Foundations

for Machines
Foundations
for Machines:
Analysis and Design
Shamsher Prakash
University of Missq!)ri-Rolla

Vijay K. Puri
Southern Illinois University, Carbondale

A Wiley-lnterscience Publication
JOHN WILEY AND SONS
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 To our friend the enlightened saint, humble philosopher, and friend of all
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Copyright © 1988 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

All rights reserved. Published simultaneously in Canada.

Reproduction or translation of any part of this work
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,., .:.t~~-·~,ermissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

{ibt-ary of'Congress Cataloging in Publication Data:

.- ~. ,' · J?rakash~ Sham_s~~r.

: Fo~ndations for machines.
(Wiley series in geotechnical engineering)
"A Wiley-Interscience publication."
Includes bibliographies and index.
1. Machinery-Foundations. I. Pori, Vijay.
II. Title. III. Series.
TJ249.P618 1987 621.8 87-21678
ISBN 0-471-84686·4

Printed in the United State of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 Preface

The design of machine foundations involves a systematic application of the

principles of soil eljgineering, soil dynarn,,i~s, and theory of vibrations-a fact
that has been well recognised during tlie last three decades. Since the
classical work by Lamb in 1904 and the paper on "Foundation Vibrations"
by Richart in 1962, the subject of vibratory response of foundations has
attracted the attention of several researchers. The state of art on the subject
has since made significant strides. Methods are now available not only for
computing the response of machine foundations resting on the surface of the
elastic half space but also for embedded foundations and foundations on
piles. Elastic half space analogs have further simplified the computation
process and are a convenient tool for the designer. The linear spring
approach of Barkan, which could previously be used only for surface
footings, has also been extended to account for the embedment effects.
Recent advances dealing with the determination of the dynamic soil prop-
- erties and rational interpretation of the test data are of direct application to
the design of machine foundations. Information on several aspects of
machine foundation design such as design of embedded foundations and pile
supported machine foundations is either unavailable or only inadequately
treated in the presently available texts.
This text has been developed with the object of providing state-of-the-art
,,information on the analysis .,and design of machine foundations and is
intended to cater to the interests of graduate students, senior under-
graduates, and practicing engineers. Both authors have offered graduate-
level courses on the subject in the United States and India. They also
organized many short courses for practicing engineers, including four by the
senior author at University of Missouri, Rolla. The authors have also been
engaged in the design and performance evaluation of machine foundations.
The feedback from the classroom and the professionals in the field has been
of immense help in the planning and preparation of this text.
vii
viii PREFACE
The special features of this book are: (1) analysis of surface and
embedded foundations by both the elastic half space method and the linear
spring method; (2) analysis of pile supported machine foundations; (3)
detailed discussion of the dynamic soil properties, methods for their de-
termination, and evaluation of the test data; ( 4) detailed design procedure
followed by examples; and (5) discussion of design of machine foundations
on absorbers and vibration isolation.
Knowledge of soil mechanics and elementary mathematics or mechanics
is needed to follow the text.
The reader is introduced to the problem of machine foundation and its
special requirements in Chapter 1. In Chapter 2, the elementary theory of
vibrations is discussed. Chapter 3 deals with the wave propagation in an
elastic medium that provides an important basis for determination of
dynamic soil properties as discussed in Chapter 4. Needless to say, soil
properties play a critical role in the design of machine foundations. Chapter
4 thus forms a very important component of the text. Also included in this
chapter is the procedure for rational selection of soil parameters for a given
machine foundation problem. The determination of unbalanced forces and
moments occasioned by the operation of a machine is reviewed in Chapter
5. The principal subject of the book, the analysis and design of machine
foundations is introduced in Chapter 6, that deals with the design of
rigid-block-type foundations for reciprocating machines. In this chapter the
reader is made familiar with the concepts of elastic half space method and
linear spring method for computing the vibratory response of surface
footings. Foundations for impact-type machines such as hammers are dis-
cussed in Chapter 7. Foundations for high-speed rotary machines are
discussed in Chapter 8 and for miscellaneous machines in Chapter 9. The
principles of vibration isolation and absorption are considered in Chapter
10. The design of embedded block foundations for machines is described in
Chapter 11 followed by pile supported machine foundations in Chapter 12.
A few case histories are discussed in Chapter 13 and construction aspects in
Chapter 14.
Computer program for design of a block foundation based on principles
discussed in Chapter 6 has been included in Appendix I, aud for design of a
hammer foundation as in Chapter 7 has been included in Appendix II. A
brief description of the commercially available programs PILAY for solution
of piles and STRUDL for analysis of turbo-generator foundations is in-
cluded in Appendix III.
The subject matter has been developed in a logical progression from one
chapter to the next. Every effort has been made to make the text self-
contained as far as possible. A comprehensive bibliography is included at
the end of each chapter so that an interested reader may obtain additional
information from published sources.
Development in certain areas, particularly the determination of dynamic
soil properties and analysis of embedded foundations and piles under
PREFACE
dynamic loads, is taking place at a very rapid rate. Analysis and design
procedures may therefore undergo modifications. This fact has also been
brought to the attention of the reader"' at appropriate places in the text.
Thanks are due the American Society of Civil Engineers and National
Research Council of Canada for permitting the use of materials from thefr
publication. Acknowledgment to other copyrighted material is given at
appropriate places in the text and figures.
In preparing this text, several of our colleagues and graduate students
have helped in a variety of ways. The authors wish to express their sincere
thanks to them. Special mention must be made of Dr. Krishen Kumar, who
read the entire manuscript and made useful suggestions, particularly on
Chapter 12, and Dr. A Syed for his useful comments and suggestions and of
Mr. Murat Hazinedarogulu for assistance in writing the computer programs.
The manuscript was typed by Janet Pearson, Charlena Ousley, Allison
Holdaway, and Mary Reynolds. The authors are most thankful to them for
their care, painstaking efforts, and patience. John W. Koeing, technical
editor at the University of Missouri, Rolla, provided editorial assistance and
deserves our sincer~ !hanks. ->', <1"-
Acknowledgmenis are also due thiFpublishers for their cooperation
during various stages of editorial and production work. A special mention
must be made of the cooperation received from Everett Smethurst, David
Eckroth and Linda Shapiro.
It must also be mentioned that any suggestions or comments by the
readers for making any improvements in the text will be highly appreciated.
SHAMSHER PRAKASH
VnAY K. PnRI
Rolla, Missouri
Carbondale IL
Contents

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 ;; Type of Machines 'l.~!l Foundations, 2
1.2 Design Criteria to Bi(Satisfied, 4
1.3 Relevant Codes, 9
1.4 Data Required for Design, 1 0
1.5 Significance of Soil Parameters, 1 0
References, 10

CHAPTER 2 THEORY OF VIBRATIONS 12

2.1 Definitions, 12
2.2 Simple Harmonic Motion, 14
2.3 Free Vibrations of a Spring-Mass System, Hi
2.4 Free Vibrations with Viscous Damping, 20
2.5 Forced Vibrations with Viscous Damping, 24
2.6 Frequency Dependent Excitation, 29
2.7 Systems under Transient Loads, 31
2.8 Rayleigh's Method, 34
2.9 Logarithmic Decrement, 38
2.10 Determiii!ltion of Viscous Damping, 39
2.11 Transmissibility, 41
2.12 Vibration Measuring Instruments, 42,
2.13 Systems with Two Degrees of Freedom, 44
2.14 Multidegree Freedom Systems, 50
Practice Problems, 58
References, 61
xii CONTENTS CONTENTS xiii

CHAPTER 3 WAVE PROPAGATION IN AN ELASTIC MEDIUM · 62 4.9 Examples, 156

3.1 Wave Propagation in Elastic Rods, 63 4.10 Overview, 177
3.1.1 Longitudinal Vibrations of Rods of Infinite Practice Problems, 182
Length, 63 References, 183
3.1.2 Longitudinal Vibrations of Rods of Finite Length,
69 CHAPTER 5 UNBALANCED FORCES FOR DESIGN OF MACHINE
,3,13 Torsional Vibrations of Rods of Infinite Length, 74 FOUNDATIONS 189
3.1.4 Torsional Vibrations of Rods of Finite Length, 76 5.1 Unbalanced Forces in Reciprocating Machines, 189
3.2 Wave Propagation in an Elastic Infinite Medium, 76 5.2 Unbalanced Forces in Rotary Machines, 201
3.3 Wave Propagation in a Semi-infinite Elastic Half Space, 5.3 Unbalanced Forces Due to Impact Loads, 205
84 ' 'i
. ' . 5.4 Examples, 205
. ,, 3.4 ..•.Wave""Generated.. by a.Surface Footing, 91
References, 211
3.5 Final Comments, 93
Practice Problems, 93
CHAPTER 6 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES 212
References, 93
6.1;;, pesign Requirem~!'~s, 212
CHAPTER 4 DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES 95 6.2 Modes of Vibration of a Rigid Foundation Block, 213
4.1 Triaxial Compression Test under Static Loads, 96 6.3 Methods of Analysis, 214
4.2 Elastic Constants of Soils, 100 6.4 Elastic Half-Space Method, 214
4.3 Factors Affecting Dynamic Shear Modulus, 104 6.5 Effect of Footing Shape on Vibratory Response, 234
4.4 Equivalent Soil Springs, 118 6.6 Vibrations of a Rigid Circular Footing Supported by an
Elastic Layer, 236
4.5 Laboratory Methods, 122
6.7 Linear Elastic Weightless Spring Method, 240
4.5.1 Resonant Column Test, 123
6.8 Design Procedure for a Block Foundation, 260
4.5.2 Ultrasonic Pulse Tests, 127
6. 9 Examples, 268
4.5.3 Cyclic Simple Shear Test 128
6.10 Overview, 301
4.5.4 Cyclic Torsional Simple Shear Test, 131
References, 303
4.5.5 Cyclic Triaxial Compression Test, 133
4.6 Field Methods, 135
CHAPTER 7 FOUNDATIONS FOR IMPACT MACHINES 306
4.6.1 Cross-Borehole Wave Propagation Test, 135
4.6.2 Up-Hole or Down-Hole Wave Propagation 7.1 Methods of Analysis, 307
Test, 136 7.2 Design Criteria, 318
4.6.3 Surface-Wave Propagation Test, 137 7.3 Design Procedure for Hammer Foundations, 319
"ljq~'

4.6.4 Vertical Footing Resonance Test, 140 7.4 Examples> 323

4.6.5 Horizontal Footing Res6nance Test, 143 7.5 Overview, 328
4.6.6 Free Vibration Test on Footings, 144 References, 329
4.6.7 Cyclic Plate Load Test, 144
4.6.8 Standard Penetration Test, 145 CHAPTER 8 FOUNDATIONS FOR HIGH-SPEED ROTARY
4. 7 Evaluation of Test Data, 146 MACHINES 330
4.8 Damping in Soils, 147 8.1 Layout of a Typical Turbogenerator Unit, 331,
xiv CONTENTS~ CONTENTS
.XV

8.2 Loads on a Turbogenerator Foundation, 332 10.5 Design Procedure for Wave Barriers, 423
8.2.1 Loads Due to Normal Operation of Plant, 332 10.6 Methods of Reducing Vibration Amplitudes in Existing
8.2.2 Loads Due to Emergency Conditions, 337 Machine Foundations, 406
8.3 Design Criteria, 339 10.7 Examples, 431
8.4 Design Concepts, 340 1 0.8 Final Comments, 436
8.5 Methods of Analysis, 340 References, 436
8.5.1 Simplified Methods, 341
8.5.2 Rigorous Methods, 357 CHAPTER 11 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BLOCK
FOUNDATIONS. 438
8.6 Design Procedure, 363
8.6.1 Design Data, 364 11.1 Elastic Half-Space Method, 439
8.6.2 Dynamic Analysis, 366 11 .1 .1 Vertical Vibrations, 440
8.7 Examples, 371 11 .1 .2 Sliding Vibrations, 443
Referentes, 374 11 .1.3 Rocking Vibrations, 448
11.1.4 Coupled Rocking and Sliding Vibrations, 451
11.1.5 Torsional Vibrations, 456
CHAPTER 9 FOUNDATIONS FOR MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF
MACHINES 376 11.:b ·Linear Elastic Weightless Spring Method, 459
11.2.1 Vertical Vibrations, 459
9.1 Foundations for Low-Speed Rotary Machines, 376
11.2.2 Sliding Vibrations, 462
9.2 Foundations for Machine Tools, 391 11.2.3 Rocking Vibrations, 464
9.3 Foundations for Stamping, Forging, and Punching 11.2.4 Coupled Rocking and Sliding Vibrations, 468
Presses, 392
11.2.5 Torsional Vibrations, 469
9.4 Machines Supported on Floors, 394
11.3 Design Procedure for an Embedded Block Foundation,
9.5 Examples, 395
471
References, 398
11.4 Examples, 4 77
11.5 Compliance-Impedance Function Approach, 482
CHAPTER 10 VIBRATION ABSORPTION AND ISOLATION 399 11.6 Overview, 448
10.1 Principle of Vibration Absorption, 401 References, 490
10.2 Common Vibration Absorbers, 404
10.2.1 Steel or Metal Springs, 404 CHAPTER 12 MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ON PILES 493
10.2.2 Cork, 406 12.1 Analysis of Piles under Vertical Vibrations, 495
10.2.3 Rubber, 407 12.1.1 End-Bearing Piles, 495
10.2.4 Timber, 408 12.1.2 .Friction Piles, 497
'~~
10.2.5 Neoprene, 408 12.2 Analysis of Piles under Translation and Rocking, 517
10.2.6 Pneumatic Absorber; 408 12.3 Analysis of Piles under Torsion, 521
1 0.3 Design Procedure for Foundations on Absorbers, 41 0 12.4 Design Procedure for a Pile-Supported Machine
10.4 Principles of Vibration Isolation with Wave Barriers, Foundation, 529
413 12.5 Examples, 532
10.4.1 Trench Barriers, 414 12.6 Comparison of Measured and Predicted Pile Response,
10.4.2 Pile Barriers, 420 541
xvi CONTENTS

12.7 Final Comments, 547

Practice Problems, 550
References, 552
1
CHAPTER 13 CASE HISTORIES 554
13.1 Case History of a Compressor Foundation, 556 Introduction
13.2 Case History of a Hammer Foundation, 569
13.3 Final Comments, 576
References, 576

CHAPTER 14 CONSTRUCTION OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS 578

14.1 Construction Aspects of Block Foundations, 579
14.2 Construction Aspects of Frame Foundations, 580
14.3 Erection and Interfacing of a Machine to the
Foundation, 586
14.4 Gap around the Foundation, 589
14.5 Bonding of Fresh to Old Concrete, 589
14.6 Installation of Spring Absorbers, 589
References, 592
APPENDIXES
1 Computer Program for the De sign of a Block
Foundation, 595
2 Computer Program for the Design of a Hammer
Foundation, 61 0
3 Brief Description of Some Available Computer
Programs, 620
4 Computation of Moment of Inertia, 624
5 Conversion Factors, 629
NOTATION
AUTHOR INDEX
SUBJECT INDEX
Machine foundations require the special attention of a foundation engineer.
Unbalanced dynamic forces and momel),ts,are occasioned by the operation
of a machine. The ;..achine foundation ilius transmits dynamic loads to the
soil below in addition to the static loads due to the combined weight of the
machine and the foundation. It is the consideration of the dynamic loads
that distinguishes a machine foundation from an ordinary foundation and
necessitates special design procedures. The foundation for the machine must
593
therefore be designed to ensure stability under the combined effect of static
and dynamic loads. In general, a foundation weighs several times as much as
a machine, and the dynamic loads prod,•ced by the machine's moving parts
are relatively small compared to the combined weight of the machine and
the foundation (Prakash and Puri, 1969). Even though the magnitude of the
dynamic load is small, it is applied repetitively over long periods of time.
The behavior of the supporting soil is generally considered elastic. For the
range of vibration levels associated with a well-designed machine founda-
tion, this assumption seems reasonable. The vibration response of the
machine-foundation-soil system defined by its natural frequency and the
amplitude of vibration under the normal operating conditions of the mach-
631 ine are the two most important parameters to be determined in designing
the foundation for any machine. In addition, the wave energy, which is
647 transmitted through the underJ.¥:ing soil from the vibrating foundation, must
not cause harmful effects on other machines, structures, or people io the
651 immediate vicinity. This consideration and the operational requirements of
the machine necessitate that the amplitudes of foundation vibration be
limited to small values. Thus the local soil conditions and the foundation-
soil interaction are important factors to be considered in the design of
foundation for any machine. Satisfactory design of a machine foundation
can be accomplished by systematic application of principles of soil mech-
anics, soil dynamics, and theory of vibrations.
2 INTRODUCTION TYPES OF MACHINES AND FOUNDATIONS 3

The initial cost of construction of a machine foundation is generally a

small fraction of the total cost of the machine, accessories, and the in-
stallation, but the failure of the foundation as a result of poor design or
construction can interrupt the machine's operation for long periods and ------ I
cause heavy dollar losses. Great care should therefore be taken at all stages I --.,
Foundation I I
of the soil investigation and in the design and construction of these I
foundations to ensure their long-term satisfactory performance. I
There are many types of machines and each may require a certain type of /
--1_"/////// )'!_; /
foundation. The different types of machines, their special features, and the Maximum L {.P)m Maximum rotation
types of foundations commonly used to support them are briefly described vertical amplitude
Ia) (b)
now. The criteria used in design of these foundations, the relevant codes of
practice, and the data required for their design are also discussed sub-
sequently.
Maximum translation

1.1 TYPES OF MACHINES AND FOUNDATIONS .::.- ~lf..-

<l
II
There are many types of machines. All generate unbalanced exciting loads. II
In general, the various machines may be classified into three categories: 1/
/ /
1. Reciprocating machines: This category of machines includes internal
combustion engines, steam engines, piston-type pumps and compressors,
(c)
and other similar machines having a crank mechanism. The basic form of a (d)

reciprocating machine consists of a piston that moves within a cylinder, a
connecting rod, a piston rod and a crank (Fig. 5.1). The crank rotates with a
constant angular velocity. The crank mechanism converts the translatory
motion into rotary motion and vice versa. The operating speeds of recip-
rocating machines are usually smaller than 1200 rpm.
The operation of the reciprocating machine or the crank mechanism
results in unbalanced forces both in the direction of piston motion and
perpendicular to it (Section 5.1). The magnitude of forces and moments will
depend upon the number of cylinders in the machine, their size, piston
displacement, and the direction of mounting.
If one considers only the unbalanced force in the direction of piston
motion in a machine with only one cylinder that is mounted centrally on a
rigid foundation (Fig. l.la), the motion of the foundation will be only up
and down. A two-cylinder reciprocating machine under similar conditions
mounted centrally on a rigid foundation, will generate an oscillatory motion
and no translation (Fig. 1.1b). Similarly, if a piston·is mounted horizontally,
it will give rise to an unbalanced force and a moment on the foundation.
The foundation will therefore undergo both translation and rotation simul-
taneously (Fig. l.lc). In the case of a two-cylinder machine mounted
horizontally, the unbalanced forces in a plane parallel to the base of the
foundation generate a couple (Fig. l.ld). This results in a motion that is
similar to the motion of a torsional pendulum. It therefore becomes clear
Figure 1.1. Types of motion of a rigid foundation due to unbalanced forces of reciprocating
machines: (a) pure vertical translation; (b) pure rocking; (c) simultaneous horizontal sliding and
rocking; and (d) pure torsional oscillations.
that the motion of a fpundation depends upon the resulting forces and
moments imparted to it by the machine. Chapter 6 shows that the stresses at
the base of a foundation supporting a reciprocating machine may be uniform
compression as in Fig. l.la, nonuniform compression as in Fig. l.lb, or
uniform or nonuniform shear depending on the nature of dynamic loads.
Reciprocating machines are very frequently encountered in practice. A
rigid block-type foundation is usually provided for these machines. The
vibrations of such a foundation are essentially due to dynamic deformations
in the soil.
2. Impact machines: Incluifed in this category are such machines as
forging hammers, which produce impact loads. These machines consist of a
falling ram, an anvil, and a frame (Fig. 7.1). Forging hammers are divided
into two groups (Barkan, 1962): drop hammers for die stamping and forge
hammers proper.
Free forging operations are usually preformed by forge hammers. The
anvil and the side frame, are generally mounted separately (Fig. 7.1b). The
side frame, together with guides for the ram, contributes to the precision of
4 INTRODUCTION DESIGN CRITERIA TO BE SATISFIED 5

the blows required in forging. The foundation block under the anvil serves 2.5
I I I I I
as a support for the entire hammer.
The speeds of operation of both these hammers are usually low and range
from 60 to 150 blows per minute. Their dynamic loads attain a peak in a 2.0 -
very short period of time and then practically die out. The unbalanced force ~
c ••c ~ Low tuned

0 tuned
occasioned by the impact lasts only a fraction of a second. In between two ~0

successive blows, the foundation and anvil vibrate freely. The analysis of the ••
•

u.
Q

1.5 -
·~

)
hammer foundation, therefore, proceeds along lines that are different from i5
cS
those for the analysis of a reciprocating machine foundation. A massive ~~·

block foundation is usually provided for impact machines. Vibration absor- c

0 1.0 -
ber pads are placed between the anvil and the foundation to absorb some of
the vibrations.
"•u
~

3. Rotary machines: High-speed machines, such as turbogenerators, tur- "E

bines, and rotary compressors, may have speeds that exceed 3000 rpm and "' 0.5 - -

may even reach 10,000 rpm.

