij32 = −30 j ∫ ∫  
− Li − Lj

Equation A.7 simplifies after mathematical manipulation to:

60 j
Z ij 23 = − [ P + Q] (A.8)
L j cos L j (1 − cos Li )

where

( L j − x j ) cos( L j − x j ) − cos( Li + L j − ( xi + x j ))  
 
 G ( xi , x j ) dxi dx j (A.9)
Li Lj
P=∫ ∫  1
0 0

− sin( Li + L j − ( xi + x j )) + sin( Li − L j − ( xi − x j ))  
 2 
and

( L j + x j ) cos( L j + x j ) − cos( Li − L j − ( xi + x j ))  
 
∫L j + 1 sin( L + L − ( x − x )) + sin( L − L − ( x + x ))   G ( xi , x j ) dxi dx j (A.10)
Li 0
Q=∫
0
 j 
 2
i j i j i j i


93
Equations A.9 and A.10 involve double integration. To transform these equations to single integrals, a
Jacobian transformation is made as follows:

u = xi − xj xi =( u +v) 2

 ,
v = xi + xj xj =( −u +v) 2

∂xi ∂xi 1 1
∂u ∂v 2 2 1
J= = =
∂xj ∂xj -1 1 2
∂u ∂v 2 2

Letting Li < L j , p = Li + L j and q = Li − L j , the regions of integration together with the limits for P and

Q are given in Fig A.1 (a) and (b) respectively.

Figure A1: Jacobian Transformation

94
P and Q are now defined as:
Li − L j u +2Lj 0 − u + 2 Li Li − u + 2 Li
P=∫ ∫ dudv + ∫ ∫ dudv + ∫ ∫ dudv
u =− L j v =− u u = Li − L j v =− u u = 0 v =u

( L j − x j ) cos( L j − x j ) − cos( Li + L j − ( xi + x j ))  
  f(u,v)
 1 
 − 2 sin( Li + L j − ( xi + x j )) + sin( Li − L j − ( xi − x j ))  

Li u Lj − u + 2 Li Li + L j − u + 2 Li
Q=∫ ∫ dudv + ∫ ∫ dudv + ∫ ∫ dudv
u = 0 v =− u u = Li v =− u u=Lj v =u − 2 L j

 ( L j + x j ) cos( L j + x j ) − cos( Li − L j − ( xi + x j ))  
   
 1  f (u , v)
+
 2   sin( L + L − ( x − x )) + sin( L − L − ( x + x ))
j 


i j i j i j i

Where

f ( u, v ) = f (u ) =
(
exp − j u 2 + D 2 )
u 2 + D2

The following MATHEMATICA codes simplifies P and Q

For P, we have
f [u _, v _ ] = − * ( L j − x j ) cos( L j − x j ) − cos( Li + L j − ( xi + x j )) 
1
2
1 exp(− j u 2 + D 2
− sin( Li + L j − ( xi + x j )) + sin( Li − L j − ( xi − x j ))  *
2 u2 + D2
Pv int [1] = simplify int egrate  f [ u , v ] , {v, −u , u + 2 L j } 
 
pv int [ 2] = simplify int egrate  f [u , v ] , {v, −u , −u + 2 Li } 

pv int [3] = simplify int egrate  f [ u , v ] , {v, −u , u + 2 Li } 

p = pv int [1] + pv int [ 2] + pv int [3]

The output from MATHEMATICA simplifies the double integration involving P to a single
integrals as follows:

95
 1 Li −Lj cos[ q −u] −16cos[ q + u] + 2(2 + Lj )sin[ q −u] − 4usin[ p −u] − 4sin qsin u 
8 ∫u=−Lj −2(2 + Lj +u)sin[ q + u] −8cos Lj +8cos Lj + u +8Lj sin Lj +8(Lj +u)sin Lj +u
P=   f (u)du +
 
1 0 cos[ p −u] −cos[ q + u] + 4sin[Li ]sin Lj −u − 4Li sin[ p −u] − 2(2 + Lj + u)sin[ q + u]
8 ∫u=Li −Lj −8cos[ q −u] +8cos[Lj + u] −8(q −u)sin[ q −u] +8(Lj + u)sin[Lj +u]
  f (u)du +
 