Steam turbines have elevated pedestal foundations that may consist of an I I
arrangement of a base-slab and vertical columns, which support at their tops 0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
a grid of beams on which skid-mounted machinery rests. Each element of :~~~r~quency ratio ~ oper"~trig speed of machine
such a foundation is relatively flexible (Fig. 8.1) as opposed to the rigid fundamental··frequency of foundation
block-type foundation. Figure 1.2. Tuning of a foundation.

1.2 DESIGN CRITERIA TO BE SATISFIED·

A machine foundation should meet the following requirements in order to
be satisfactory (Prakash, 1981).
For static loads
1. The foundation should be safe against shear failure.
2. The foundation should not settle excessively.
These are standard requirements that are the same for all footings.
2. The amplitudes of motion at the operating frequencies should not
exceed the permissible values. These limiting amplitudes are generally
specified by the machine's manufacturer.
3. The design should be such that the natural frequency of the foun-
dation-soil system will not be a whole number multiple of the operating
frequency of the machine to avoid resonance with higher harmonics (Section
5.1).
4. Vibrations occasioned by the machine operation should not be an-
noying to persons or harmful to other precision equipment or machines in
the vicinity or to adjoining structures.

For dynamic loads
1. There should be no resonance. That is, the natural frequency of the
machine-foundation-soil system should not coincide with the operating
frequency of the machine. In fact, a zone of resonance is generally defined,
and the natural frequency of the soil foundation system must lie outside this
zone (Fig. 1.2). The foundation may thus be designated as "high tuned"
when its fundamental frequency is greater than the operating speed or as
"low tuned" when its fundamental frequency is lower than the operating
speed. This concept of a high or low tuned foundation is illustrated in Fig.
1.2.
In addition to the preceding criteria, geometrical layout of the foundation
may be influenced by operational requirements of the machine.
The failure condition of vibril;(ing foundations is reached when the motion
exceeds a limiting value, which thay be expressed in terms of the velocity or
acceleration of the movement of the foundation. For steady-state vibrations,
these may be expressed in terms of allowable displacements at specified
frequencies (Richart, 1962). Figure 1.3 illustrates the order of magnitudes
that are involved in the criteria for determining the dynamic response. Five
curves delimit the zones of vibrations to which persons are sensitive when
standing close to the vibrating machinery. These zones range from "not
noticeable" to "severe." The boundary between "not noticeable" and
6 INTRODUCTION

+ From Reiher & Meister (1931)-(steady state vibrations)

• From Rausch (1943Hsteady state vibrations)
6 From Crandell (1949)-(due to blasting)
.OJ

1 r005

~ 0.02

Frequency, cpm
Figure 1.3. Limiting amplitudes of vibrations for a particular frequency. (After Richart, 1962.)

100
"barely noticeable" in Fig. 1.3 is defined by a line that represents a peak rpm
velocity of about 0.01 in/sec (0.25 mm/sec), and the line separating the
Figure 1.4. Criteria for vibrations of rotating machinery. Explanation of classes:
zones of "easily noticeable" and "troublesome" represents a peak velocity
of 0.10 in/sec (2.5 mm/sec). The shaded area in Fig. 1.3 indicates the "limits AA Dangerous. Shut it down now to avoid danger.
for machines and machine foundations." This represents a peak velocity of A Failure is near. Correct within two days to avoid breakdown.
1.0 in/sec (25.5 mm/sec) below about 2000 cpm and corresponds to a peak B Faulty. Correct it within 1 0 days to save maintenence dollars.
acceleration of 0.5 g above about 2000 cpm. It should be noted that this C Minor faults. Correction wastes dollars.
D No faults. Typical new equipment.
shaded area indicates a limit for safety and is not a limit for the satisfactory
"li:.
operation of a machine. This is a guide to aid judgment, not to replace it. Use common sense. Use with care. Take
The importance of a machine and its sensitivity to operational conditions account of all local circumstances. Consider: safety, labor costs, downtime costs. (After Blake,
along with the cost of installation and losses due to interruption (down time) 1964.) Reproduced with permission from Hydrocarbon Processing, January 1964.
determine the limit of the motion amplitudes for which the foundation must
be designed (Richart, 1976). Permissible amplitudes at operating speed can
be established from Fig. 1.4 (Blake, 1964). The vibration amplitudes are
generally specified at bearing level of the machine.
The concept of "service factor" was introduced by Blake (1964). The
7
8 INTRODUCTION RELEVANT CODES 9

service factor is an indication of the importance of a machine in an Table 1.2. General Machinery-Vibration-Severity Data
installation. Typical values of service factors are listed in Table 1.1. Using Horizontal Peak Velocity
the concept of service factor, the criteria given in Fig. 1.4 can be used to (in/sec) Machine Operation
define vibration limits for different classes of machines. Also with the·
introduction of the service factor, Fig. 1.4 can be used to evaluate the <0.005 Extremely smooth
0.005~0.010 Very smooth
performance of a wide variety of machines. The concept of service factor is
0.010~0.020 Smooth
explained by the following examples. 0.020~0.040 Very good
A centrifuge has a 0.01 in (0.250 mm) double amplitude at 750 rpm. The 0.040~0.080 Good
value of the service factor from Table 1.1 is 2, and the effective vibration 0.080~0.160 Fair
therefore is 2 x 0.01 = 0.02 in (0.50 mm). This point falls in Class A in Fig. 0.160~0.315 Slightly rough
1.4. The vibrations, therefore, are excessive, and failure is imminent unless 0.315~0.630 Rough
the corrective steps are taken immediately. >0.630 Very rough
Another example is that of a link-suspended centrifuge operating at Source: After Baxter and Bernhard (1967). Reproduced by permission of American Society of
1250 rpm that has 0.0030 in (0.075 mm) amplitude with the basket empty. Mechanical Engineers, New York, NY.
The service factor is 0.3, and the effective vibration is 0.00090 in
(0.0225 mm). This point falls in class C (Fig. 1.4) and indicates only minor
fault.
General information for the operation of rotary machines is given in 1.3 RELEVANT CODES..
'""
Table 1.2 (Baxter and Bernhard, 1967). These limits are based on peak-
velocity criteria alone and are represented by straight lines on Fig. 1.4. The criteria for satisfactory design of a machine foundation are described in
The maximum velocity for the lower limit of the "smooth" range is Section 1.2. Methods of analysis of foundations for different machines are
0.01 in/sec (0.25 mm/sec) in Table 1.2 and the lower limit of the range described in Chapters 6 through 12. These enable the engineers to design
"barely noticeable to persons" is also 0.01 in/sec (0.25 mm/sec) in Fig. 1.3. safe and economical foundations.
The lower limits of "slightly rough" for machines is 0.16 in/sec ( 4.0 mm/sec) Because installation of heavy machinery has assumed increased import-
in Table 1.2 whereas the value for "troublesome to persons" is 0.10 in/sec ance throughout the world, their foundations have to be specially designed
(2.5 mm/sec) in Fig. 1.3. Also the danger limit of "very rough" is 0.63 in/ to take into consideration both the vibrational characteristics of the load and
sec (15.75 mm/sec) in Table 1.2 whereas Rausch's limit for machines is the properties of the supporting soil, which is subject to dynamic conditions.
1.0 in/sec (25.0mm/sec) in Fig. 1.3 (Rausch, 1973). Tbus Table 1.2 and Fig. Although many considerations relating to the design and construction of
1.3 are similar (Richart, 1976). such machine foundations are specified by the machines' manufacturers,
other details must comply with the general design principles that govern
machine foundations. With this objective in view, codes for the design and
Table 1.1. Service Factorsa
construction of machine foundations have been written in West Germany
Single-stage centrifugal pump, electric motor, fan 1 (DIN 4024, 4025), Russia (CH-18-58), Hungary (MSZ 15009-64), and India
Typical chemical processing equipment, noncritical 1 (Indian Stardards Institution, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970). Unfortunately,
Turbine, turbogenerator, centrifugal compressor 1.6 no such codes have been written in the United States (1987). For design of
Centrifuge, stiff-shaftb; multistage centrifugal pump 2
turbogenerator foundations, leading manufacturers such as Westinghouse,
Miscellaneous equipment, characteristics unknown 2
Centrifuge, shaft-suspended, on shaft near basket 0.5
General Electric, and Honeywjfii have their own design criteria. The
Centrifuge, link-suspended, slung 0.3 designer must familiarize himselr with the relevant standards (code of
practice) prevalent in the country in which he works. t
a Effective vibration= measured single amplitude vibration, in inches multiplied by the service
factor. Machine tools are excluded. Values are for bolted-down equipment; when not bolted,
multiply the service factor by 0.4 and use the product as the service factor. Caution: Vibration is
measured on the bearing housing, except as stated. t American Concrete Institute is working on the codes for design of foundations subjected
" Horizontal displacement on basket housing. to dynamic machinery. But no codes have been finalized so far (1987). Naval Facilities En-
Source: After Blake (1964). Reproduced with permission from Hydrocarbon Processing, gineering Command (1983) describes only elementary criteria for design of machine
January 1984. foundations.
10
1.4 DATA REQUIRED FOR DESIGN
To arrive at a satisfactory design for a machine foundation, all pertinent
data must be procured. This data must include information on layout of the
machine, operating speeds, unbalanced loads generated by the machine
operation, point of application of the unbalanced loads, and permissible
amplitudes of vibration. Details of the data required are discussed sepa-
rately for each type of machine in Chapters 6 through 12.
Besides the preceding information about the machine, detailed infor-
mation on the static and dynamic properties of the supporting soil should
form an essential part of the data that must be procured.
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF SOIL PARAMETERS
The reader must have realized by now that the design of a machine
foundation essentially involves determination of the vibration characteristics
(natural frequencies and vibration amplitudes) of the machine-foundation-
soil system. Besides the machine and the foundation data, the soil properties
are a rather significant input parameter governing the computed. response,
i.e., the predicted behavior of this system. Depending upon the method of,
analysis (the elastic half space or the linear spring theory, Chapter 6), the
mode of inputting the soil parameters may vary. It will be shown in Chapter
4 that the number of parameters affecting the relevant soil properties are
large and sometimes quite complex.
Fortunately, the determination of soil properties for the design of ma-
chine foundations has reached a stage where fairly precise evaluations can
be made for given loading conditions. The soil parameters can be deter-
mined in a realistic manner after a careful evaluation of the field or
laboratory test data by following the procedure suggested in Chapter 4
(Section 4.7). The importance of soil parameters must always be kept in
mind by an intelligent designer.
REFERENCES
Barkan, D. D. (1962). "Dynamics of Bases and Foundations." McGraw~Hill,
Baxter, R. L., and Bernhard, D. L. (1967). Vibration tolerances--for industry. Am. Soc. Mech.
Eng. [Pap.] 67-PME-14.
Blake, M. P. (1964). New vibration standards for maintenance. Hydrocarbon Process. Pet.
Refiner 43 (!), 111-114.
Crandell, F. J. (1949). Ground vibrations due to blasting and its effects on structures. J. Boston
Soc. Civ. Eng. 36 (2). Also reprinted in Contributions to Soil Mech. BSCE 1941-1953, pp.
206-229.
CH-18-58 Soviet Code of Practice for Foundations Subjected to Dynamic Effects.
INTRODUCTION REFERENCES 11
DIN 4024 Stutzkonstruktionen fiir rotierende Machinen (Supporting structures for rotary
machines).
DIN 4025-1958 Fundamente fiir Ambo-Hiimmer (Schabotte-Hammer) Richtilinten fur die
Konstruktionen-Bemessung und ausfuhrung (Criteria for the design and construction of
foundations for anvil-hammer construction).
Indian Standards Institution (1966). "Indian Standard Code of Practice for Design and
Construction of Machine Foundations," Part II, IS: 2974. lSI, New Delhi, India.
Indian Standards Institution (1967). "Indian Standard Code of Practice for Design and
Construction of Machine Foundations," Part III, IS: 2974. lSI, New Delhi, India.
Indian Standards Institution (1968). "Indian Standard Code of Practice for. Design and
Construction of Machine Foundations," Part IV, IS: 2974. lSI, New Delhi, India.
Indian Standards Institution (1969). "Indian Standard Code of Practice for Design and
Constructi?n of Machine Foundations," Part I, IS: 2974 (rev.). lSI, New Delhi, India.
Indian Standards Institution (1970). "Code of Practice for Design and Construction of Machine
Foundations," Part V, IS: 2974. lSI, New Delhi, India.
MSZ 15009-64 Hungarian Code for Design of Machine Foundations.
Naval Facilities Engineering Command (1983). "Soil Dynamics, Deep Stabilization, and
Special Geotechnical Construction," Design Manual 7.3, NAVFAC DM-7.3. Dept. of the
Navy, Naval Facilities Engineering Command, Alexandria, Virginia.
Prakash, S. (1981). "SoiliJ?ynamics." McGraw-Hi!l;;;)'~:cw York.
Prakash, S., and Puri, V.K. (1969). Design of a "tYPical machine foundation by different
methods. Bull.-Indian Soc. Earthquake Techno/._6, 109-136.
Rausch, E. (1943). ''Maschinenfundamente und andere dynamische Bauaufgaben." VDI
Verlag, Berlin.
Reiher, H., and Meister, F. J. (1931). Die Empfindlinchkeit der Menschen gegen Erschiit-
terungen. Forsch. Geb. lngenieurwes. 2 (11), 381-386.
Richart, F. E., Jr. (1962). Foundation vibrations. Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 127, Part I,
863-898.
Richart, F. E., Jr. (1976). Foundation vibrations. "Foundation Engineering Hand Book,"
Chapter 4. Van Nostrand-Reinhold, New York.
New York.
 DEFINITIONS 13

2 I
Forced Vibrations: Vibrations that are developed by externally applied
exciting forces are called forced vibrations. Forced vibrations occur at the
frequency of the externally applied el<citing force. The frequency of
excitation does not depend on the natural frequency of the system.
Amplitude of Motion: The maximum distance that a body moves during
Theory of Vibrations vibrations from its position of rest is its amplitude of motion.
Degrees of Freedom: The number of independent coordinates necessary to
describe the motion of a system are the degrees of freedom of the system.
A system that has several degrees of freedom is called a multidegree
freedom system.
Consider the simple pendulum shown in Fig. 2.1a. The displaced

It was mentioned in Chapter 1 that machine foundations may be subjected

to either periodic loads or impact loads. A periodic load may be represented
by a harmonic function, i.e., a sine or a cosine function. The problem of
impact loads can be easily solved with an initial boundary value approach.
For machine-foundation analysis it is only necessary to be familiar with the
simple theoretical concepts of harmonic vibrations and with the methods
m
needed to solve such problems. Although a block foundation may have six n = 1 X
degrees of freedom, it is seldom necessary to solve for a system with more Simple pendulum n = 2
than two degrees of freedom. This simplifies the study of theory of vibra- (a) (b)

tions. In analysis of flexible foundations, we have to use other solution

techniques.
This chapter is tailored to provide basic concepts on vibration problems
of simple systems such as spring-mass-dashpot systems. These concepts pro-
vide the basis for attempting solutions to the machine-foundation problem.

2.1 DEFINITIONS

Period of Motion: If motion repeats itself in equal intervals of time, it is

called periodic motion. The time that elapses when the motion is repeated
once is called its period.
Aperiodic Motion: Motion that does not repeat itself at regular intervals of
time is called aperiodic motion.
Cycle: Motion completed during a period is referred to as a cycle.
Frequency: The number of cycles of motion in a unit of time is c.alled the
frequency of vibrations. (c) (d)
Natural Frequency: If an oscillatory system vibrates under the action of Figure 2.1. Systems illustrating degrees of freedom. (a) System with one degree of freedom
forces inherent in the system and no externally applied force acts, the =
(n = 1). (b) System with two degrees of freedom (n 2). (c) Systems with three degrees of
frequency with which it vibrates is known as its natural frequency. freedom (n = 3), and (d) Systems with infinite degrees of freedom (n --7 oo),

12
 THEORY OF VIBRATIONS SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 15
14

position of this system is completely defined by the angle e only. Hence it in which w is the circular frequency in radians per unit time. We can
is a system with one degree of freedom, that is, n is equal to 1. In Figs. represent z by the vertical projection of a rotating vector of length Z that
2.1 b and c, two and three independent coordinates are needed to fully rotates with a constant angular speed of w, onto a vertical diameter (Fig.
describe the motion of the two systems respectively. Hence they consti- 2.2). Because the motion repeats itself after 2Tr radians, a cycle of motion is
tute systems with two and three degrees of freedom. completed when
The number of coordinates necessary to completely describe the wT=2Tr (2.2a)
motion of an elastic simply supported beam is infinite. Hence the beam in
Fig. 2.1d constitutes an infinite degree of freedom system. or
Resonance: If the frequency of excitation coincides with any one of the
natural frequencies of the system, the condition of resonance is reached. T= 2Tr (2.2b)
w
The amplitudes of motion may be excessive at resonance. Hence, in the
design of machine foundations, the determination of the natural fre- in which Tis the time period of motion. The frequency fis the inverse of the
quencies of a system is important. time period; hence
Frequency Ratio: The ratio of the forcing or operating frequency to the 1 w
natural frequency of the system is referred to as the frequency ratio. f= I' =z'lr (2.3)
Principal Modes of Vibration: A system with n degrees of freedom vibrates
in such a complex manner that the amplitude and frequencies do not In order to determine the velocity and acceleration of motion, we
appear to follow any definite pattern. Still, among such a disorderly array differentiate Eq. (2.1) with respect. to time, t:
of motions, there is a special type of simple and orderly motion that has
been termed the principal mode of vibration. In a principal mode, each Velocity= i = wZ cos wt = wZ sin( wt + ~) (2.4)
point in the system vibrates with the same frequency, which is one of the
system's natural frequencies. and
Thus, a system with n degrees of freedom possesses n principal modes
with n natural frequencies. More general types of motion can always be Acceleration= i = -w 2 Z sin wt = w 2 Z sin(wt + Tr) (2.5)
represented by the superposition of principal modes.
or
Normal Mode of Vibration: When the amplitude of motion of a point of the
system vibrating in one of the principal modes is made equal to unity, the Acceleration= -w 2z (2.6)
motion is called the normal mode of vibration.
Damping: Damping is associated with energy dissipation and opposes the Equations (2.4) and (2.5) show that both velocity and acceleration are
free vibrations of a system. If the force of damping is constant, it is also harmonic and can be represented by the vectors wZ and w2 Z, which
termed Coulomb damping. If the force of damping is proportional to its rotate at the same speed as Z, i.e., w rad/unit time. These, however, lead
velocity, it is termed viscous damping. If the damping in a system is free the displacement vector by Trl2 and Tr respectively.
from its material property and is contributed to by the geometry of the
system, it is called geometricalt or radiation damping.
r-1 cycle---1
2.2 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

The simplest form of periodic motion is harmonic motion, which is represen·

ted by sine or cosine functions. Let us consider the harmonic motion wt
represented by the following equation:

z = Z sin wt (2.1)

I" For an explanation, see Section 3.4. Figure 2.2. Vectorial representation of harmonic motion.
 THEORY OF VIBRATIONS 17
FREE VIBRATIONS OF A SPRING-MASS SYSTEM

position of the system corresponding to this state is referred to as the

equilibrium position. In Fig. 2.4c, the m~ss IS shown displaced by a d~stance
z in the downward direction; the maximum downward deflection IS. Zmax
wZ (Fig. 2.4d). The double amplitude at any time is shown in Fig. 2.4e. Figure
2.4f shows the free body diagram. .
I ' If the mass is released from the extreme lower position (Fig. 2.4d), It
I \ I starts to oscillate between the two extreme positions (Fig. 2.4e). If there IS
\ I /
\ , ....,'A.... no resistance to these oscillations, the mass will contmue to vibrate
(theoretically) indefinitely.
If we neglect the mass of the spring, the equation of motion can be
Figure 2.3. Vectorial representation of displacement (z), velocity (Z), and acceleration (i). written as

2, F= mi (2.8a)
In Fig. 2.3, vertical projections of these vectors are plotted against the
time axis t. The angles between the vectors are known as phase angles. Thus in which E F is the sum of all forces in the vertical direction. If th~ sign
the velocity vector leads the displacement vector by 90°; the acceleration convention shown in Fig. 2.4 is used and the inertial force acts opposite to
vector leads the displacement vector by 180° and the velocity vector by 90°. acceleration, the equation of motion becomes

-(kli"" + kz) +wc=mg) = mi (2.8b)

2.3 FREE VIBRATIONS OF A SPRING-MASS SYSTEM
Because kli,"' is equal to W, we get
Figure 2.4a shows a spring of stiffness kin an unstretched position. If a mass
m of weight W is attached at its lower end, the mass-spring system occupies mi+kz=O (2.8c)
the position shown in Fig. 2.4b. The deflection li""' of the spring from the
undeflected position is Equation (2.8c) is a second-order differential equation, and its general
solution must contain two arbitrary constants, whtch can be evaluated from
(2.7) initial conditions.
The solution of this equation can be obtained by substituting
in which k is the spring constant, defined as force per unit deflection. The (2.9)

Sign convention in which A and B are arbitrary constants, and wn is the natural circular
z, z, z·
frequency of the system. . .
t+ If we substitute the preceding solutiOn mto Eq. (2.8c), we get

(2.10)

which gives

2- k w = [k (2.11)
lal (b) (c) (d) (e) If)
w~~- m or n \J;
Figure 2.4. Spring-mass system. (a) Unstretched spring; (b) equilibrium position; (c) mass in
oscillating position; (d) mass in maximum downward position; (e) mass in maximum upward When w, Tn is equal to 2"1T, one cycle of motion is completed. This yields the
position; and (f) free-body diagram of mass corresponding to (c). following expression for natural period:
18 THEORY OF VIBRATIONS FREE VIBRATIONS OF A SPRING-MASS SYSTEM 19

Arbitrary constants A and B in Eq. (2.9) can be determined from the

(2.12) initial conditions. Let the initial conditions be defined by the following
values:
The natural frequency of vibration is the number of cycles completed in When t is equal to zero,
unit time and is the reciprocal of the time period T,. Therefore,
z = Z0 and i = V0 (2.16)

(2.13) By substituting these values into Eq. (2.9), the solution can be obtained in
the form
Equation (2.13) can also be written in the following form: (2.17)

(2.14a) Other types of solutions of Eq. (2.8c) can be written in the following forms:

Now (2.18)

mg W and
k = k =Ostat (2.14b) z = A exp(iw,t) + B exp(- iw,t) (2.19)
'';;:;:''~,-
Therefore, EXAMPLE 2.3.1
A mass supported by a spring has a static deflection of 0.25 mm. Determine
(2.15) its natural frequency of oscillation.

Solution
Equation (2.15) shows that natural frequency is a function of static 1 rg- 1 ~9810
deflection. When g is equal to 9810 mm/sec 2 and i5 stat is expressed in f,=-
2
y-;:---=2
0 stat 025
=31.541Hz
7r 7T '
millimeters, the frequency in hertz can be shown in graphic form as in Fig.
2.5. EXAMPLE 2.3.2
Determine the spring constant for the system of springs shown in Fig. 2.6.

40

30

"N
~ 20

~
...§

10 ......_
r--
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Ostat, (mm) (a) (b)

Figure 2.5. Relationship between natural frequency and static deflection. Figure 2.6. Equivalent spring constants: (a) springs in series; (b) springs in parallel.
20 THEORY OF VIBRATIONS 21
FREE VIBRATIONS WITH VISCOUS DAMPING

Solution
(a) On application of a unit load to the system of springs in Fig. 2.6a, the
total deflection is
1 1 kl + k,
- + - = -7-c--'-
k, kl klk2
Hence, the equivalent spring constant is given by
klk2
k,,, = k
I
+k 2
_l_ __
If k 1 = k 2 = k, the k,q, = k/2.
(b) Let us consider that a unit load is applied at c to the system of springs T'
shown in Fig. 2.6b. It is shared at a and bin the ratios of x 2 /(x 1 + x 2 ) and m
m
x 1 /(x 1 + x 2 ). The deflection of points a and b are x 2(x 1 + x 2 ) x 1/k 1 and
x 1 1(x 1 + x 2 ) X k 2 , respectively.
(e) (b)
Therefore, the deflection of point c is
Figure 2.7. (a) Spring-mass-dashpot system; (b) free-body diagram.

in which s is !"~onstant
that will~;;;::determined later. By substituting this
Hence, the resulting equivalent spring constant at c is solution into Eq. (2.21), we obtain
(x 1 + x 2 ) 2
k,,, = (x71k 2 + x;lk 1 ) " (s+ms+me=
' c k)" 0
If x 1 = x, = x and k 1 = k, = k, then k,,, = 2k.
which gives us
2 c k (2.23)
2.4 FREE VIBRATIONS WITH VISCOUS DAMPING s +-s+-=0
m m

All real systems exhibit damping. When the force of damping Fd is propor- Therefore,
tional to velocity, it is termed viscous damping. Thus
k
(2.24)
(2.20) m
in which c is the damping constant or force per unit velocity, FL-IT. "' and the general solution can be written as follows:
Figure 2.7a shows a spring-mass-dashpot system. If the mass is displaced
by a distance z below the position of static equilibrium, then the free-body (2.25)
diagram can be represented by Fig. 2.7b. By using the sign convention
shown in this figure, the equation of motion can b_e written as in which A and B are arbitrary constants depending upon the initial
conditions of motion.
mi+ci+kz=O (2.21) If the radical in Eq. (2.24) is zero, the damping is said to be critical
damping c,, and we obtain
The solution to this equation may be written in the form

(2.22) (!..s.)'
2m
= '5._ = w'
m n
Le., (2.26)
 FREE VI ORATIONS WITH VISCOUS DAMPING
23
22 THEORY OF VIBRATIONS

or
The ratio of actual damping c to critical damping c, is defined as the
damping factor g: z =A exp(-gw,t) exp( +i~w,t) + B exp(-l;w,t) exp(-i~w,t)
(2.27) = exp- (gwnt)[A cos V(l- g')wnt + iA sin V(l- O'wnt)

Now, V
+ B cos (1- g')w,t- iB sin V(1- /; )w,t] 2

(2.28) or
z = exp( -l;wnt)( C cos V(1 - 1;) 2w,t + D sin V(1 - /;')w,t) (2,33)
By substituting the preceding relationships into Eq. (2.24), we get
in which Cis equal to A+ B, and D is equal to i(A- B).
(2.29)
3
The nature of the ensuing motion depends upon the values of roots s 1 and
s 2 , and hence on the magnitude of damping (in terms of critical damping)
2
~
~1---N·>" r--
present in the system. Three different cases of interest are considered here.
' -- '~ 2
l:r
CASE I. /; >1 I .. ,.,,_
When I;> 1, both s 1 and s 2 are real and negative and z (Eq. 2.25) decreases "'--. r-:-.
't ~ I

as t increases but it never changes sign. Such a system is called overdamped

0 3 4 5 6 7 8
or nonoscillatory. A typical solution for g = 2 is shown in Fig. 2.8a. If an I 2
w,t
initial displacement is given to such a system, the mass is pulled back by the
springs and dampers absorb all the energy by the time the mass returns to I
the initial position.
2
(a)
CASE II. /; = 1
When I;= 1, Eq. (2.29) gives s 1 = s 2 = -w,. The solution becomes

(2.30)

The values of z for g = 1 are shown in Fig: 2.8a, from which it is seen that z
decreases as t increases but never changes sign. Hence such a system does
not oscillate. This system is known as "critically" damped and g = 1 is the
minimum value of damping for no oscillations in the system.

CASE III. g< 1

When damping is less than the critical damping (I; < 1), the values of s1 and
s, (Eq. 2.29) are obtained as /
/
s 12 = (-1; ± i~)wn (2.31) I
/
I
The general solution then becomes
(b)

z =A exp[(-g + i~)w.t] + B exp[(-g- i~)w,t]

Figure 2.8. (a) Free vibrations with g= 2, and g= 1.0. (b) Free damped oscillations for
(2.32) g <1.0.
24 THEORY OF VIBRATIONS

Thus, the natural circular frequency wnd in viscously damped vibrations

equals

(2.34) Sign convention

z, Z, z·
Equation (2.33) can then be written as
kz + cZ
(2.35)
Equilibrium
position _L_ _ _
in which Z 0 and </> are arbitrary constants depending upon the initial
conditions. T'
Figure 2. Sb shows typical damped oscillations when g is less than 1. 0. m
m

2.5 FORCED VIBRATIONS WITH VISCOUS DAMPING

Figure 2.9a shows a spring-mass-dashpot system under the action of a force

of excitation, F, such that
F0 sin wt

Ia I
F0 l
(b)
wt

F= F0 sin wt (2.36)
Z = wZo
in which w is the frequency of excitation.
The free-body diagram is shown in Fig. 2.9b and the equation of motion
is
90" 90"
mi + ci + kz = F0 sin w t (2.37) z· = <)Zo Zo
Directions
The solution to this equation is (c)

z = Z 0 sin(wt- </>) (2.38)

Then Fo

i= wZ0 cos(wt- </>) (2.39) mw 2Zo

or a
'l;j~-
i = wZ0 sin(wt- </> + 7T/2) (2.40)

and
d b
i = w 2 Z 0 sin(wt- </> + 7•) (2.41) Forces
(d)

Figure 2.9c shows z, i, and z vectors at any particular instant. The force Figure 2.9. Forced vib~ations with viscous damping. (a) Spring-mass-dashpot. (b)
diagram. (c) Vectorial representation of z, i and !i in space. (d) Vectorial solution of forces.
Free~body

25
 26 FORCED VIBRATIONS WITH VISCOUS DAMPING 27
THEORY Of VIBRATIONS

in the spring is opposite to z, hence it can be represented by Oa in Fig. 2.9d. From Eq. (2.44b) we get
Similarly, the damping force, cwZ0 , acts in the opposite direction to that of
the velocity and hence is represented by Ob. Similarly, Oc represents the Z0 1
(2.44d)
2
inertial force, mw Z0 , which acts opposite to acceleration. The resultant of ll,. = [(1- 2 2
r ) + (2tr) 2 f 12

these forces is Fb, which is represented by Od, and must be equal in

magnitude and opposite in sign to F 0 • Thus, the displacement vector lags Hence,
behind the force vector by </>. From Fig. 2.9d, we get
20
= N = magnification factor (2.45a)
ast
or 1
(2.45b)
N = -Vr=(=1-=r'""l""'=+""(2=g=rl""'
zo=y (k-mw)22 +(cw) 2 (2.42)
Similarly,
and _1 2gr
</>=tan - -2 (2.46)
1-r
-1 cw
</>=tan
Figure 2. t~· is a plot of N anct"<t>"versus frequency ratio r, for r varying
(2.43)
k-mw 2
from 0 to 5.
Equation (2.42) can be expressed in non-dimensional terms as follows:
F0 /k
Zo=-Y~(=1=-=m=w~~~k)~'=+=(~c=w=lk~)2 (2.44a)
180"
0.05
I
Now, Fufk is equal to the static deflection ll,. of the system under the action 3.0
~0
<>
w
fi/ ----
0.15-
0.375-
f.-

r---- k', ~
of F0 . Also, 0.05
0.10
I "" goo
~ LO
2 ~ /
mw -w )'

~
- -= ( =r 2 0.15t_.£.'&.
k w" 1 - (b)
0.25 cc
2. 0
in which r is the frequency ratio, and '7 ~ 03:75
0 1 2
Frequency ratio~
3 4 5

~~ 1\
N
0.50 W0

/ (a)

L0

~ I~
Therefore, ..............

~
I
(2.44b) -.........__
~

0 LO 2.0 3.0 4.0 50

If there is no damping present, i.e., g = 0, undamped amplitude Z 0 is given Frequency ratio .:::_
by W0

Figure 2.10. (a) Magnification factor and (b) phase angle, versus frequency ratio in forced
vibrations. (After Thomson, 1972, p. 48. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Englewood
(2.44c) Cliffs, New Jersey.)
 THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
FREQUENCY-DEPENDENT EXCITATIONS 29
Effect of Frequency Ratio r for a Particular Case ( t = O)
When r is equal to 1, the phase angle </> is 90' for all values of damping,
From Eq. (2.45b),
except when I; is equal to 0. When r is less than 1, the phase angle is less
than 90', and when r is greater than 1, the phase angle is greater than 90'.
N=-1-2 The maximum amplitude of motion when r is equal to 1 and I; is greater
1- r
than 0 is expressed by Eq. (2.47):
When r=O N=1
F,
When r = 1 (2.47)
cw
When r->en N=O
The corresponding vector diagram is shown in Fig. 2.11.
. When r is equal to 1, resonance occurs, and the amplitude tends to be The solution given by Eq. (2.44a) is a steady-state solution, which is
mfimte. Introduction of damping reduces the resonant amplitudes to finite important in most practical problems. However, there are transient vibra-
values. tions initially that correspond to the solution given by Eq. (2.35). These
. The phase angle </> is zero if r is less than 1; the displacement z is in phase vibrations, of course, die out in the first few cycles.
With the exc1tmg force, F0 , and </> is equal to 1800 if r is greater than 1.

Effect of Damping t 2.6 FREQUENCY-DEPENDENT EXCITATION

As the dampi~g increases, the peak of the magnification factor shifts slightly
to the left. This IS due to the fact that maximum amplitudes occur in damped
VIbratiOns when the forcing frequency w equals the system's damped natural
frequency, wnd [Eq. (2.34)], which is slightly smaller than the undamped
natural frequency, wn.
In many probl~Iils of machine fouii'iflitions, the exciting force depends upon
the machine's operating frequency. Figure 2.12 shows such a system moun-
ted on elastic supports with m 0 representing the unbalanced mass placed at
eccentricity e from the center of the rotating shaft. The unbalanced force is
F = (m 0 ew 2 ) sin wt. Therefore, the equation of motion may be written as
follows:

d 2z d2 . dz
(M- m 0 ) - 2 +m0 - (z + e sm wt) = - kz- c - (2.48a)
dt dt 2 dt

0
Ia I '
wt

Fo z
M
9 "" goo

Figure 2.11. Vector diagram at resonance in a

damped system under forced vibrations. (a) Dis-
cwZo = Fo ~k/2
0! !' ~k/2
0!

placement, velocity, and acceleration. (b) Forces. (b)

//,/#lW##/mrw####J#m/,7/
Figure 2.12. Force of excitation due to rotating unbalance.
 30 SYSTEMS UNDER TRANSIENT lOADS
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS 31

By rearranging the terms in the preceding equation, we get 180"

1 o.~5
0.05
h
Mi + ci + kz = m 0 ew 2 sin wt (2.48b) 3.0
~

•
0.25
0.50 tv ~

In this system, M also includes m 0 . Equations (2.48b) and (2.37) are

t-0.10

t- 0.15
M
0
ro
•ro
90" t--- K, ~ 1.0
2 ~
~
h
similar, except that m 0 ew appears in Eq. (2.48b) in place of F in Eq.

~
0.
0
(2.37). The solution of this equation may therefore be witten as,
~
0.25
2. 0
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
~~
2
m 0 ew . 01 .
z=
Y(k- Mw 2 2
) + (cw ) 2
sm wt (2.49a)
'"'
:;: "0

0.375
(b)
Frequency ratio~
""
~
Therefore, the maximum amplitude Z 0 is given by 1L k-:::0.50
.o

z0 =
v(k-Mw)
m 0 ew
2 2
2

+(cw) 2 (2.49b) /Y
v
~ 1--\,1
I ~~~1.0
and
0
~ 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5. 0
cw -~}:ic}~quency ratio~
tan¢= (2.50) -t,. Wn
k-Mw 2 (a)

In nondimensional form, these equations can be arranged as follows:

Figure 2.13. Response of a system with rotating unbalance. (a)
mZ, .
versus 1requency ratiO me
wlwn. (b) Phase angle tfJ versus frequency ratio wlwn. (After Thoms~n, 1972, p. 50. Reprinted
with permission of PrenticeRHall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.)

or
2.7 SYSTEMS UNDER TRANSIENT LOADS
Zo ,z
moe! M Y(1- r')' +Ag'rz (2.51) Transient loads may be caused by hammers, earthquakes, blasts, and the
sudden dropping of weights. In several such cases, the maximum motion
and may occur within a relatively short time after the application of the force.
For this reason, damping may be of secondary importance m transient loads.
2gr
tan 1> = - -2 (2.52)
1-r CASE I. SUDDENLY APPLIED LOAD
Consider a spring-mass system (Fig. 2.14a) that is subjected to suddenly
The value of MZ0 1m 0 e and 1> are plotted in Figs. 2.13a and 2.13b, applied force represented by the forcing function F = F0 (Fig. 2.14b). The
respectively. These curves are similar in shape to those in Fig. 2.10 except
that the peak amplitudes occur at ..,...
equation of motion of mass, m, is given by

mi + kz = F0 (2.55)
(2.53)
The solution for displacement, z, is
and the value of the ordinate when r is equal to 1 in Eq. (2.51) is
(2.56)
Z0 1
m 0 el M 21; (2.54) Initially, if at t = 0, z and i are equal to zero, then A is equal to- Fofk,
 33
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS SYSTEMS UNDER TRANSIENT LOADS

F(t)
F(t)

?fLk
Fof---,
Fof-------
Sboo
0
0 '
(a) (b)
Ia I (b)

dT
(c)

Figure 2.15. Dynamic amplification due to a square pulse. (a) One degree of freedom system.
(b) Square pulse,~.Jc) Magnification.
f," .•
lcl
Figure 2.14. Dynamic amplification due to suddenly applied load. (a) Single degree of freedom Wben t is equal to r,
system. (b) Suddenly applied load. (c) Magnification factor versus time.
Z = -Fo (1 -COS W" T
) (2.59)
' k
and B is equal to 0. Thus, Eq. (2.56) becomes
and
Fa i = F0 w" (Slll
-k- . ) (2.60)
z= k (1- cos w"t) (2.57) 7
(t)n T

If the force F0 is applied gradually, the static deflection is F 0 I k. Thus the When t is greater than T, the equation of motion is
magnification N of the deflection z is ' (2.61)
mi+kz=O
z
N = F lk = 1- COS wnt (2.58) The solution for displacement z is
0

(2.62)
Magnification N versus time is plotted in Fig. 2.14c. The magnification has a
maxtmum value of 2, wh1ch occurs when cos w"t is equal to minus 1. The
first peak ts reached when wnt is equal to 7T or tis equal to Tl2, in which Tis in which t' = t - r.
the natural period of vibration of the system. The values of A and B in Eq. (2.62) are determined from the initial
conditions when tis eqOO.l to r. By equating z, and i, from Eq. (2.62), with
CASE II. SQUARE PULSE OF FINITE DURATION
those in Eqs. (2.59) and (2.60), respectively, we get A= (F,/k)(l- cos w"r)
Co.nsider. the system, shown in Fig. 2.15a, that is s~bjected to a pulse of and B = (F0 1k) sin w" r. Therefore, Eq. (2.62) becomes
umform mtenstty F(t) for a given duration r (Fig. 2.15b).
. When tis less than r, the motion is governed by Eq. (2.55). The solution Z = kFo (1 -COS Wn T COS Wnt
) '+k
Fo Sill
. .
W 11 T Sill Wn
t'
IS given by Eq. (2.57).

or
 THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
RAYLEIGH'S METHOD 35

(2.63a) 2.8 RAYLEIGH'S METHOD

in which According to Rayleigh's method, the fundamental natural frequency, i.e.,

frequency in the first mode of vibrations, of a continuous elastic system with
cjJ =tan -t _ 1- cos w11 r infinite degrees of freedom can be determined accurately by assuming a
sin w 11 'T (2.63b) reasonable deflected curve for the elastic system. If the true deflected shape
of the vibrating system is not known, the use of tbe static deflection curve of
Therefore, the elastic system gives a fairly accurate fundamental frequency.
In illustrating the application of this method, the energy principle is used.
F Expressions are developed for the kinetic energy KE, and potential energy
Z = ; Y2(1- cos wn r) sin( wnt' - cf>) PE. Because the total energy is constant, the sum of KE and PE is constant.
Thus
or

F0 ( • w T) :t (KE + PE) = 0 (2.66a)

z=k 2smz sin(wnt'-q,) (2.63c) or
The maximum value of z is maximum KE = maximum PE . (2.66b)

(zm" ) = Fa
k
(z sm. 2wn T)-- 2 kF, sm. T 7TT
(2.64a)
EXAMPLE 2.8.1
In Fig. 2.16, the weight of the spring of length L is w per unit length.
n Determine the natural frequency of the spring-mass system.
Hence, the dynamic magnification N is
Solution
Let the displacement of the mass from the equilibrium position be Yo and
_ Zmax _ . Wn 'T . 'TTT
y = y 0 cos w,t. If the extension of the spring is assumed to be linear, the
N- F/k-2sm-=2sm- (2.64b)
o 2 Tn displacement of the element of the spring at a distance z from the fixed
support is y = (z I L )y 0 cos wnt, and the velocity of element dz is y =
The maximum value of N is 2 when r I Tn is equal to ~. (Fig. 2.15c.) -(zl L )wnYo sin w,t. The maximum KE of the element with mass (wig) dz is
. Constd~r the bmttmg case in Eq. (2.64a), if r!Tn is very small so that then d(KE)m, = (w/2g) dz ((z!L)wnYof
sm 7TT I Tn ts approximately equal to 7TT 1T n> then

z = 2F0 7TT
k Tn (2.64c)

I
m"

Now,_k is equal to mw;, and Tis equal to 27T/w"" By substituting these

quanl!hes mto Eq. (2.64c), we obtain I

f
Now, F0 r is equal to the impulse I. Therefore,

Figure 2.16. System with spring having weight.