1 Li 8cos 2Lj  −8cos[ q −u] +16Lj sin 2Lj  +8(−Li + Lj + u)sin[ q −u]
8 ∫u=0 +16(4 + Li −3Lj −u)sin[ p −u] −32( p −u)s in[ p −u]
  f (u)du
 

For Q we have,

g [u _, v _ ] = − * ( L j + x j ) cos( L j + x j ) − cos( Li − L j − ( xi + x j )) 
1
2
1 exp(− j u 2 + D 2 )
+ sin( Li + L j − ( xi − x j )) + sin( Li − L j − ( xi + x j )  *
2 u 2 + D2
qv int [1] = simplify int egrate  g [ u , v ] , {v, −u , u} 

qv int [ 2] = simplify int egrate  g [u , v ] , {v, −u , −u + 2* Li } 

qv int [3] = simplify int egrate  g [u , v ] , {v, u − 2* L j , −u + 2* Li } 

 
Q = qv int[1] + qv int[2] + qv int[3]

The output from MATHEMATICA simplifies the double integration involving Q to a single
integrasl as follows:

− cos[ q − u] + cos[ q + u] + 2(2 + Lj )sin[ q − u] + 8cos Lj  + 2cos[ q − u] −8cos Lj − u
   
1 Li 
Q = ∫ −2cos[ q + u] + 8Lj sin Lj  −8Lj sin Lj − u + 8u sin Lj − u + 4u sin [ p + u]  f (u)du +
8 u=0  
−4( 2 + Lj − u) sin [ q + u]
 

1 Lj 8cos Lj − u − 9cos[ p − u] + cos[ q + u] + 8Lj sin Lj − u −8u sin Lj − u + 4sins[ p + u] 
8 ∫u=Li −10Ls
  f (u)du +
 i in [ p − u] − 6Lj sin [ p − u] + 6u sin [ p − u] + 4sin [ q + u] + 2Lj sin [ q + u] − 2u sin [ q + u] 
1 Li +Lj
−4 + cos[ p − u] + (−4 + 5Li + 5Lj − 5u)sin[ p − u] f (u)du
4 ∫u=Lj 

Carrying out further integration of P and Q and using the following cosine, sine and exponential
integral the closed-forms of which in [15]

96
 x
CD ( x ) = 2 ∫ cos u
(
exp − j u 2 + D 2 ) du
0
u2 + D2

x
S D ( x ) = 2 ∫ sin u
(
exp − j u 2 + D 2 ) du
0
u 2 + D2

ED ( x ) = 2 ∫
x (
exp − j u 2 + D 2 ) du
0
u 2 + D2

U D ( x ) = 2∫ u
x (
exp − j u 2 + D 2 ) du
0
u 2 + D2

CU 1D ( x ) = 2 ∫ u cos u
x (
exp − j u 2 + D 2 ) du
0
u2 + D2

CU 2 D ( x ) = 2 ∫ u cos u
x
2
(
exp − j u 2 + D 2 ) du
0
u 2 + D2

x
SU 1D ( x ) = 2 ∫ u sin u
(
exp − j u 2 + D 2 ) du
0
u 2 + D2

SU 2 D ( x ) = 2 ∫ u sin u
x
2
(
exp − j u 2 + D 2 ) du
0
u 2 + D2

and reverting to the substitutions khi = Li , kh j = L j and kd i = D gives the following closed
expressions for z 23 and z32 as follows:

97
 30 j
zij23 = (cos(kp)[ pSkd (kp) − pSkd (khi ) − khj Skd (khj ) + SU1kd (khi ) + SU1kd (khj )
khj cos khj (1− cos khi )
− SU1kd (kp)] + sin(kp)[Skd (khi ) − pCkd (kp) − CU1kd (kp) − Skd (kp) − CU1kd (khi ) − CU1kd (khj )]
+ cos(kq)[(qSkd (kq) − qSkd (khi ) + hj Skd (khj ) − Ckd (kq) + SU1kd (khi ) − SU1kd (khj ) − SU1kd (kq)]
+ sin(kq)[Skd (khi ) − qCkd (kq) − Skd (kq) + CU1kd (kq) − CU1kd (khi ) − CU1kd (khj )]
− 2Ekd (khi )[khj cos(khj )sin(khj )] + 2Ckd (khi )[khi cos(khj )sin(khi ) + cos(khi )[cos(khj ) + khj sin(khj )]]
+ Ekd (kp) + Ekd (kq))

30 j
zij32 = (cos(kp)[ pSkd (kp) − pSkd (khi ) − khj Skd (khj ) + SU1kd (khi ) + SU1kd (khj )
khj cos khj (1− cos khi )
− SU1kd (kp)] + sin(kp)[Skd (khi ) − pCkd (kp) + CU1kd (kp) − Skd (kp) − CU1kd (khi ) − CU1kd (khj )]
+ cos(kq)[(−qSkd (kq) + qSkd (khi ) − hj Skd (khj ) + Ckd (kq) − SU1kd (khi ) + SU1kd (khj )
+ SU1kd (kq)] + sin(kq)[−Skd (khi ) + qCkd (kq) + Skd (kq) − CU1kd (kq) + CU1kd (khi ) + CU1kd (khj )]
− 2Ekd (khj )[khj cos(khi )sin(khj )] + 2Ckd (khi )[khi cos(khi )sin(khi ) + cos(khj )[cos(khi ) + khj sin(khj )]]
+ Ekd (kp) − Ekd (kq))

98
 Appendix B

B.1 Derivation of Input Admittance Expressions

Solving equation (3.21) using Cramer’s rule yields

Z13  Z 23  − Z 22  + Z 23  Z13  − Z 33   + Z12  Z12  − Z 22 
Y  =
1       (B.1)
Z13  2 Z12  Z 23  − Z13  Z 22  − Z11  Z 23  − Z 33  Z12  − Z11  Z 22 
2 2

   

Z13  Z12  − Z13  + Z 23  Z11  − Z 23  + Z 33  Z11  − Z12 
Y  =
2       (B.2)
Z  2 Z  Z  − Z  Z  − Z  Z  − Z  Z  − Z  Z 22 
13 12 23 13 22 11 23 2 33  12 2 11
   

Z12  Z13  − Z12  + Z 22  Z11  − Z13  + Z 23  Z12  − Z11 
Y  =
3       (B.3)
Z13  2 Z12  Z 23  − Z13  Z 22  − Z11  Z 23  − Z 33  Z12  − Z11  Z 22 
2 2

   

99
B.2 The three-term ICT (TTICT) CAD System

In this appendix, the user interface, input forms and outputs of TTICT CAD system is given as
below:

Fig B.1: User Interface

Fig B.2: Input and Output for the analysis of a Six-element Yagi-Uda Antenna

Fig B.3: Radiation Pattern of a Six-element Yagi-Uda

100
 Fig B.1: User Interface

Fig B.4: Input and Output for the analysis of a LPDA Antenna

Fig B.5: Radiation Pattern of a LPDA Antenna for a frequency of 150MHZ

101
 Fig B.1: User Interface

Fig B.4: Input and Output for the analysis of a LPDA Antenna

Fig B.6: Radiation Pattern of a LPDA Antenna for a frequency of 200MHz

102
Fig B.1: User Interface

Fig B.4: Input and Output for the analysis of a LPDA Antenna

Fig B.7: Radiation Pattern of a LPDA Antenna for a frequency of 300MHz

103
Fig B.1: User Interface

Fig B.4: Input and Output for the analysis of a LPDA Antenna

Fig B.8: Radiation Pattern of a LPDA Antenna for a frequency of 450MHz

104
Fig B.1: User Interface

Fig B.4: Input and Output for the analysis of a LPDA Antenna

Fig B.9: Radiation Pattern of a LPDA Antenna for a frequency of 600MHz

105
Fig B.1: User Interface

Fig B.4: Input and Output for the analysis of a LPDA Antenna

Fig B.10: Radiation Pattern of a LPDA Antenna for a frequency of 650MHz

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