 36 RAYLEIGH'S METHOD 37
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS

By integrating this expression, we obtain the maximum kinetic energy of

the spring

(KE)m, =
W
2
g (L )21L
WnYo
0
Z
2
dz
or

(2.67) Figure 2.17. Fundamental frequency determination of cantilever beam.

The maximum kinetic energy of the rigid mass m is

Solution: d
The deflected curve of the cantilever beam may be assumed to cor~espon
to that of a weightless beam with the concentrated load P actmg at 1ts end.
Then
and the total maximum kinetic energy is PL 3
Yo= 3EI (2.71)
1 (W+~wL) 2 2 P;
2 g WnYo (2.68) -;,;i.f

in which EI 'is the flexural stiffnesii~of the beam.

The stiffness k of beam at the free end is
The maximum potential energy of the spring can be computed as follows:
P 3El
k=-=-,- (2.72)
Maximum potential energy = LYo ky dy Yo L

The expression for the deflected shape of the cantilever is

1 2
= 2 kyo (2.69)
(2. 73)
In a conservative system, the maximum kinetic energy equals the maximum
and
potential energy. By equating the values of the two energies, we obtain
1 3 EI 2
Maximum potential energy= 2 kyo=
2
2 L' Yo (2.74)

(2.70a) If the weight of the beam is w per unit length and if a harmonic motion is
assumed,
Therefore, the natural frequency wn is given by
Maximum KE of system=~ LL (wnYl 2
dx

The effect of the spring's weight can thus be accounted for by lumping
(2.70b)
~~ = ~ ( W;Yo )' r Hf)'- (f)T dx

one-third of its mass with the concentrated mass of the system. _~ (33wL)w'
- 2 140g nYo
2
(2.75)
EXAMPLE 2.8.2
By using Rayleigh's method, determine the fundamental frequency of the By equating the two energies from Eqs. (2.74) and (2.75), we obtain the
cantilever beam shown in Fig. 2.17. fundamental frequency of vibration of the cantliever beam as
38 THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
DETERMINATION OF VISCOUS DAMPING
39

Wn =
PEl
-
L3
( 33
g
wL
/gEl
) = 3.56 \I ~--
wL 4
(2.76a) (2.81b)
140

The exact solution is Therefore,

/iEi 1 z
Wn =3.515 \I~ (2.76b) /l=-log-0 (2.82)
wL n e zn

2.9 LOGARITHMIC DECREMENT 2.10 DETERMINATION OF VISCOUS DAMPING

Logarithmic decrement is a measure of the decay of successive maximum Viscous damping may be determined from either a free-vibration or a
amplitudes of free vibrations with viscous damping and is expressed (Fig. forced-vibration test on a system.
2.8b) by In a free-vibration test, the system is displaced from its position of
equilibrium, and a record of the amplitude of displacement is made. Then,
zl
/5 =log - (2. 77) from Eqs. (2.77) and (2.80b)
' z,
/5 1 z
in which z 1 and z 2 are two successive peak amplitudes. If z 1 and z 2 are <=-.=-log - 1 (2.83)
~ 2'1r:->: 27T
0"
e z2
determined at times t1 and (1 1 + 27T) from Eq. (2.35) and substituted into
Eq. (2.77), we obtain or else, from Eqs. (2.80b) and (2.82)
/5 1 z
(2.78) i;=- =-log - 0 (2.84)
27T 2n7T e zn

or In a forced-vibration test, the system is excited with a constant force of

excitation and varying frequencies, and a resonance curve is obtained (Fig.
27Ti; 2.18). When r is equal to 1, from Eq. (2.44d), we obtain
/5 = log, exp , r:;--;z (2. 79)
v1- i; z, 1 (2.85)
or o, - 21;

(2.80a) When the amplitude of motion is 0.707 (1121;), the frequency ratio r may
be determined from Eq. (2.44d) as follows:
or 0.707 . 1
-=-;==~~~
(2.80b) 21; 2 2
V(l-
r ) + 41;?

in which i; is small. or
If the damping is very small, it may be more conyenient to measure the
difference in peak amplitudes for n cycles.
In such a case, if zn is the peak amplitude of the nth cycle, then
or
2
(2.81a) r4 - 2r 2 (1- 2/;') + (1- 81; ) =0

Also, or
 40 TRANSMISSIBILITY 41
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS

ri., = H2(1- 2t;') ± V4(1- 2eJ'- 4(1- Sg')] 2.11 TRANSMISSIBILITY

= ![2(1- 2t;') ± v4 + 16t; 4

- 16t;'- 4 + 32t;'] The system shown in Fig. 2.12 represents a practical case of a machine
foundation that is subjected to rotating unbalance. The forces transmitted to
= (1 - 2eJ ± 2t;'{l+T' the foundation through the spring and the dashpot can be easily computed.
The maximum force in the spring is kZ0 and the maximum force in the
or dashpot is cwZ0 , the two forces are put out of phase by 90° (Fig. 2.9d).
Hence, the force transmitted F, to the base is
(2.87a)
if t; is small. Now, or

ri _ ri = ti -,r; =(I'- t, )(!, + f,) -= 2 (1'- f,) .1 (2.87b)

fn J,, fn /,,
If transmissibility T, is defined as the ratio of force transmitted F, to the
since (f, + [2 ) ![,,-=' 2. Therefore, force of excitation m 0 ew 2, then by substituting for cw/ k = 2t;r and for Z 0
from Eq. (2.49b), we obtain
(2.86) F, \C' '/1 + (2t;r)
2

T, = -m-e_w_2 =, -Y-r(=l~-=r"'2c=)2'=+~(2=t;=r""')2 (2.87c)

0
This method for determining viscous damping is known as the bandwidth
method. 4. 5

4. 0
'~ o - 1---E ~ 0
( ~ 0.125- 1--- ( ~ 0.125
0.1 6
Zmax = ~ 152 mm
Vertic11 vibratioL 3. 0
0.1 4
~ = 0.25

0.1 2 1\ 'r

~\-
'E
.s f-- - '-
0
• I/E ~ o.5

1- v ,/'
~
0.1 0
.~
~ 1.0
0.
E
"' 0.08 J!
1\
I ~ rx"' ~ 2.0
( - 2.0-
I 1. 0

1/! =)oo "~',":...

,I~:2~
e 1'---t.~ 10
0.0 6 !" 1'--<~os-
I I ~.,t:o~-~

0.0 4
10 14 18
/ 22
:
26
I
30 34
0
0 1.0
0

2.0 3.0
Frequency (cps) Frequency ratio, wlwn

Figure 2.18. Determination of viscous damping in forced vibrations by bandwidth method. Figure 2.19. Transmissibility (T,) versus frequency ratio (r).
42 THEORY OF VIBRATIONS 43
VIBRATION MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

The transmissibility T, versus the frequency ratio wlw" is plotted in Fig. Equation (2.90) is similar to Eq. (2.48b). Hence the solution for Z 0 can be
2.19. It will be seen that fort; equal to zero, the plot is the same as in Fig.
written as in Eq. (2.49b):
2.10a. Also, all curves pass through r = V2. When r is greater than V2, all
the curves approach the x-axis asymptotically. The higher the frequency mw 2X 0
ratio, the better the isolation, and hence the smaller the force transmitted. Zo = y(k-mw) 2 2
+(cw)
2 (2.91)
But there may be excessive amplitudes at the time of starting and stopping a
machine, because it will pass through the zone of resonance. Damping helps and
to reduce these amplitudes. cw
</> = tan- 1 -=~2 (2.92)
k-mw

2.12 VIBRATION MEASURING INSTRUMENTS Equations (2.91) and (2.92) may be rewritten as
2
Figure 2.20 shows the essential elements of a vibration measuring in- Z0 (w/wn)
(2.93a)
strument. It consists of a seismic mass m which is supported by springs and a Xo Y(1- r 2 2
) + (2t;r) 2
dashpot inside a case, which is fastened to a vibrating base. The motion of
and
the base is to be monitored. Let the motion of the base be represented by
_,_ _1 2t;r
"P =tan - -2 (2.93b)
x = X 0 sin wt (2.88a) 1-r

The relative motion of the mass m of the instrument in relation to the

vibrating base is monitored. Thus, we can let the absolute motion of the
i,- ~nd
Plots of Z 0 / the frequency'fi\lio and the phase angle and frequency
ratio are shown in Fig. 2.21.
mass m of the instrument be y and, by neglecting transients,
y = Y sin wt (2.88b)
Then the equation of motion of m can be written as
my = - k( y - x) - c(.Y - i) (2.89)
If we let y - x = z and y - i = i, we obtain
mi + ci + kz = mw 2X 0 sin wt (2.90)

1.0 2.0
Frequency ratio ~
Wn

Base Ia I
Figure 2.21. Response of a vibration measuring instrument to a vibrating base. (a) Amplitude.
Figure 2.20. A vibration measuring instrument (seismic instrument) mounted on a vibrating
(b) Phase angle. (After Thomson, 1972, p. 60. Reprinted by permission of Prentice~Hall,
base.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.)
 SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM 45
44 THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
Sign conventions
--:-::--]
Displacement Pickup z, Z, Z + t Zl > Z2

For large values of wlw", and for all values of damping, g, Z 0 1X0 is k1 ~ Fo sin wt
approximately equal to unity. Therefore, if the natural frequency of the 0!
instrument is low, such that the value of r is large, then the resulting relative
motion Z 0 equals X 0 . Therefore, the instrument functions as a displacement
pickup. Z)

One of the disadvantages of the displacement pickup is its large size.

Because IZl is equal to IYl, the relative motion of the seismic mass will be
as large as the amplitude of vibration to be measured.

Acceleration Pickup Ia I (b)

By rearranging Eq. (2.93a), we obtain Figure 2.22. (a) Two degrees of freedom system. (b) Free-body diagram.

Z0 I 1
(2.94)
2
w X0 = w;y/[1- (w/w") 2 2
] + [2gw!wJ 2
w;vc masses may be written in the following form:

When g is equal to 0.69, the values of VC in the denominator for different

values of w I wn are
or
wlw, 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
(2.95a)
1.000 0.9995 0.9989 1.000 1.0053
and
Thus Z 0 is proportional to the absolute acceleration, w 2X 0 , of the vibrating
base. The instrument thus functions as an accelerometer. The frequency
ratio wlwn in an accelerometer must be small. Therefore, the natural
frequency of the instrument must be high. or
(2.95b)
Phase Distortion
The natural frequencies of this system are obtained by considering its free
The instrument must be capable of reproducing a complex wave without vibrations. Making F0 = 0 in Eq. (2.95a), we obtain
changing its shape; that is, the phase of all harmonic components must be
shifted equally along the time axis. This can be accomplished if the phase (2.95c)
angle q, of the accelerometer output increases linearly with frequency. This
condition is nearly satisfied when!; is equal to 0.70, and the phase distortion Let
is practically eliminated.
(2.96a)

and
2.13 SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM
(2.96b)
Figure 2.22 shows a two-mass-two-spring system, which has two degrees of
freedom. Free-body diagrams of the masses are also shown. In a practical By substituting the solutions from Eqs. (2.96) into Eqs. (2.95b and 2.95c),
system, the spring k 1 and the mass m 1 constitute the main system, and spring we obtain
k, and mass m 2 a vibration absorber. The equations for motion of both the
46 THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM 47

(2.97a) w _ I k, (2.99a)
nll- 'V m 1 +m 2
and

(2.97b)
(J)n/2 = f'§-
2
(2.99b)

The values of the two natural frequencies wn 1 and wn 2 for this system are
From Eqs. (2. 97), we obtain
obtained by solving Eq. (2.98) as a quadratic in w;.
-m 1 w:+k 1 +k 2 k2
k2 -m 2 w: + k 2
Amplitudes of Vibrations
For the force acting on mass m 1 , the vibration amplitudes are obtained by
Simplifying this we obtain
assuming the following solution for the principal modes:

(2.100a)
or
and

z 2 ~~;ji:J sin w t (2.100b)

or
By substituting the solution from Eqs. (2.100) into Eqs. (2.95a) and (2.95b),
we obtain

(2.10la)
or
and

(2.101b)

Let From Eq. (2.101b),

(2.102)
Therefore,
Substituting for Z 2 from Eq. (2.102) into Eq. (2.101a), we obtain

or

or

or [m 1m2 w 4 - k2 m 1 w 2 - k 1 m2 u/ + k 1 k 2 - k 2 m 2 w 2 + k;- k;]z 1

2
= F0 (k 2 - m2w )
(2.98)
or
in which
48 THEORY OF VIBRATIONS SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM 49

spring-mass system having its natural frequency given by Eq. (2.106). The
negative sign in Eq. (2.107) indicates that Z 2 and F0 are in phase opposition.
In fact, the amplitude of the main mass Z 1 , becomes zero at this frequency,
or because the force, k 2 Z 2 , exerted by spring 2 on mass m 1 is equal and
opposite to the force of excitation F0 • The size of the absorber mass m 2 and
its displacement, depend upon the magnitude of the disturbing force,
F0 (=k 2 Z 2 ). For a given force F0 , the smaller stiffness of the absorber spring,
the larger its amplitude Z 2 and vice versa.
Figure 2.23a shows a plot of Z 1 /Z,, versus w/w" 12 (Eq. 2.103b) with
or

8
(2.103a)
Iii 1::
or lli_ 11
6

(2.103b)
II i\
I !\ II
-~-
~~- 4
in which f_e· 11 i\
J i \ r'~
p. = 0.20

2
1I
ii
0~
V
1/ ItsI \
Substituting for Z 1 from Eq. (2.103a) into Eq. (2.102), we obtain

Zz =
Fo w !,z
I.

0 0.5
, I
018
1.0 1.5
.....
-- t---
2.0 2.5
4 (2.105a) w
w (1 + ~t)(w~ 11 + w~ 12 ) + (1 + ~t)w~ 11 w! 12 ]
2
m 1 [w Wn/2
Ia I
or
1.6
z = Fow ~12 1.5
......
2 2 (2.105b) ..........
m 1 A(w )
1.4
/
From Eq. (2.103a), it is seen that z, = 0, if /
v
I. 3

/
/
I. 2
(2.106)
Then 1 /
Wnll
I. 0 ~ 1
Wn/2
\•i
or

Equations (2.103, 2.105, 2.106, and 2.107) explain the principle of vibration
(2.107)
9
8

7
6
0
"
:-.......

.1 .2
- -
.3
r-.

.4
Mass Ratio P.
.5 .6
1-
.7 .8

(b)
absorbers that will be used in Chapter 10 (Section 10.1). The amplitudes of Figure 2.23. (a) Response versus frequency of a vibration absorber. (b) Natural frequencies
motion of mass m 1 can be appreciably reduced by attaching to it, a versus ~J-(=m~ I m,).
50 THEORY OF VIBRATIONS MULTIDEGREE FREEDOM SYSTEMS 51

JL = m 2 1m 1 of 0.20. Although the amplitude of the main mass m becomes Thus in a system with n masses, if the displacements of masses are
1
zero when w = W 1112 , there are two resonant frequencies at which the denoted by xi (where j can take integral values from 1 ton) the total spring
amplitude of mass m 1 becomes infinite. In Fig. 2.23b, (w/wn 12 ) has been force on mass i due to displacements xi of all masses is r:;~, k,h, the
plotted versus !L (Eq. 2.98) for a particular case of wn 11 = wn 12 • summation of the spring forces. Applying Newton's law for the ith mass,
In Fig. 2.22a, if the forcing function F0 sin wt is acting on mass m 2 ,
n
instead of mass m 1 (as shown), it can be shown that the amplitudes of
motion Z 1 and Z 2 are given by: m/ii + 2: kiixi = 0
j""l
(2.113)

2
Z = Wnz2 F There are n such equilibrium equations each corresponding to a mass.
I m,~(w2) o (2.108) This procedure is called stiffness method.
Let the system vibrate in one of its principal modes of vibration. Then its
and motion will be sinusoidal with a natural frequency of wn corresponding to
Z _ (1 + JL)W~ll + JLW~ 12 - w
2 that mode. Since the amplitudes of the masses may be different from each
2- m 2 ~(w2) F0 (2.109) other, the motion of any mass i may be expressed as

(2.114)
2.14 MULTIDEGREE FREEDOM SYSTEMS
in which i = 1, 2, ... , n. Substituting Eq. (2.114) into Eq. (2.113) we get
(p -- -;:· '·:r
It has been shown in Section 2.1 that the number of independent coor- n -~: ::
dinates of displacements in a vibrating system determines the degrees of -miw~Ai + 2:. kiiAi = 0, i=l,2, ... ,n (2.115)
freedom of the system. j=l

In this section we will discuss the techniques applicable to the solution of

The frequency determinant corresponding to Eq. (2.115) is
vibrations of multidegree freedom systems.
Two approaches are commonly used for obtaining a solution: (1) stiffness
matrix method; (2) flexibility influence coefficient method.
The stiffness coefficient k 1i is defined as the force on the ith mass due to a
unit displacement at the jth mass with all other masses held at their =0 (2.116)
equilibrium position. With displacement x 1 , x 2 , and x 3 of points 1, 2, and 3,
respectively, the principle of superposition can be applied to determine the
forces in terms of stiffness coefficients as

Expanding the determinant, we would get a frequency equation in the

ft = kuxt + kuxz + k13x3
polynomial form as below:
f, = k 21 x 1 + k 22 x 2 + k 23 x 3 (2.110)
2
a0 +aw·+ .. ·+a n-1 w 2(n-l) + (- 1)"w 2n
n =
0 (2.117)
!3 = k31X1 + k32X2 + k33X3 1 n n

In matrix notation, the equation is Since the coefficient of w~ is not zero, Eq. (2.117) always has n roots. These
roots would give the 1i~ natural frequencies of vibration, namely, w""
{f} = [k]{x} Wnz' . . . wnr ... wnn. Corresponding to each value of wn' there is an as-
(2.111)
sociated mode shape with amplitudes Air), Ar), ... , A~), which can be
in which obtained by solving Eq. (2.115).
When a system vibrates in a principal mode, all the masses attain max-
kll k12 k13 imum displacements simultaneously and also pass through their equilibrium
[k] = k,, k,, k,, f={J,}. (2.112) position simultaneously.
k,, k,, k,, When the number of degrees of freedom exceeds three, the problem of
forming the frequency equation and solving it for determination of frequen-
 52 THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
MULTIDEGREE FREEDOM SYSTEMS 53
cies and mode shapes becomes tedious. Numerical techniques are invariably
resorted to in such cases.
The flexibility influence coefficient a,i is defined as the displacement at ith
x, + 2:" (mix)a,i = 0
j=I
(2.123b)
mass due to a unit force applied at jth mass. With forces f 1 , [ 2 , and f 3 acting
at pmms 1, 2, and 3, the principle of superposition can be applied to There are n such displacement equations each corresponding to a mass.
determme the displacements m terms of the flexibility influence coefficients Now, substituting Eq. (2.114) in Eq. (2.123b), we get
n
(2.118a) Ai- 2: m;w~A;aii = 0 (2.124a)
i""'I

(2.118h)
or
x, = a,,[, + a32f, + a,,[, (2.118c)
i=l,2, ... ,n (2.124b)
In matrix notation the equation is
The frequency determinant corresponding to Eq. (2.124b) is
{x} = [a]{f} (2.119)
in which
( m-a --1)
:~,.. .,u z
·--'· wn
(2.120)

is the flexibility matrix.

=0
If Eq. (2.119) is multiplied by the inverse of the flexibility matrix [ar'
we obtain the equation '

[ar'{x} = {f} = [k]{x} (2.121) (2.125)

It is thus seen that the inverse of the flexibility matrix is the stiffness matrix Expanding the determinant, we get a polynomial equation that is in the
[k], i.e., same form as Eq. (2.117). Then natural frequencies of the system can then
[ar' = [kJ (2.122a) he obtained.
or
Forced Vibrations
[a]= [kr' (2.122b)
Let an undamped n degree of freedom system be subjected to forced
<:;onside~ing flexibility coefficients defined above and applying D' Alem- vibration and let F,(t) represent the force on mass i. Using Eq. (2.113), the
hert s pnnc1ple, ~he system can be considered to be in an instantaneous state equation of motion is given by
of static eqmhhnum under the effect of reversed inertia forces acting on all n
masses.
miXi + L, ki;X; = FJt) (2.126)
The displacement of mass i due to reversed effective inertia force - m .x. j=l
actmg on all j masses is 1 1
where i = 1, 2, . .. , n.
The amplitude of vibration of a mass may be taken as the algebraic sum
xi=- 2:" (m;X)aii
j=J
(2.123a) of the amplitudes of vibration in various principal modes, i.e., the individual
or modal response would he some fraction of the total response with the sum
of the fractions being equal to one. If the factors by which the modes of
 54 THEORY OF VIBRATIONS MULTIDEGREE FREEDOM SYSTEMS 55

vibration are multiplied are represented by the coordinates t;, then, for any It is seen that the coordinate g, uncouples the n degree of freedom system
mass 1, into n of single degree of freedom systems. The t;'s are termed as normal
coordinates and this approach is known as normal mode method, i.e., the
X=A('lt
I I ~J
+AC'lt!:.2 +···+AC'lc
1
I ~T
+···+A(nlt~JJ t
total solution is thus expressed as a sum of contribution of individual modes.
or For determination of f,(t), multiply both sides of Eq. (2.130) by A~')
(=A)'lT, the transpose of A)'l) and summing up for all the masses, we get
n
X="'
L..J AVlt (2.127) n n n n n
I I !:>r
r=l "'
L.J FAC'l
i=l
I I
="'LJ AC'l "'LJ mAc'lt, ="'L.J /,rL.i"' m.AC'l AC'l
i=J
I
T"'l
I I T
reel i=l
I l I (2.133)
Where r represents the rth mode. Then from Eq. (2.126), we get
Using the orthogonality relationship,
n n n
L mA(•)i:
1 1 br
+"'
L.J "'k
L.J A(')c
1 Sr
IJ
= F(t)
i (2.128) n
r=l r=t j=l "'
LJ m.AC'l
I
AC'l
I l
= 0 for r o;6 s
i=1
From Eq. (2.115),
the right-hand side of Eq. (2.133) reduces to
n
f, L m,(A)~);, when r=s
i=l ~·

Hence
. Hence
n n
L mA(')
1 1
< +"'
~r
2
L-1 w nr mAC')
t 1
t = F(t)
Sr 1
r= 1 '"' 1 (2.134)
and
n
Using Eqs. (2.132) and (2.134), the complete solution from Eq. (2.127)
is
L m,A~')( {, + w;,t;,) = F,(t) (2.129)
r=I

Since the left-hand side is a summation involving different modes of

"
X,--~ A, -;;;
- (r) 1 l' ""
0
L.. j=
l::"
1 Fj (T )AC'l
j •
(A('l)' sm w.,(t- r) dr
r-1 r J=lm; 1
vibration, the right-hand side should also be expressed as a summation of
equivalent force contribution in the corresponding modes. EXAMPLE 2.14.1
Let F, be expanded for convenience as Figure 2.24 shows a three degrees of freedom system. Determine the
n stiffness matrix.
F,(t) = L m,A~') f,(t) (2.130)
r=l

in whichf,(t), the modal force is derived subsequently as Eq. (2.134). Then

from Eqs. (2.129) and (2.130),

where r = 1, 2, ... , n (2.131)

This is a single degree of freedom equation and its solution can be written as

t;, = - 1-
wnr
l' 0
J,(r) sin w,(t- r) dr where 0 < r < t (2.132)
Figure 2.24. Computation of stiffness matrix.
 56 THEORY OF VIBRATIONS MUlTIDEGREE FREEDOM SYSTEMS 57

Solution VERTICAL DISPLACEMENT

Let x 1 = 1.0 and x 2 = x 3 = 0. The forces required at 1, 2, and 3, considering 0 + - 0 +
forces to the left as positive, are

ft = kl + k, = k11 0.445 1.247

/ 2 = -k 2 = k 21
[, = 0 = k,l
0.802
Repeat with x 2 = 1, and x 1 = x 3 = 0. The forces are now

!1 = -k, = k1z
[, = k, + k, = k,, 1.0
[,=-k,=k,, First mode Second mode Third mode

Repeat with x 3 = 1, and x 1 = x 2 = 0. The forces are

Ia I (b)

!I= 0 = k13 Figur-?~:25. (a) Spring-mass sylt~dls for Example 2.14.2 (b) Mode shapes.

h = -k, = k,,
The corresponding frequency determinant from Eq. (2.116) is
[, = k, + k, = k,, 1
(2k-m 1 w;) -k 0
The stiffness matrix can now be written as -k (2k- m 2 w!) -k =0

K =
[
(kl
-
+ k,)
k2
0
-k,
(k 2 + k 3 )
-k 3 (k,
-k
0
+ k.J
l 0 -k
The frequency equation can be obtained by expanding the determinant.
Letting m 1 = m 2 = m 3 = m (for simplicity),
(k- m,w;)

EXAMPLE 2.14.2
(2k- mw!)[(2k- mw;)(k- mw!)- (- k)( -k)]
For the system shown in Fig. 2.25a, solve for natural frequencies and mode
shapes. - ( -k)[(- k)(k- mw;)- ( -k)(O)J + (0)[( -k)( -k)- (2k- mw;)(O)] = 0

Solution which, on simplification, gives

The stiffness coefficients K,i for the system are
- A' 3 + 5A' 2 - 6A' + 1 = 0
k 11 =2k, kl2 = ~k, k13 =0
in which A' = mw ;; k (A' will be equal to 1.0 for a single degree of freedom).
k21 = -k, k,, = 2k, k,, = -k The roots of frequencfequation can be determined by any of the standard
k31 = 0, k,, = -k, k,, d," k
techniques. In this case, the trial-and-error method and the plotting of the
graph of the function will be used. The roots are A;= 0.198, A;= 1.555,
The equations of motion of the system, from Eq. (2.113) are A;= 3.247, and since A'= mw;lk,

k k k
m 1i 1 + 2kx 1 - kx 2 = 0
2
Will= 0.198 m '
2
w 112 = 1.sss m (I)
2
n3 = 3.247 m
m 2i 2 - kx 1 + 2kx 2 - kx 3 = 0
The amplitude coefficients for the three modes of vibration can be
obtained from Eq. (2.125), from which we get
 58
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS PRACTICE PROBLEMS 59

1 1 1 1 2.3 For the system represented by Eq. (2.48b), show that the peak
- -w-; A 1 + m k A1+ m k A2 + m k A3 =0
amplitude occurs at a frequency ratio of
1 1 2 2 1
--,A,+m-kA 1 +m-A +m-A =0 r = -Y-,=1,;;_=2t;""'
w, k 2 k 3
1 1 2 3 and
- - , A 3 +m k A, +m k A 2 +m -A 3 =0
(f)n k - 1
z =-~~=
max Z~
Letting A'= (mlk)w;,, the preceding equations can be rewritten as
If t; is greater than 0.707, r is imaginary. Discuss the significance of
(A' -1)A 1 + A'A 2 + A'A 3 = 0 these values with the help of a diagram.
A'A 1 +(2A'-l)A 2 +2A'A 3 =0 2.4 An unknown weight W is attached to the end of an unknown spring k
and the natural frequency of the system is 1.5 Hz. If 1 kg weight is
A'A 1 + 2A'A 2 + (3A' -l)A 3 = 0 added to W, the natural frequency is lowered to 75 cpm. Determine the
weight W and the spring constant k.
It is more convenient to work with particular numerical values rather than 2.5 A body weighing 60 kg is suspended from a spring, which deflects
with ratios. Therefore, let us arbitrarily set A 3 (1) = A 3 (2) = A (3) = 1. In 1.2 em under the load. It is subjected to a damping effect adjusted to a
3
th1s manner, we will obtain two simultaneous equations for A and A from value O.QO times that requir~ct:for critical damping. Find the natural
1
above: 2
frequency of the undamped and damped vibrations, and, in the latter
(A' -1)A 1 + A'A 2 =-A' case determine the ratio of successive amplitudes.
If the body is subjected to a periodic disturbing force with a
A'A 1 + (2A' -1)A 2 = -2A' maximum value of 25 kg and a frequency equal to one-half its natural
undamped frequency, determine the amplitude of forced vibrations
Substituting numerical values of A' determined above, we get and the phase difference with respect to the disturbing force.

AI A,

a
A,
First mode 0.445 0.802 1.0
" b
Second mode -1.247 -0.555 1.0 .I
Thrid mode 1.802 -2.247 1.0 • m

These mode shapes have been plotted in Fig. 2.25b.

I'
//~7/////.////Jm. .
~k
PRACTICE PROBLEMS (a) ///?'"!ff.<Y?'"///1'//4

2.1 Determine the numerical value of viscous damping from the free
vibrations record in Fig. 2.8b.
T y·'
2.2 Show that, in frequency-dependent excitation, the damping factor t; is
given by the following expression:

J;
t;=Ht,-J;)
!,,
in which [2 and are frequencies at which the amplitude is 1/"1/2 times
! l
(b)
~k

r~a=3~~
6 (C)
the amplitude at r = 1.
Figure 2.26. Systems with one degree of freedom in Practice Problem 2.7.
 REFERENCE 61

~k
2.6 An 8-cm diameter pole with an 8-m length is guided so that it floats

a.
8 8~k vertically in water. The specific gravity of the pole's material is 0.79.
Find the pole's natural frequency.

:w)P//////#/#$#/#~,0
2.7 Set up the equations for motion of the systems shown in Figs. 2.26a, b,
and c and determine the frequency equation and natural frequencies.
Ia I Determine the expressions for critical damping in (a) and (b).
2.8 Write the equations of motion for the systems shown in Fig. 2.27 and
determine their natural frequencies.

REFERENCE

Thomson, W. T. (1972). "Theory of Vibration with Applications." Prentice-Hall, Englewood

Cliffs, New Jersey.

(b)

21

/
(d)

Figure 2.27. Systems with two degrees of freedom in Practice Problem 2.8.
60
 63
WAVE PROPAGATION IN ELASTIC RODS

3 convenient and useful method of determining the soil properties such as the
d namic shear modulus for design of machme foundations. So.me of the
y
methods for d etermma
· t.ton o f the dynamic shear modulus are discussed m
Chapter 4 (Sections 4.5 and 4.6). . .
2. The waves generated due to a vibratmg footmg carry away a part o:
• the energy into the medium resulting in dampmg effect (geometncal damp
Wave Propagation an ing) that helps in reducing the vibratiOn amplitudes. .
3. The energy carried by the waves into the mediUm may mduce undesir-
.

an Elastic Medium able and harmful vibrations in adjoining structures and machmes, and .
4 Effective vibration isolation by wave barriers (Chapter 10, SectiOn
.4)
10 can be achieved only if the depth of the trench barners IS adequate
compared with the wavelength of the propagatmg waves.

The principles of wave propagation are also used for subsoil exploration
. h . b d the scope of the present text.
(geophysical exploration), wh JC IS eyon .
In this chapter, three problems will be stud1ed:
When a continuous medium is disturbed from within or outside, the waves
are generated. For example, when a pebble is dropped into a large, still 1. .waJg propagation in elaS'tit rods.
pond, it generates waves, which travel in all directions. Now, if a small 2. Wave propagation in an elastic infinite medium.
buoyant object such as a piece of wood is floating on the surface of water, it 3. Wave propagation in an elastic half space.
will oscillate about its original position as the waves travel under it away
from the point where the pebble was dropped. Thus, it can be seen that the
waves travel in one direction with a certain velocity, while the piece of wood 3.1 WAVE PROPAGATION IN ELASTIC RODS
and the particles of water beneath it oscillate to and fro with a velocity that
is different from the velocity of the waves. Also, the waves are returned Three inde endent kinds of wave motion are possible in. rods: longitudinal,
(reflected) from the edge of the pond, which is the reflecting boundary for . l p d flexural Only the longitudinal and torswnal waves are of
the surface waves. This is a phenomenon that we frequently observe when torstona , an . . .
importance to our study of machine-foundatwn-sml systems.
we are children.
In a similar manner, the sudden rupture of stressed rocks within the
earth's crust will generate waves both at the surface and within the earth to 3.1.1 Longitudinal Vibrations of Rods of Infinite Length
produce what is known as an earthquake. Smaller but similar disturbances Let us consider the free vibrations of a rod with a cro~s-section~l ~eat~,
are artificially created by such means as blasting, aircraft landings, and the Youn 's modulus E, and unit weight y (Fig. 3.1) .. It IS ass.ume t at e
explosion of bombs. Machines in operation also generate waves at their g 'f over the area and each cross sectiOn remams undJstorted
bases and sides, and these waves travel in all directions in the soil. stress ts um orm · d the stress on
during motion. The stress on a transverse plane at x IS ax' an . th
When a load is suddenly applied to a body, the entire body is not
a transverse p lane a t x
+ dx is crx + (acrx /ax) dx. The sum of forces m ex
disturbed at the instant of loading. The parts closest to the source of direction can then ~ written as follows:
disturbances are affected first, and the deformations produced by the
disturbance subsequently spread throughout the b"ody in the form of stress (3.1)
waves. 2: Fx = mass x acceleration
The phenomenon of wave propagation in an elastic medium is of great
importance in the study of machine foundations due to the following Now,
reasons.
acr ) acrx (3.2)
1. The velocities of wave propagation depend upon the elastic properties "'F=-crA+
Li X X
( cr+-xdxA=-a
X ax X
dxA
of the medium. The study of the wave propagation velocities thus provides a
62
 64
WAVE PROPAGATION IN AN ELASTIC MEDIUM WAVE PROPAGATION IN ELASTIC RODS 65

a'u E a'u
(3.7b)
a~
x rJx +oa,
- dx
at' - p ax'
ax
or

a'u- v' a'u2 (3.7c)

at 2 - r ax
in which

v' = !:_ (3.8)

' p
Figure 3.1. longitudinal vibrations of a rod.
and V, is defined as the langitudinal-wave-prapagation velocity in the rod.
Equation (3.7c) is called the one-diemsnional wave equation. It indicates
that during longitudinal vibrations, displacement patterns are propagated in
If the displacement of the element in the direction of xis u, the equation for the axial direction at the velocity V,.
motwn_ of the element can then be written by applying Newton's second law If the wave propagation in a rod is considered at some intermediate point
of motiOn as follows: in the rod, it1can be easily seen th:at at the instant a wave is generated, there
is compressive stress on the face in the positive direction of x and tensile
au
_x
a'
dx A = dx A 1' ---':'.
ax g at' (3.3)
dx
in which g is the acceleration due to gravity. Equation (3.3) can be written ---...j 1------
as !Jx::::] II J
~~=~~jjj:=================rr---~-x
(3.4)

The strain in the x direction in au/ax, and the ratio of stress u to strain is ~ Xn = Vrtn I-
Young's modulus E; therefore, x
L (

u =E-
au ----1 u I---
" ax (3.5)

By differentiating Eq. (3.5) with respect to x, we get (a)

a
(3.6)

Substituting the value of aa)ax from Eq. (3.6) into-Eq. (3.4) and replacing a,f----------,
the term y/g by p, the mass density, we get,
2 2
Eau_ au
ax' - P at' (3.7a)
(b)
or
Figure 3.2. Velocity of wave propagation and particle velocity in a rod.

66 WAVE PROPAGATION IN AN ELASTIC MEDIUM
stress on the face in the negative direction of x. Thus, while the compressive
wave travels in one direction, the tensile wave travels in the opposite direction.
Initially, only small zones close to these cross sections feel the stress, but as
time passes, larger zones undergo the stress caused by the displacement u.
It is important to see clearly the distinction between the velocity of wave
propagation V, and the velocity of a particle u, in the stressed zone. Let us
consider the stressed zone at the end of the rod in Fig. 3.2a. When a
uniformly distributed compressive-stress pulse of intensity ux and duration tn
(Fig. 3.2b) is applied to the end of the rod, only a small zone of the rod will
undergo compression initially. This compression is transmitted in time to
successive zones of the rod. The transmission of the compressive stress from
one zone to another occurs at the velocity of the wave propagated in the
medium, that is, V,. During a time interval dt, the compressive stress travels
along the rod for a distance of dx = V, dt. At any time after t,, a segment of
the rod of length, xn = V,t,, constitutes the compressed zone. The amount of
elastic shortening of this zone is given by Eq. (3.9a) and equals the
displacement of the free end of the rod. Therefore,
O"x Ux
u=-x
E n =-Vt
E r n (3.9a)
or
(3.9b)
Now, the displacement u divided by time t" also represents the velocity of
the end of the rod, or particle velocity. Therefore,
(3.10)
It is important to note, that (1) both wave-propagation velocity and particle
velocity are in the same direction when compressive stress is applied and (2)
that wave-propagation velocity is in the opposite direction of particle
velocity when tensile stress is applied. Another important consideration is
that the particle velocity u depends on the intensity of the stress or strain
induced [Eq. (3.10)], whereas the wave-propagation velocity V, is only a
function of the material property.
Solution of Wave Equation
The solution of Eq. (3.7c) for a one-dimensional wave may be expressed in
the form
u = f(x- V,t) (3.11)
67
WAVE PROPAGATION IN ELASTIC RODS
which represents a function of x traveling at velocity V,. The derivatives of u
with respect to x and t are as follows:
2
au
-a = f'(x- V,t) , a~ = f"(x - V,t) ,
X . ax
2
au = - V,f'(x- V,t), aat2u = v'r f"(x- V,t)
at
Substitution of the second derivatives in Eq. (3.7c) yields identical results on
both sides, thus satisfying this equation. A more general form of the wave
solution can be expressed by
u= f 1 (x - V,t) + f 2 (x + V,t) (3.12)
In this equation, the first term, f 1 (x), represents the wave traveling in the
. positive x <)irections, and the second term, f 2 (x), represents the wave
traveling in ':'flre negative x directi<?~·
End Conditions
The conditions at the end of a bar may be studied by making use of the
superposition of waves. This is possible, because the differential equation,
Eq. (3.7c), is linear. Hence the sum of two solutwns 1s also a soluuon.
Consider a wave whose form is described by a step functwn (Fig. 3.3a).
In this figure, a compression wave is shown traveling in. the. positive x
direction, and an identical tension wave in the negatlve x d1rect1on. In the
crossover zone (Figs. 3.3b and c), where the two waves pass each other, the
portion of the rod in which the two waves are superimposed has z~ro stress.
However, the particle velocity is equal to tw.lce the partlcle veloc1ty m th1s
zone. The particle velocity becomes double m the cr?ssover zone,. because
the particle velocity is in the direction of wave tr~vel m a .compressiOn wave
but is in the opposite direction of wave travel m a tenswn wave, and the
waves are traveling in opposite directions.
After the two waves have passed the crossover zone, the stress and
velocity return to zero at the crossover point alo~g the centerline, and the
compression and tensi'<').p waves return to their m1t1al shape and magmtude
(Fig. 3.3d). It will thus be seen that on the centerline cross sectiOn, the
stress is zero at all times. This stress condttion IS the same as that whtch
exists at the free end of the rod. If half of the rod is removed, the centerline
cross section can be considered a free end (Fig. 3.3e). Therefore, it can be
seen that a compression wave is reflected from a free end as a tension wav~ of
the same magnitude and shape. Similarly, it can be show~ that a tensiOn
wave is reflected as a compression wave of the same magmtude and shape.
Now , let us consider an elastic rod in which a compression wave IS
 68 WAVE PROPAGATION IN ELASTIC RODS 69
WAVE PROPAGATION IN AN ELASTIC MEDIUM

--
GIL GIL

~
v, v,
rrnrn;,_rTTITT1, /r/{z : g (1 = 0
~

(a) _-'-'t.llll~III~III~III_T------rrmnn~T'"s~ion /
u = 0

Compression I II II U!!J 1111

Ia)
v, I { o v,

(bl----l..Lij'+--jqr---t'TTrz:_2_"- - - ,1--,
L_L1uJ (Jo
I
I
I
I uo

v,
--- 1111111 1111111
1 v,
~

iDJIIIIIII
(cl--nrllllrrrrlll..t---11 -H!~LW_{I.lllJ__ _ (b)

V
r It U
v=O
= 2U

v,
-ITTTITlTTTliTT~ens~ion~_j
I IT I~Irnl~fln:.-1~1 rmltyJIIIL__ _(0
t: ~
(d)

II Ill II Ill II I 1\{K :C~mpression

0
a = 0
(C)

--
v, a

Figure 3.3. Elastic waves in a bar with free end conditions. a

(d)

Figure 3.4. Elastic waves in a bar with fixed end conditions.

traveling in the positive x direction and an identical compression wave is

traveling in the negative x direction (Fig. 3.4a). When these two waves pass
each other, the cross section throngh the centerline has stress equal to twice
the stress in each wave and zero particle velocity ·"(Fig. 3.4b). After the
waves pass each other'. they return to their original shape and magnitude
(Fig. 3.4c). The centerline cross sectiOn remains stationary during the entire
process and, hence, behaves like the fixed end of a rod. Therefore, it is seen
that a compression wave is reflected from a fixed end of a rod as a
compression wave of the same magnitude and shape (Fig. 3 .4d) and that at
the fixed end of a rod the stress is doubled (Fig. 3.4b).
In the preceding di~ussion, the waves of constant-stress amplitude are
considered. Superposition and reflection of waves of any shape may be
studied in a similar manner.
3.1.2 Longitudinal Vibrations of Rods of Finite Length
So far, it has been assumed that the rod is of either infinite or semi-infinite
length. In practice, the vibrations of rods of only finite length are of interest
in the study of soil dynamics.
 71
70 WAVE PROPAGATION IN AN ELASTIC MEDIUM WAVE PROPAGATION IN ELASTIC RODS

Therefore, if a bar of finite length l vibrates in one of its normal modes
(Fig. 3.5a), the solution to the wave equation, (Eq. 3.7c), may be written as
follows:
U = U(A cos wnt + B sin wnt}
in which A and B are arbitrary constants, wn is the natural frequency of the
rod, and U is the displacement amplitude along the length of the rod. U is a
function of x and defines the mode shape of vibrations. By substituting Eq.
(3.13) into Eq. (3.7c}, we get
The arbitrary constants, C and D, in Eq. (3.15} are determined by satisfying
the boundary conditions at the ends of the bar.
For a rod of finite length, the displacement amplitude, U, needs to be
determined separately for the following three possible end conditions of the
(3.13)
rod:
1. Both ends free (free-free).
2. One end fixed and one end free (fixed-free).
3. Both ends fixed (fixed-fixed).

(3.14) Free-Free Condition

For the rod of length, l (Fig. 3.5a), in the free-free case, the stress and strain
The solution to Eq. (3.14} may be written as on both faces must be zero. This means that dul d.x is equal to zero at both
x = 0 and x = l. By differentiating Eq. (3.15} with respect to x, we get
(3.15)
dU w ( wnx wnx) (3.16)
.. -=--" -Csin-.-+Dcos-V =0
t;' ~ dx vr .o;,,-';~ vr r

By substituting the preceding boundary conditions into this equation, we

find that D is equal to zero, and

Csm-=
. w,J 0 (3.17)
(a) V,

For a nontrivial solution,

w) (3.18a)
- =n7T
V,

U1 = C cos
<X
T (n = 1)
or
n1rVr (3.18b}
w =--
n /

2.x
U2 = C cos - - (n = 2) in which n = 1,2,3.... .
1 Equation (3.18b} is the frequency equation from which the frequencies of
the normal modes of vibrations of the rod for the free-hee. cas~ are
determined. By substitlliiing Eq. (3.18b} into Eq. (3.15}, the d1stnbut10n of
displacement along the rod can be found for _any harmonic. The first three
harmonics are shown in Fig. 3.5b, and the displacement amphtude can be
3•x
U3 = C cos - - (n = 3)
1 expressed by
n1rx (3.19}
Un = Ccos -[-
(b)

Figure 3.5. Vibrations of a rod of finite length with free~free end conditions. in which n = 1, 2, 3 ....
 F
72 WAVE PROPAGATION IN AN ELASTIC MEDIUM
! WAVE PROPAGATION IN ELASTIC RODS 73
~
Fixed-Free Condition
! The displacement amplitude may then be written as
The end conditions for a rod in the fixed-free case (Fig. 3.6) are: at the fixed
end (x = 0), the displacement is zero, i.e., U = 0; and at the free end
du
(x = 1), the strain is zero, i.e., dx = 0. By substituting these into Eq. (3.15),
! U, = D sin
W
VX = D sin (2n-211)71"X
'
(3.23)

we get 1•. The first three harmonics described by Eq. (3.23) are shown in Fig. 3.6b.
I
C=O (3.20a) I Fixed-Fixed Condition
and The end conditions for a rod in the fixed-fixed case (Fig. 3. 7) are U = 0 at
x = 0 and at x =I. By substituting these conditions into Eq. (3.15), we get
w I
Dcos V =0 (3.20b)
C= 0 and
' wnl
which gives Dsin- =0 (3.24a)
V,
wnl 7T which gives
- = (2n -1)- (3.21)
V, 2
(3.24b)
in which n = 1, 2, 3 ....
wn is given by
in which n = 1, 2, 3 ....
w =(2n-1) 71"V,
" 21 (3.22)

lei

(e)
D

--j_ l

TD
U1 "" D sin ;~

. 37rx
(n = 1)
~
D

T ----- - U1 = D sin 7 (n = 1)

U2 = D s1n 2"l 1n = 2)

v .,. l D
-.......... U2 = . 21rX I
D sm - - n ~ 2)
'l / 1
I

D
L_
['....
U3 = D sin
3
;x (n = 3)

(b)
-Y
(b)

Figure 3.6. Vibrations of a rod of finite length with fixedMfree end conditions. Figure 3.7. Vibrations of a rod of finite length with fixed-fixed end conditions.
 WAVE PROPAGATION IN ELASTIC RODS 75
74 WAVE PROPAGATION IN AN ELASTIC MEDIUM

We can write element are T and [T +(aT/ax) dx], as shown in Fig. 3.8b. The net torque
becomes
, n7TX
Un = D Sill-- (3.25)
~~ dx)
/
2:;(torque)T=-T+(T+ (3.27a)
in which n = 1, 2, 3 .... The first three harmonics described by Eq. (3.25)
are shown in Fig. 3. 7b. =-dx
aT (3.27b)
ax
3.1.3 Torsional Vibrations of Rods of Infinite Length
By applying Newton's second law of motion to the vibration of the rod, we
The equation for the motion of a rod in torsional vibration is similar to that get
for longitudinal vibrations of rods discussed above.
A rod in Fig. 3.8 is acted upon by a torque T which produces angular aT y
- d x = - l d x -2
a'e (3.28a)
rotation 11. The expression for the torque can be written as ax g P at
T=GI ae (3.26) or
Pax
in which IP is the polar moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area of the (3.28b)
rod, G, the shear modulus of the material of the rod; and ae/ax is the
angular twist per unit length of rod. The torques on the two faces of the
By substituting aT/ax obtained by differentiating Eq. (3.26) into Eq.
(3.28b), we get

(3.29a)

or
a'e _ 0 !I a'e (3.29b)
ar' - y ax'
or
(o)

(3.29c)

in wbicb
g G z (3.30a)
G-=-=V
y p '

or

v = (G (3.30b)
(b)
' \/{)
Figure 3.8. Torque acting on element dx of a rod. and V is the shear-wave velocity of the material of the rod.
'
76 WAVE PROPAGATION IN AN ElASTIC INFINITE MEDIUM 77
WAVE PROPAGATION IN AN ElASTIC MEDIUM
z
3.1.4 Torsional Vibrations of Rods of Finite Length
The problem of torsional vibrations of rods of short length can be analyzed
in the same manner as for the case of longitudinal vibrations (Section 3.1.2).
The solution to Eq. (3.29c) may be written as

O(x, t) = El(x)(A sin w,J + B cos w,t) (3.31)

I
Txy . , I
in which El is the amplitude of angular vibrations, and A and B are arbitrary
-.-'( I
constants which can be determined from conditions at the ends of the bar. t I
By substituting from Eq. (3.31) into Eq. (3.29c), the solution for the three
types of end-conditions are obtained as given below. )-
./' arxy
/
(Txy + Ty dy)
Free- Free Condition 8ox
X (ux + axdx)
w
n1TV:
"
=-~

l
(3.32) Figure 3.9. Stresses on an element in an infinite homogeneous, isotropic, and elastic medium.

in which n=1,2,3 ....

the x directfiln, the equilibrium~quation can be written by considering the
sum of forces in this direction as follows:
Fixed-Free Condition
+ aax
ax dX ) dy dz - (]'x dy dz + ( Txy + aTxy
ay dy ) dx dz - Txy d X d Z
( (]'x
(3.33)

in which n=1,2,3 .... + (Txz

+ aTu dz) dx dy - Tn dx dy = 0
az (3.35)

Fixed-Fixed Conditions Similar equations can be written for the summation of forces in the y and z
directions. By neglecting body forces and applying Newton's second law in
(3.34) the x direction, we get
2
a(]' aT aT) au
in which n = 1, 2, 3 .... ( _x + ...__.2 + ----'-'- dx dy dz = p(dx dy dz) - , (3.36)
The concept of a natural frequency of a rod of finite length in a principal ax ay az at
mode of vibration is used in determining the elastic properties of a soil in or
the laboratory. This is discussed in Chapter 4 (Section 4.5).
2
J U Jcrx iJTxy t3Txz
p at' = ax+ ay + az (3.37a)
3.2 WAVE PROPAGATION IN AN ELASTIC INFINITE MEDIUM
Similar equations can!;~ written for the motion in the y and z directions as
The problem of wave propagation in an infinite medium will be considered follows:
now. It will be assumed that the infinite medium through which waves
propagate is elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic. Let us consider a small (3.37b)
element of dimensions dx, dy, and dz as illustrated in Fig. 3.9. The stresses
acting on the faces of this element have been shown in this figure. By
considering the variation in stresses on opposite faces of the element, the (3.37c)
stresses on each face can be represented by sets of orthogonal vectors. In
78 WAVE PROPAGATION IN AN ELASTIC MEDIUM WAVE PROPAGATION IN AN ELASTIC INFINITE MEDIUM 79

in which u, v, and w are displacement in the x, y, and z directions au 2

ae 2
(3.42)
respectively. The right-hand sides of the three expressions of Eq. ·(3.37) may p-2 =(A+G)-+GVu
at ax
be expressed in terms of displacements with the help of the following
relationships for an elastic medium: Similarly, Eqs. (3.37b) and (3.37c) give, respectively,

(3.38a) a2 v
p - =(A+ G)-+ GV v
ae 2
(3.43)
at2 ay
(3.38b)
and
(3.38c) a2 w ae 2
p - =(A+ G)-+ GV w (3.44)
E at 2 az
G = 2(1 + v) (3.39a)
in which V2 (the Laplacian operator in Cartesian coordinates) is defined as
and
vE a'+ -
V'= ( - a' + - a') (3.45)
A= cc-~~---::-c
(1 + v)(1- 2v)
(3.39b) ax'
2
ay' az
Equations (3.4;~)_, (3.43), and (3.44). are the equations for motion of an
in which v is the Poisson's ratio, A, G are the Lame's constants ( G is also
infinite homoge'neous, isotropic, ari{L.~lastic medium.
termed the shear modulus), and <the volumetric strain is equal to (•x + EY +
There are two solutions for the preceding equations. One solution
E.}.
• describes the propagation of an irrotational wave, whereas the other de-
The strains and rotations may be defined in terms of displacements
scribes the propagation of a wave of pure rotation. The first solution is
(Timoshenko and Goodier, 1951; Kolsky, 1963) as follows:
obtained by differentiating Eqs. (3.42), (3.43), and (3.44) with respect to x,
y, and z, respectively, and adding all three expressions together. This gives
Strains
2-
au av au p a~ = (A+ 2G)V 2< (3.46a)
Ex= Jx ' 'Yxy = ax + ay (3.40a) at
av aw av or
ey = ay , 'Yy. = ay + az (3.40b)

aw au aw (3.46b)
E =- (3.40c)
z az ' 'Yzx=az+ax
in which
Rotations
- aw au v' = _A_+_2_G_ (3.47a)
2w = - - - (3.41a) ' p
x ay az
- au aw where V, is the velocit)li~of compression waves in the infinite medium.
2w = - - - (3.41b) Equation (3.46b) is exactly of the same form as the wave equation (3.7c).
Y az ax
Substitution of A and G from Eqs. (3.39a and 3.39b) into Eq. (3.47a)
= av _au yields
201 (3.41c)
' ax ay
2 £(1- v) E,
in which Wx, WY, and Wz are rotations about the x, y, and z axes, respec- V' = -p(701-'=+C"--=;v)7( 1;-'---'-.,-2'v) p
(3.47b)
tively. Now, by substituting appropriate expressions from Eqs. (3.38),
(3.39), and (3.40) into Eq. (3.37a), we obtain in which E, is the constrained modulus.
80 WAVE PROPAGATION IN AN ELASTIC MEDIUM
WAVE PROPAGATION IN AN ELASTIC INFINITE MEDIUM 81

If _v is equal to zero, v;
will be equal to Elp and V, is equal to the
veloe1ty of the compressive wave propagation in the rod, V, [Eq. (3.8)]. For
v greater than zero, V, is greater than V,.
The second solution of the equations for motion can be obtained by 4
differentiating Eq. (3.43) with respect to z and Eq. (3.44) with respect toy
and then eliminating E' by subtracting these two equations. Proceeding in this ~
manner, we get > 3

>I>'
!.'._ (aw_av) cv'(aw _av)
P
at' ay az ay az
= (3.48)
-
0
w
0
2

and by using the expression for rotation wx from Eq. (3.41a), we get
"
>
S waves

R waves
a2-wx
p -,- = G'i/
2-
Wx
at 0 0.2 0.3 0.5
Poisson's Ratio, v
or
Figure 3.1 0. Rel~tion between Poisson's ~tj9- v and velocities of propagation of compression
(P), shear (S), and Rayleigh (R) waves in a'<se:!lli~infinite elastic medium. (After Richart, 1962.)
(3.49)

Similar expressions can be obtained for w and
rotation is propagated with velocity V, given' by,
V'= G
' p
By combining the Eqs. (3.47b) and (3.30a) and substituting for G in
terms of E from Eq. (3.39a), we get
w,, which implies that
different velocities. However, the particle motion associated with the com-
pression wave in the rod and the dilatational wave in the infinite medium is
(3.30a) the same, but the wave-propagation velocities are different. In the rod,
v; = Elp, but in the infinite medium, v;
= E,lp. Therefore, the compres-
sion wave travels faster in the infinite medium than in a rod. This is true
because no lateral displacements are possible in the former but are possible
in the latter. The second (distortional) type of wave propagates at the same

i '
= ~z(r1~;J
A plot of V,IV, is shown in Fig. 3.10 (Richart, 1962).
From the preceding analysis, it can be seen that in an infinite elastic
medium, there are two kinds of waves:
1. Compression wave (also called primary wave, P wave, dilatational
wave, irrotational wave).
2. Shear wave (also called secondary wave, S wave, distortional wave,
equi-voluminal wave).
The two waves, which represent different types of body motions, travel at
(3.50)
velocity (V; = G/p) in both the rod and the infinite medium.
It will be seen from Eq. (3.47b) that if v = 0.5, V,-> oo and E,-> oo.
Because water is relatively incompressible compared to soil, measurement
of the velocity of a compression wave in water-saturated soil is not a
representative wave velocity for soil but for water. Because water has no
shear strength and has a zero value of the shear modulus, the velocity of a
shear wave in water-sal!l,rated soil represents the soil property only. This
fact has to be kept in mind when one plans wave velocity measurements for
determination of soil moduli.
Figure 3.11 shows plots of shear wave velocity and void ratio at several
confining pressures for sands (Hardin and Richart, 1963). Table 3.1lists the
velocity of wave propagation for compression and shear waves for different
materials at different strain levels and confining pressures (Prakash and
Puri, 1981).
"
N Table 3.1. Velocity of Shear and Compression Waves through Different Materials

Range of
Dynamic Shear
Modulus G (kg/em') Compression
for Effective Associated Shear Wave Poisson's Wave
Confining Pressure Strain Velocity V, Ratio Velocity V,
Soil Type of 1 kg/em' Level (m/sec) (Assumed) (m/sec)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Lateritic soil silty sand 553 3.9 X 10-' 167.7 0.30 313.7
G, ~2.67 to to to to
r ~ 1.93 3146 1.3 X 10-' 400.0 748.3
e ~ 0.59
¢ ~32'
w, ~ 15.2%
Stiff, brown-gray, silty clay (about 1m) 77.5 1.049 X 10-' 63.3 0.35 131.8
underlain by medium to dense sandy to to to to
silt and silty fine sand (about 9.0 m) 221.5 1.1 X 10-' 107.0 222.70
Silty sand 186.9 1.63 X 10-' 101.0 0.35 210.0
G, ~ 2.61 to to to to
r ~ 1.80 587.0 1.5 to w-' 179.0 373.0
e ~ 0.72
¢ ~30.5
w, ~ 18.6%
Fine to medium sand with some silt 131.8 1.8 10-'
X 87.0 0.33 173.0
G, ~2.47 ¢ =30' to to to to
1' ~ 1.75 w~. = 22.2% 306 4.2 x w-• 133.0 264.0
e ~ 0.72

·---··--·-····

122.9 3.0 X 10-' 82.0 0.30 164.0

Medium sand
to to to to
G, =2.58
r ~ 1.79 867.3 3.0 X 10- 5 218.0 433.0
e ~ 0.71 ...,,,
¢ ~30
w, ~ 19.2

136.3 1.03 X 10-' 79.0 0.30 148.0

Boulder deposits witft'cmatrix of
medium to coarse silty sand: to to to to
Properties of the matrix material 2442.0 1 X 10- 6 335.0 627.0
G, ~ 2.70
1' ~ 2.15 ....
,j."

e ~ 0.605 '~.
¢ ~ 32.5
We =28%

Poorly graded fine silty sand 322.2 1.5 x 10_' 131.5 0.35 274.0
up to 5.0m to to to to
G, ~2.63 200 1 X 10- 6 328.0 683.0
r = 1.83
e ~0.69
¢ =30'
w, ~ 17.6%
a Gs =specific gravity of particles; y =bulk density of soil; e =void ratio; ¢ =angle of internal friction; we =water content.
Source: After Prakash and Puri (1981).

"w
84 WAVE PROPAGATION IN AN ELASTIC MEDIUM WAVE PROPAGATION IN A SEMI-INFINITE ELASTIC HALF SPACE 85

space, another type of wave, the Rayleigh wave shows up. The motion of a
Rayleigh wave is confined to a zone near the boundary of the half space or
the ground surface. The solution for this wave was obtained by Rayleigh
(1885) and later described in detail by Lamb (1904). The study of waves
~
.2
0
propagating in a zone close to the surface is of practical interest in the study
u
0
E
of the machine foundations. The effect of the free surface of the soil
medium on the propagation of waves in soil will now be described.
The half space may be defined in the xy plane only with z axis assumed
positive in the downward direction (Fig. 3.12). For a plane wave traveling in
tbe x direction, particle displacement is independent of y. If the dis-
placements in the directions of x and z are represented by u and w,
o~~~~~L-~--~
0.3 respectively, and v is equal to 0, then
Void ratio
(b)

--Round grains -Ottawa sand au= aw =0 (3.51)

---Angular grains- Crushed quartz ay ay

" .......... If tbe action of body forces is neglected, the equations of wave propa-
gation are the,.same as Eqs. (3.42) and (3.44).
,....,...._ .............................. _ ":?'
+' ?.~'.:'t

........... -.. -'--fooo a.- .l:

(A+ G) -a + GV u = p - 2
2 a 2
u
(3.42)
................................ '...f:.s~ x at

-.........
.............. .3Q
'.fl..0 Pst ae 2 a2 w (3.44)
_
-.. ........
-.. ....... <ooa'.......,
.......
-....._Pst _ (A+ G) az + GV w=p at'

-..-.Iooa
-...._Pst
---- ....... _ Sao
-.._pst-- Plane wove front
400,~-n~-n~-n~~~~~~~~L_~L__j~--~~
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
Void ratio
Ia I
Figure 3.11 . Variation of shear wave velocity and shear modulus with void ratio and confining
pressure for dry round and angular·grained sands. (After Hardin and Richart, 1963.)

3.3 WAVE PROPAGATION IN A SEMI-INFINITE

ELASTIC HALF SPACE

In a. practical situat_ion, the solutions for wave propagation in an infinite

dastlc body are of httle value. Because machine foundations are supported
m the soil at a shallow depth, the boundary conditions approximating this
SituatiOn are those of a semi-infinite half space. It will be assumed that the
?'led~um is homogeneous, isotropic, and elastic. For the case of an elastic
mfimte medium (Section 3.2), it was shown that there are two types of body
waves: the compressiOn wave and the shear )'lave. In case of an elastic half Figure 3.12. Wave propagation in elastic half space, coordinate convention.
 WAVE PROPAGATION IN A SEMI-INFINITE ELASTIC HALF SPACE 87
86 WAVE PROPAGATION IN AN ElASTIC MEDIUM

a 2 =x 2 - h' (3.57a)
A general solution of these equations may be expressed as

a<P* alj;* and

u=--+-- (3.52a)
ax az
f3'=x'-k' (3.57b)
and
a<P* alj;* f The arbitrary constants A, B, and x are determined from the boundary
conditions. If the boundary surface, z = 0, is subjected to the action of
w=----- (3.52b)
az ax external normal forces distributed over the entire plane, these forces induce
in which <I>* and if;* are analytic functions. Since the z axis is perpendicular normal stress given by
to the soil surface and is positive downwards, then for all points in the soil, z (3.58)
is greater than zero. If the steady-state propagation of the waves has a
frequency of w, the functions <l:>* and if;* can be expressed as
It is assumed that the tangential stresses on the border plane are zero, that is
(3.53a) (3.59)
and
The stresses JZ,.and T" may be expr'"ssed as functions of </> and if; as follows:
"' -':<;--·-<
(3.53b)
T, =
2 a'<t> _ k'iJ; _ 2 a'v; (3.60a)
The equations that should be satisfied by the functions <I> and if; then are G axaz ax

(V' 2 + h 2 )<P = 0 (3.54a) and

and
(]', = -k'<t>- 2 a'<t>- 2 a'if; (3.60b)
G ax' axaz
(V' 2 + k 2 )1j; = 0 (3.54b) By substituting the expressions for </> and if! from Eqs. (3.56) into the
right-hand sides of Eqs. (3.60) at z = 0, we get
in which
-2ixaA + (2x'- k')B = o (3.61a)
(3.55)
and
where w is equal to 2Tr!T, in which Tis the period of the propagated waves. 2 2 Uo
(2x - k )A + 2ix(3B = G (3.61b)
Then his equal to 2Tri(VJ) and k is equal to 2Tri(V;T). Now, VJ and V,T
r~present the wavelengths of lo~gitudinal and transverse waves, respec-
tively. Therefore, h and k are reciprocal values of the wavelengths, and k is Therefore, we obtain
always larger than h.
Particular solutions of Eqs. (3.54a and b) may ~:)!' assumed as (3.62a)

(3.56a)
and
and

(3.56b)
B=(~t~)(~) (3.62b)

where where
 88
WAVE PROPAGATION IN AN ELASTIC MEDIUM
WAVE PROPAGATION IN A SEMI-INFINITE ELASTIC HALF SPACE 89
2
F(x) = (2x - k')'- 4x'af3 (3.63)
F(x) = o (3.67)
By using Eqs. (3.52), (3.56), and (3.62), we get
x may be determined from Eq. (3.63).
(2 2 k') -a' 2 {3 -#< Instead of Eq. (3.67), which contains irrational expressions, we may
u = ix X - ;(X) - a e e;xx ~ (3.64a) consider the following equation, which does not contain radical signs
(Barkan, 1962):
and
2 2
F(x)f(x) = (2x'- k 2 ) 4 -16(x 2 - h )(x - k')x'
-(2x'- k')e-"' + 2x'e-~' · u 0
w =a
F(x)
e'xx _
G
(3.64b) = k 8 [1- 8 K_22+ (24- 16 -h2) 4 ( h2) K_6J= 0
K_4 - 16 1 - - 6
k k' k k' k
In_ order to tra~sform the exciting force into one that acts along the line (3.68)
x- o, z= 0 (Fig. 3.12), assume that u 0 is equal to - P(dx/2.,.). By
in which
subshtutmg th1s expressiOn mto the right-hand side of Eq. (3.64) and
mtegratmg With respect to x from +oo to -oo, we obtain the following f(x) = (2x'- k') + 4x'af3 (3.69)
expressiOns for the displacements u and w:

u = __!!'__ J+- x[(2x 2

- k') e-"'- 2a{3e-~']e;x.,
(3.65a)
Since k is greater than h, one of the roots of Eq. (3.68) lies between 1
and +oo. It gn.
be shown that th<\:"other two roots, if real, lie between zero
2.,.0 -00 F(x) dx and h 21k'. ·
and The first root corresponds to positive values of a and {3; and therefore, it
does not satisfy the condition f(x) = 0. The last two roots make a and {3
positive and imaginary and, therefore, they do not satisfy the equation
w = _ __!__ J+" a[ -(2x 2
- k') e-"' + 2x 2 e-~']e;xx F(x) = 0. This equation has only one root, x' =A 2;t which is greater than
2.,.0 -· F(x) dx one. Therefore, A2 is greater than k'. For a Poisson's ratio of 0.5, the real
(3.65b) root of Eq. (3.68) is Alk = 1.04678. When vis equal to 0.25, all roots ofEq.
(3.68) are real and are equal to
Equations (3.65a) and (3.65b) correspond to the waves induced by an
excihng force acting along the line x = 0, z = 0. A2 1
(3.70a)
k' 4
Velocity of Wave Propagation
= ~ (3- YJ) (3.70b)
Free surface waves occur where they are induced by some initial excitement
on the border surface. Assuming, u 0 = 0, for this case, the values of and
constants A and Bin Eqs. (3.61a) and (3.61b) may be determined from the
followmg expressiOns: 1
= 4 (3+YJ) (3. 70c)

-2ixaA + (2x 2 - k')B = 0 (3.66a) Of these roots, onl~;the last one satisfies the conditions of this problem.
Its value is
and
A 1
(2x'- k')A + 2ixf3B = o k = 2 V3+ Y3 = 1.087664 (3.71)
(3.66b)
Equations (3.66a and b) will give nontrivial solution for A and B only when Similarly, if we designate
the determmant of this system equals zero. This leads to
·1· A is a root of Eq. (3.68) satisfying the required conditions.
 90
WAVE PROPAGATION IN AN ELASTIC MEDIUM WAVES GENERATED BY A SURFACE FOOTING 91

u P-wave s -wave R -wave

A=_":_ (3.72)
VR
~ I
I ~
r
Ia) (+away) ./'>-

in which Vu is the velocity of propagation of the Rayleigh wave under t

consideration, it may be seen that

vR =Ak v; (3.73)
Minor tremor Major tremor--\
for v = 0.5, VR = 0.9553V:
for v = 0.25, VR = 0.9194V,
w

~
Thus, it is seen that the velocity of surface waves propagation is some- I I
{+down)
what smaller than that of shear or transverse waves. Therefore Vn is less (b)

than v;. A plot of VRIV: for different values of vis sketched in Fig. 3.10
(Richart, 1962).
v 1

\_
t

It is thus seen that there are three principal waves in an elastic half space.
These ':av~s tra~el at different velocities. Knowing their velocities, it is easy
to prediCt m which order the waves will arrive at a given point as a result of
a disturbance at another point.
Particle Motion at the Surface
Lamb (1904) studied in detail the surface motion that occurs long distances
away from a pomt source at the surface of an elastic half space. When a
pomt source acts at the surface, the disturbance spreads out in the form of
~ymmetncal annular waves. The initial form of these waves depends on the
mput Impulse. When the input is of short duration, the characteristic waves
shown m Fig. 3.13a develop (Richart et al., 1970). These waves have three
salient features which correspond to the arrivals of the P-wave, S-wave, and
Raylmgh (R) wave. The horizontal and vertical components of particle
motwn are shown m Figs. 3.13a and b, respectively.
At the ~urface, a particle first undergoes an oscillatory lateral dis-
men! on arnval of the P-wave. This is followed by another oscillation at the
arnval of the S-wave after a relatively quiet period. This is then followed by
an oscdlatwn of much larger magnitude when the R wave arrives. With
mcreasmg distance from the source, the time interval between wave arrivals
becomes greater and the amplitude of the oscillations becomes smaller. In
additiOn, P-wave and S-wave amplitudes decay rapidly compared to that of
an R-wave. Therefore: the R-wave is the most significant disturbance along
the surface of an elas!Jc half space. At large distances from the source, this
wave may be the only clearly distinguishable wave.
If ~he h~rizo?tal and vertical components of the particle motion starting
at pomt 1 m Figs. (3.13a and b) are combined, the locus of the surface-
particle motion for the R wave can be drawn as shown in Fig. 3.13c. The
path of the particle motion is a retrograde ellipse.
Particle motion
lei
Direction of wave propagation
--;.-
w
Figure 3.13. Wave system from surface point source in ideal medium. (After Richart, Hall and
Woods, 1970, p. 90, Reprinted by Permission of Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., After
Lamb, 1904.
3.4 WAVES GENERATED BY A SURFACE FOOTING
In practice, a machine foundation generates waves in the soil. To illustrate
this condition, an ideal case of a circular footing undergoing vertical
oscillations at the surface of an elastic half space will be considered. The
energy of the oscillating footing is carried away by a combination of P, S,
and R waves. The esse\)tial features of this wave field at a relatively large
distance from the source'are shown in Fig. 3.14 (Woods, 1968). The distance
from the source of the waves to each wave in Fig. 3.14 has been drawn in
proportion to the velocity of each wave for a medium with v equal to 0.25.
T_l!e body waves(!:. a!!d S J~f.()p_ag~l_"..Qll~."'~r.<lradiall¥}r()_m the,s()!':f.C~-~o~~
a hemi~helj_giJ;wav"- fr nt, an_cl __ the_R-\V>IVC propagates radmlly outward
3.Iofii~-"~ ~EY-.lindjkf!l wav£_~ r~~!:...~U of tN.~~~es____~-~~ou~-~~r -~t:J:_. i-~~~~~!~-g~y
larger volum()( ofthemed\um as they tra el ouiwara. Therefore, ilie energy
density ofep: wave.decr~ases with distiihce from the footing. This decrease
i~-~!!_~gy_q._fu!~]-~~~ or decn\ase m dtsplac~ment amplitude, ts ca1l_~~-.S~t-
' ·. \
! ii . . t"·! .Q,_, "

92 WAVE PROPAGATION IN AN ELASTIC MEDIUM
Geometrical Circular footing
damping law
r-2 r-2 r-0.5
-c--o-
v = 0.25
Relative amplitude
Wave Type
(a) ~ ~ r-----1----'~=:::.__j
.-- Rayleigh
S Shear
P·- Compression
(b)
~igure .3.14. ?istribution of displacement waves from a circular footing on a hom g
rsotropic, elastrc half space. (After Woods, 1968.) o eneous,
rica/ damp!ng. The amplitude of the body waves decreases in proportion to
the rat1o of 11 r m wh1ch r 1s the distance from the. input source However
along the surface of the half space, the amplitude decreases a~ 1fr2 Th~
amphtude of the Rayleigh wave decreases as 1 /vr (Woods, 1968).
The partlcl~ motion a~sociated with the compression (P) wave is a
push-pull motion m the d1rect10n of the wave front. The particle motion
associated w1th the shear (S) wave is a transverse displacement that is
norm~! to the d1rectwn of the wave front. However, the J>article motion
assoc1ated w1th the R wave at the surfac f ] ....... l..f·----------.---
re-trograde ellis(; p{....jlj-;,-Te ····-······ e o_an_eastl<;_ha .. ~p.a:<_Oe__ts~
.li____b ............... J'......J;-_K __ . .J. h shaded zones along the wave fronts for
t e ?dy waves md1cate the relative amplitude of particle displacement as a
function of the dip angle (the angle measured downward from the surface at
the ~enter of the source). The R-wave can be described by two components,
vertical and honzontal, each of which decays with depth but according t 0
separate laws.
For a vertically oscillating circular energy source, e.g., a vibrating
fo?tmg, on the surface of a homogeneous, isotropic, and elastic half space
M11ler and Pursey (1954, 1955) determined that the distribution of total
mput energy among the three elastic waves was 67 percent for the R-wave
26 per~ent for the S-wa_ve, and 7 percent for the P-wave. The fact tha;
two-thuds of the total mput energy is transmitted away from a surface
energy source by the R-wave, which decays much more slowly with distance
than the body waves, indicates that the R wave is of primary concern for
foundatiOns on or near the surface of the ground.
93
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
3.5 FINAL COMMENTS
Solutions for the velocity of the P wave and the S wave (body waves) and
the propagation of the R wave (the surface wave) have been described.
Importance of the wave propagation phenomenon to the study of machine
foundations bas been discussed. In studying wave propagation caused by a
vibrating footing, it has been assumed tbat the footing is circular and placed
at the surface of a semi-infinite elastic half space. In practice, a footing is
more often rectangular than circular. Also, a footing is always embedded a
certain depth below the ground level. Nevertheless, the study of the
problem as a simplified case, as in the preceding discussion, does not reduce
its practical value. In fact, the departure in the actual results as compared
with the analytical predictions based upon simplified assumptions helps in
Percent of advancing the state of the art in two ways:
total energy
l. The analytical tools are refined by making more realistic assumptions
67
26
7
and more sophisticated analysis, and
2. Test data that may be uS<;d:in developing correction factors for the
analytical solutions are generated.
It is important to note, however, that most soils are neither homogeneous
and isotropic nor elastic. Therefore, gaps between prediction and actual
behavior can be explained partially on this count.
Further, many soils occur in layers. Analytical solutions for elastic waves
in layered systems have been obtained (Zoeppritz, 1919; Ewing et al.,
1970). The reflection and refraction of waves are used to determine the
depth of overburden in exploring soils for civil engineering projects, but the
corresponding solutions have limited application in machine foundations.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
3.1 What do you understand by
(a) compression wave
(b) shear wave a,nd
(c) Rayleigh wa'lie?
3.2 Describe the particle motion associated with compression, shear, and
Rayleigh waves propagating in a semi-infinite, homogeneous, isotropic
and elastic half space. 3
3.3 In a deposit of dry sand with G = 2. 70 and dry density of 112lb/ft ,
estimate the shear wave velocity at 10, 20, and 30ft below ground
level.
3.4 If the Poisson's ratio of sand is 0.3, estimate the compression wave
velocity in Problem 3.3.
 94
WAVE PROPAGATION IN AN ELASTIC MEDIUM .
3.5 If the sand gets fully submerged, will tbe shear wave velocity be
altered? Justify your answer.
3.6 Compute the new shear wave velocities in Problem 3. 3.
.

I·.
'
4
3.7 Discuss the effect of saturation on tbe compression wave velociiy in
soils.
3.8 (a) A circular footing is vibrating in the vertical direction on the
surf~ce of elastiC half space. Describe schematically the dispersion
Dynamic Soil Properties
of v1bratwns and several wave fronts generated
(b) Explain what you understand by geometrical tktmping.

REFERENCES

Ba~kan, D. D. (1962). "Dynamics of Bases and Foundations." McGraw-Hill, New York.

Ewmg, W. M., _Jardetzky, W. S., and Press, F., (1957). "Elastic Waves in Layered Media"
McGraw-Hill, New York. ·
Several problems in engineering practice require a knowledge of dynamic
Hardin • B. 0. • and Richart.' F · E ., J r. (1963) . Elastic
· wave velocJhes
·· m · granular soils. J. Soil
Mech. Found. Eng. Dtv., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 89 (No. SM-1), 33-65.
soil properties:, "In general, proble,p~involving the dynamic loading of soils
Kolsky, H. (1963). "Stress Waves in Solids." Dover, New York.
are divided into small and large strain amplitude responses. In a machine
foundation, the amplitudes of dynamic motion and, consequently, the
Lamb, H. (1904). On the propagation of tremors over the surface of an elastic solid Ph ·t
Trans. Soc. London, Ser. A 203, 1-42. · 1
as. strains in the soil are usually low, whereas a structure that is subjected to an
Miller, _G. F., and Pursey, H. (1954). The field and radiation impedance of mechanical earthquake or blast loading may undergo large deformations and thus
radtators on the free surface of a semi-infinite isotropic· solid Proc R Soc Londo S A induce large strains in the soil.
223, 521-554. · · · · n, er.
A large number of field and laboratory methods have been developed for
Mille~, ?:~··.and ~ursey, H. (1955). On the partition of energy between elastic waves in a determination of tbe dynamic soil properties. The principal properties that
semt-m ntte sohd. Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A. 223, 55-69. are determined by many of these methods are:
Prak~h, s... and Pori, V. K.. (1981). Dynamic properties of soils from in situ test. J. Geotech
R ng. Drv., Am. Soc. Ctv. Eng. 107 (No. GT-7), 943-963. '
1. Shear strength, which is evaluated in terms of strain rates and stress-
ay!Leighd, L. M(l885). On waves propagated along the plane surface of an elastic solid Proc
on on ath. Soc. 17, 4-11. · · strain characteristics;
Richart, F. E .• Jr. (1962). Foundat·
863-898.
'b ,. T
ton Vl ra tons. rans. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 127, Part 1, 2. Liquefaction parameters, such as cyclic shearing stress ratio, cyclic
deformation, and pore-pressure response;
Richart, F. _E., Jr., Hall, J. R., and Woods, R. D. (1970). "Vibrations of Soils and 3. Dynamic moduli, sucb as Young's modulus, shear modulus, bulk
. Foundattons." Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
modulus, and constrained modulus with corresponding spring con-
Ttmoshenko, S., and Goodie~,
G. N. (1951). "Theory of Elasticity." McGraw-Hill, New York.
stants;
Wood~, R. D. (1968). Screemng of surface waves in soils.
J. Soil Mech Found v· A S
Gv. Eng. 94 (No. SM-4), 951-979. . . lV., m. oc. 4. Damping; and
Zoeppritz, K. (1919). Nachr. Konigl. Ges. Wiss. GOttingen Math._ Phys., Berlin, pp. 66-- . 5. Poisson's ratio.
94

In machine foundations, an understanding of dynamic soil moduli (with

corresponding elastic spring constants) and damping is frequently required.
Poisson's ratio is also needed, even though it is frequently not determined.
In this chapter, triaxial tests under static conditions are summarized first,
followed by a detailed discussion of the laboratory and field methods used to
determine dynamic soil properties. Typical values of dynamic soil moduli
and damping are also presented. Shear strength determination and liquefac-
95
96
DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES
lion parameters, are beyond the scope of this text and are discussed in detail
elsewhere (Prakash, 1981).
4.1 TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST UNDER STATIC LOADS
A typical triaxial test set up is shown schematically in Fig. 4.1. A cylindrical
sample of soil Is placed between porous stones or metal discs. The length of
the sample IS g~nerally kept as twice its diameter. The soil sample is
enclosed m a thm, Impermeable membrane, which is secured to the base
and top caps with rubber rings (0-rings). The 0-rings and the rubber
m~mbrane Isolate the sample from the fluid in the chamber. If appropriate
flmds are used to pressurize the chamber, it may not be necessary to use the
membrane. The porous stones provide access to the sample for either
pore-water dramage or pore-pressure measurements.
Fluid pressure is applied within the chamber containing the sample. The
chamber pressure IS controlled by a "cell pressure control" and is measured
with a pressure gauge or a pressure transducer. The chamber pressure acts
umf~rmly on the surface of the sample, including the top and bottom
loadmg caps. Alternatively, the chamber pressure may be activated la-
terally, and the vertical pressure applied independently.
. A vertical load can be applied through a loading ram, which is equipped
With a Jackmg arrangement and measured with a proving ring or load cell.
Loading
mm
Pressure
gauge
lL.~s,nwlc enclosed i'n a burette.
rubber membrane
Water
To cell pressure
control
Mercury
Figure 4.1. Triaxial apparatus.
97
TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST UNDER STATIC LOADS
The axial deformation is usually measured by a dial gauge or an LVDT
attached to the bottom of the proving ring and abutted against the top of the
chamber. Triaxial shear tests permit a better control of stresses and volume
changes during shear and drainage conditions as compared to other shear
tests. There are basically three different types of tests that may be perform-
ed in a triaxial apparatus depending upon the drainage conditions.
Drainage Conditions during Shear
Most soils are saturated at some time during the design life of a structure.
Drainage conditions before and during shear influence the shear charac-
teristics of saturated soils. In shear tests, soils are first subjected to normal
or confining stress, which is usually maintained at a constant level. An
increasing deviator (shear) stress is then applied. Shear tests have been
devised to measure the shear characteristics of soils under three different
drainage conditions as follows:
1. Unconsolidated-undrained test or "quick test": In these tests, no
drainage is ~ermitted under conlli)fng pressure or during shear. Thus, the
normal load is not transferred to the soil grains as intergranular pressure but
exists as hydrostatic excess pore pressure. It cannot, therefore, mobilize any
frictional resistance. Preventing drainage during shear prevents volume
changes that might otherwise take place.
2. Consolidated-undrained test or "consolidated quick test": In these
tests, soils are allowed to drain (consolidate) under applied confining
pressure, and no drainage is permitted during shear. Although volume
changes can occur during normal loading, these are not possible during
shear. This, however, leads to development of pore pressures during shear.
3. Drained test or "slow test": In these tests, full drainage (consolidation)
is allowed under confining pressure. Free drainage is also permitted during
shear, so that excess hydrostatic pressure does not exist in the pores of the
soil, and all stresses are integranular throughout.
With the triaxial apparatus, volume changes in the drained tests are
measured by the amount of water that flows into or out of a calibrated
In undrained tests, Jhe volume change tendencies of the soil result in
Pore-pressure generation of pore wiler pressures that can be measured by an electronic
gauge pore pressure transducer, manometer, or other suitable type of pressure
gauge.
Different Types of Tests in Triaxial Apparatus
The aforementioned tests can be performed in a triaxial test machine. Test
interpretations are as follows:
98

Effective stress
circle
DYNAMIC SOil PROPERTIES 200

160

120
/
/
~'Dense -
e0 = 0.75
ILoose
i

'\;/ 80 I ..L
I
r<e 0 = 0.85
_

I ~
0~
4

0
0 10 15 20 25 30 35
0 5

40 10

~
2 Total
stress circle 1r /

--
0
Loose
Figure 4.2. Mohr plot for undrained test.
'-...
-40
oens:
1
f
-80 lQ. 15 20 25 30 35
Unconsolidated-Undrained Test on Saturated Soils. When an all around 0 5
incremental stress Ll.<r3 is applied to a saturated soil sample, and the drainage Axial strain (%)

is not permitted, the entire incremental stress is taken up by pore water as .

F1gure 4 . 3 .
StreS~._strain
_
curves for undrained
,, . "
triaxial compression of a saturated sand. (After
pore pressure Aua, and tlua = Aa3 . Next, the deviator stress, a-1 - a 3 , is Leonards, 1962; Bishop and Henkel, 1957)."
applied until failure occurs. Drainage is not permitted during this stage of
the test either.
In Fig. 4.2, circle 1 represents the Mohr circle of total stresses at failure.
If an undrained test is repeated on a similar sample with a different
confining pressure (circle 2) and the Mohr strength envelope is plotted, it
will be a straight line parallel to the <T axis. Because any variation in
chamber pressure simply changes the pore pressure while the effective
~ I I
stresses inside the sample remain constant, only one circle of effective
stresses can be obtained from such tests. If the stress-strains are plotted for "'
(a)
each of the tests with a different value of <T3 , only one such curve will be
obtained.
The strength as well as the rigidity (slope of the stress-strain diagram) in
- - - Effective stress
such a test is governed by the effective stress condition in the field prior to - T o t a l stress
testing.
Figure 4.3 shows the stress-strain curves for the undrained triaxial
compression of a saturated sand (Leonards, 1962).
'
Consolidated-Undrained Test on Saturated Cohesive Soil. In a consoli-
dated-undrained test, all-around pressure, <r3 , is applied, and the induced
pore pressures are allowed to dissipate (consolidate) so that <T3 becomes the
effective pressure. Next, the sample is sheared under undrained conditions.
a
Fig. 4.4a shows the variation of the void ratio with <T3 .
In Fig. 4.4b, total and effective stress circles are plotted for two clay u31 1132
samples that were initially consolidated by chamber pressures of a-31 and u 32 . (b)
The Mohr strength envelopes of total and effective stresses are drawn in
Figure 4.4. (a) Void ratio vs. confining pressure; (b) Mohr's plots for consolidated undrained
continuous and dotted lines, respectively. In this particular case, the mag- tests.
99
 101
100 ElASTIC CONSTANTS OF SOILS
DYNAMIC SOil PROPERTIES

son's ratio are not constants for a soil but, rather, are quantities that
25

20

15
,,. /
..1'1' iil 0'3
l7.Pore-water pressure, u..,

Chamber pressure
approximately describe the behavior of a soil for a particular set of stresses,
loading conditions, and geometry. The different values of the modulus and
Poisson's ratio apply for any other set of loading conditions.
The terms tangent modulus and secant modulus are used frequently.
10 f-- varied between 30.5 1-- Tangent modulus is the slope of the tangent to a stress-strain curve at a
_ and ~2.0 I~ per sq in.
5 particular point on the curve (Fig. 4.6). The value of a tangent modulus will
35
I....- ......,
vary with the point selected. The tangent modulus at the initial point of the
curve is known as the initial tangent modulus. Secant modulus is the slope of
0

sl' v a straight line connecting two separate points of a stress-strain curve. Based
on a linear stress-strain relationship, the following elastic constants can be
0 defined.
If a uniaxial stress a, is applied to an elastic cylinder (Fig. 4.7a), there
5
ol\ ., will be a vertical compression and a lateral expansion such that

5
' ( 4.1)
4
/
;::.;::;:~dtr3
• and
J (4.2)
II in which ex, eY, and ez ar~ the strains in the x, y, and z directions,
F_igure 4.~. Plot of undrained cylindrical compres- 2
SIOn test m which pore-pressure values are observed.
respectively (considered positive when compressive), E is Young's modulus
0 5 10 15
(After Taylor, 1948.) Axial strain, AL/L 0 in percent of elasticity, and vis the Poisson's ratio.
If shear stresses r,x are applied to an elastic cube (Fig. 4.7b), there will be
a shear distortion Yu such that
nitude of the pore pressure at failure, f!.ud, is approximately equal to the
deviator stress.
. The inclination of the envelope of th e Mo hr c1rc · 1es of total (4.3)
stresses give the apparent angle of internal friction, cf>,, and that of the Mohr
circles
no llof effectiVe
I'd stresses,
d the "effective" angle of interna1' · t.wn, 'Po
Jnc "' F or
in which G is the shear modulus.
rma Y canso~ ate clays, both envelopes pass through the origi~. In
figure 4.5, the tnaxial test data for a consolidated undrained test for Boston
Blue clay (Taylor, 1948) has been shown.
Tangent
Drained Tests on Saturated Cohesive Soils. In a fully drained triaxial test modulus
~he mduced pore pressures are allowed to dissipate before the stresses ar~
mcreased. Therefore, the pore pressures are zero, and the stresses in this
test at all stages are effective stresses.
Secant
modulus
4.2 ELASTIC CONSTANTS OF SOILS

Concepts from the Theory of Elasticity

The ?ehavior of a soil is nonlinear from the time a stress is applied. For Strain ~
f.~~c!Ical p~rposes, the actual nonlinear stress-strain curves of a soil are
Figure 4.6. Definitions of secant and tangent moduli.
zneanzed , t.e., replaced by straight lines. Therefore, modulus and Pais-
 102
DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES
ELASTIC CONSTANTS OF SOILS 103

( 4.5d)
Uniaxial Young's
loading modulus
E•!!l (4.5e)
(a) ••
and
Simple Shear
shear modulus (4.5f)
G Tu
(b) -"f..

The volumetric strain is given by

Isotropic
av
-=e +eJ +e (4.5g)
compression
Bulk
modulus
v X Z

(c)
s.!!
3<,
For a special -·case in which ux:'£'5.:£TY = uz = cr0 and Txy = Tyz = Tzx = 0, the
volumetric strain equals

av 3CTo
Confined
compression
Constrained
modulus
V = 3e, = E (1- 2v)
(d) ~-,,..,-,-.,-fil Ec .!!...•
" .. The bulk modulus, Eb (Fig. 4.7c) is defined as
Figure 4.7. Various types of moduli.
O"o ao E
Eb = 3e, = aviV = 3(1- 2v) ( 4.6)
theEquations (4.l) through ( 4.3) defined the three basic constants of the
odrydofbelaslJcJty: E, G, and v. Actually, only two of these constants are
nee e , ecause they are related as follows: Still another special modulus is the constrained modulus E,, which is the
ratio of axial stress to axial strain for confined compression or zero lateral
G= E strain (Fig. 4.7d). This modulus can be computed from Eq. ( 4.5c) by letting
2(1 + v) (4.4) ex = ey = 0 in Eqs. 4.5a and b. Thus,

ca:or an elastic and isotropic material with all stress components acting, we
employ the pnnc1ple of superposition to obtain the various strain (4.7)
components:

1 which gives
ex= E [O'x- v(O'y + O'J] (4.5a)
1 £(1- v)
eY = E [O'y- v(O', + O'xl] (4.5b) E, = (1 + v)(1-2v)
(4.8)

1
e, = E [0',- v(O'x + O'y)] (4.5c) Uniaxial loading and confined compression involve both shear strain and
volume change as shown below:
 105
FACTORS AFFECTING DYNAMIC SHEAR MODULUS
104 DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES
plasticity in terms of effective stresses. On this basis, the maximum value of
6
Condition Volumetric Shear the shear modulus Gm" (at low shear strain of 10- ) is expressed by Eq.
(4.9) (Hardin and Black, 1969):
Uniaxial
loading G ~ 1230 OCRk ( 2 .973 - e)' .rg' psi ( 4.9)
~(1-2v) u< max 1+ e
E
in which OCR is the overconsolidation ratio, 0'0 the effective all-ar~u~d
u< (1- 2v)
Confined Tmax = 2 1- 1J
stress in psi, e the void ratio, and k a factor that depends up~n the plasUcity
compression index of clays. Hardin (1978) recommended tha~ thiS _equatiOn be used for
(1 + v)(1- 2v) u< (1- 2v) an anisotropic state of stress by taking u 0 = ( ui + u, + u,) /3, the mean
E(1- v) u< 'Ymax = 2G 1- ll effective confining stress. The parameter k, given in Table 4.1 is related to
the plasticity index PI.

The volumetric strain becomes zero if v ~ 1/2.

Table 4.1. Values of k
Plasticity Index PI k
4.3 FACTORS AFFECTING DYNAMIC SHEAR MODULUS 0
0 ' ,.
20 ";""· 0.181
Based on the study of dynamic elastic constants, the factors on which these 40 0.30
depend are (Hardin and Black, 1968): 60 0.41
80 0.48
1. Type of soil and its properties (for example, water content and yd) and >100 0.50
state of disturbance;
Source: Hardin 1978.
2. Initial (sustained) static stress level or confining stress;
3. Strain level;
4. Time effects; Equation ( 4.9) may be expressed in a more convenient form as follows:
5. Degree of saturation;
6. Frequency and number of cycles of dynamic load; = A(OCR)k ( )I-n(U: )" ( 4.10)
Gmax F(e) Pa 0
7. Magnitude of dynamic stress; and
8. Dynamic prestrain. By introducing p, (the atmospheric pressure), the par~meter A is dimen-
sionless whereas U: and G in Eq. (4.9) are m lb/m., and the constant
In machine foundations, the magnitude of dynamic stress is usually small. 1230 ha~ the dimen;ions (lbli';;'.') 0 ' 5 It is also desirable to change the form of
The tests may, therefore, be performed at small strain levels. Also, the the void ratio function in Eq. ( 4.9) by letting
number of dynamic stress cycles is very large. To avoid buildup of any
2 (4.11)
residual strains in the soil due to the operation of the machine, it is F(e) = 0.3 + 0.7e
necessary to ensure that the vibrations of the soil-foundation system are in
the elastic range. This is achieved by restricting the vibration amplitudes to in Eq. (4.10). The function F(e) is more convenient to use than the void
small values. The effect of different factors on the''value of dynamic shear ratio function in Eq. (4.9), but it gives about the same effect as em the
modulus is now discussed. range 0.4 < e < 1.2. For very large values of e, Eqs. (4.9) and ( 4.10) g~e
monotonically decreasing values of Gm" whereas Eq. ( 4.9) g1ves Gm" -0
Type of Soil and Confining Pressure. The large amount of data on the for e=2.973, and Gm"' increasing for e>2.973. Equation (4.10) will
values of soil constants that had been collected was analyzed by Hardin approximate Eq. (4.9) for 0.4 < e < 1.2 if one makes n = 0.5 and A = 625 ·
(1978). He developed a mathematical formulation of soil elasticity and soil
 106
DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES
FACTORS AFFECTING DYNAMIC SHEAR MODULUS 107
0 5
Figure 4.8t shows a plot of [ Gm,I(OCR)k(p,ii0 versus the void ratio
) " ]
from laboratory and field measurements (Hardin, 1978). for round-grained sands (e < 0.80), and
The elastic parameters reqmred for computation of the soil constant are 2
k, n, and v. For most purposes, it is sufficient to use v = 0 12 =05 d G =
326
(2.97- e) ( _ )o.s ( 4.13)
1 fk" Tbl · ,n .,an 1+ e lTo
vaues o 1~ a e 4.1. For a preliminary analysis, Fig. 4.8 can be used as a max
gmde (Hardm, 1978).
For. clean sands, Richart (1977) found that G depends on 0'0 and e. His for angular sands. In Eqs. (4.12) and (4.13), G and 0'0 are expressed in
analyl!cal express10ns for the shear modulus of clean sands are terms of kg/ cm 2 Both equations were originally established to correspond
to shearing strains of 10- 4 or less. Equation (4.12) yields values slightly
G = 700 (2.17- e)2 - o.s lower than those obtained by pulse tests (Whitman and Lawrence, 1963).
max 1+e (uo) ( 4.12) Iwasaki and Tatsuoka (1977) determined experimentally from tests on clean
sands (0.61 < e < 0.86 and 0.2 < 0'0 < 5 kg/ cm 2 ) at shearing strain am-
plitudes of 10- 6 that
2
G = 900 (2.17- e) (- )o.3s (4.14)
r;;gl
max l+e Uo
li2l
f712
I2J For shearing strains of 10- 4, their results agree with those of Eq. (4.12).
The precoiding expressions inyatiably point out the fact that Gm, is
l'I 3 proportional to ( 0'0 )". The value of'n has been recommended as 0.5 by most
-4
investigators. Therefore, if the shear modulus is determined at a mean
- 2000 effective confining pressure of ( 0'0 ) 1 , its value at any other mean effective
~0
0 confining pressure (0'0 ) 2 can be determined from Eq. (4.15):
!i
•a:
(.)
(4.15)
0
....1
CJ
Effective overburden pressure a, may be used in place of 0'0 in Eq. (4.15)
only.

Strain Level. The other important factor affecting soil modulus is strain
level. Ishihara (1971) presented Fig. 4.9, which indicates strain levels
associated with different phenomenon in the field and in corresponding field
and laboratory tests. Typical variations of G versus shear strain amplitude
for different types of in situ tests are shown in Fig. 4.10. The soil modulus
0.5 1.0 values may vary by a factor of 10, depending upon the strain level.
Void ratio It is customary to plot a graph between normalized modulus (defined as
Figure 4.8. Elastic stiffness from laboratory and field measurements· 1 lab "It d "I G-value at a particular,,~train, divided by Gm, at a strain of 10- 6 ) and shear
andclays·2 1 b 1 d b · - ,sr ysan s,srts,
. ' :-a ' c ean san s; 3- 1a , dense, well-graded graveiMsand with some fines; 4-lab strain. One such plot is shown in Fig. 4.11.
~~labvely u~rform clean gravels; F~-field, silty. sands, silts, and days at Ferndale, Cholame, and The shear strains induced in soil may not be precisely known (Prakash
Centro srtes by Shannon and Wdson-Agbabran Associates (1976)· F field d "It d and Puri, 1981). In the case of wave propagation tests, the shear strain
claysatsit AB
es , , an
dCAd '2-
· n erson et al. (1978}. (After Hardin, 1978.)
,sans,srs,an
amplitudes are low and are assumed to be of the order of 10- 6 The shear
strains induced in soil essentially depend upon the amplitude of vibration or
i" In this figure, S is a dimensionless elastic stiffness parameter in Hardin's (1978) d
stress-sdtrai n relation ~or inherent isotropy. For clean sands, s varies from 1200 to settlement, which in turn depends upon superimposed loads, the foundation
st 1ts an cays,
1 S vanes from 700 to 2000.
150lr~:;~~r
' contact area, and soil characteristics. The measured values of amplitude or
settlement take care of the factors affecting them. The shear strain am-
 FACTORS AFFECTING DYNAMIC SHEAR MODULUS 109

1.2,-------,,---------,-----,------,------,

Magnitude of strain ta,·' ta,-' w-4 10-3 10- 2 w-'

I
Slide,
Phenomena Cracks, differential compaction,
Wave propagation, vibration
settlement !iquifacation
Mechanical
Elastic E!astic·plastic Failure
characteristics
Angle of
Constants Shear modulus, Poisson's ratio, damping ratio internal friction
cohesion
Seismic wave
method

a"
0
•e in situ
·;;; f vibration test --,
.s ~
•E Repeated
loading test

Wave propagation
test
~~ Dynamic shear strain 1
o E
No~;lized
Resonant
~0 f, column test Figure 4.11. shear modulus (t;)·gmaJ vs. shear strain. (After Prakash and Puri,
.0~
j~ 1980; Prakash, 1981.)
Repeated
loading test

Figure 4.9. Strain levels associated with different in situ and laboratory tests. {After Ishihara, plitude y, may be considered equal to the ratio of the amplitude or
1971.) settlement to width (Prakash, 1975; Prakash and Puri, 1977). For the case of
a vertically vibrating footing, the ratio of amplitude to width yields the
normal strain e, and the shear strain y, may be computed as follows:

"oo·r---r-~--r-rr--~--,-Tl-r--,---~~==~==~---,,---.---,-,-,
0 fo(t:edv'lbrotloot•"
(4.16)
6 F,..e vibration to•t
0 Cyclic plate lood tost

,ooo~'---+--4-~-4-~-+--~---f-tf---~~~·~·~M;"~·oo~"~'"~"~'"~,_f-1~--~--~~tj For an axisymmetric ·case, ax = aY, and ez is given by

l;-t---r--
1
S:::.i::--- r-- 1 (4.17)
j
1600
•
- ...
r- 8' = 2G(1 + v) (<T,- Zv<TJ
0

O'z - O'x
( 4.18)
'Ye = 2G
·•:~ y, (<T,- <TJ(1 + v) ( 4.19a)
-=
e, (<T,- 2v<Tx)
or

( 1- "x)(l + v)
'Yo = ----".2'------- (4.19b)
E,

Figure 4.1 0. Dynamic shear modulus vs. strain. {After Prakash and Puri, 1980; Prakash, 1981.)

108
110 DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES FACTORS AFFECTING DYNAMIC SHEAR MODULUS 111

If the loading condition corresponds to the at rest condition (K0 case), It was found that for most soils the time-dependent behavior at low strain
then the ratio of o")a, is given by Eq. (4.7) and y0 /e, = 1. levels can be characterized by an initial phase when a modulus changes
If one considers an extreme case of incipient failure with a, as the major rapidly with time. This is followed by a second phase when the modulus
principal stress, then increases almost linearly with the logarithm of the time (Fig. 4.12). For the
most part, the initial phase results from the void ratio changes and iucrease
( 4.20) in effective confinement during primary consolidation. The second phase, in
which the modulus increases almost linearly with the logarithm of time, is
believed to result largely from any decrease in void ratio and changes in the
soil structure due to a strengthening of the physico-chemical bonds in the
and the value of y 0 /e, will depend upon the value of the angle of internal case of cohesive soils and an increase in particle contact for cohesionless
friction of soil,</>, and the Poisson's ratio, v. Typical values of y0 /e, are listed soils. This phase proceeds at a constant confining stress and is referred to as
in Table 4.2. the long-term time effect. The long-term effect represents the increase in the
modulus with time that occurs after primary consolidation is completed.
Two methods are used to describe the long-term time effects. The
Table 4.2. Typical Values of y0 /E,
long-term effect is expressed in an absolute sense as a coefficient of shear
Angle of Internal modulus increase with time, 10 . That is,
Friction, cf> v = 0.25 v = 0.33 v = 0.45 v = 0.5
(I) (2) (3) (4) (5)
( 4.21)
25 0.9317 1.014 1.35 !.5
30 !.00 1.142 1.38 1.5
35 !.054 1.183 1.398 1.5 in which t 1' t2 are the times after primary consolidation, and
.
!:J.G is the
45 !.097 1.2!6 1.41 1.5 change in low-amplitude shear modulus from t 1 to t 2 (Fig. 4.12). Nu-
merically, I a equal the value of G for one logarithmic cycle of time. The
Source: Prakash and Puri, 1981.
long-term effect is also expressed in relative terms by the normalzzed shear
modulus increase with time, Na· That is,
For values of </> and v in the range of interest, it is reasonable to assume
that Yo= e,. ( 4.22)

Time Effects. The effect of duration of confinement at a constant

pressure on the magnitude of shear moduli was first reported by Richart
(1961). It was observed later that when specimens were confined at a
~

constant confining pressure, shear moduli measured at shearing strain ~

~ 1 - /';G
u G- LOG 10 (t 2tt 1l
amplitudes below 0.001 ,percent (commonly referred to as low-amplitude .,;
moduli at a strain of 10- or less) increased with the time of the specimen's ~
~
ao "' CONSTANT
c~ y < J0-3%
confinement. These studies showed that the shear moduli of artificially c
~

prepared soil specimens indeed increase with the length of time a specimen oc
~
w
is confined. More recently, sustained-pressure studies on undisturbed ~
~

specimens of sands and clays have shown that this time-dependent behavior w
c
is also characteristic of natural soils (Anderson and- Stokoe, 1977). ~
:::;
The time dependence of moduli has significant implications. In the first ~
2
~
place, it means that duration of confinement at a constant confining pressure PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION--+- LONG-TERM TIME
must be considered when performing laboratory tests. Also, if the labora- "'
c
~

0
t 1000 EFFECT

tory values of tbe moduli of a given soil are to be compared, they should be 10' 102 103 t1 10 4
compared after equal confinement times for similar drainage conditions, and DURATION OF CONFINEMENT (LOG SCALE)
these times should be equal to or greater than the time of primary Figure 4.12. Phases of rnodulus4irne response. (After Anderson and Stokoe, 1977, copyright
consolidation. ASTM. Reprinted with permission.)
"'

Table 4.3. Typical values of /G and NG

Confining Low-Amplitude Typical Typical
Pressure Shear Modulus r
G
N'G
G 1000 (kN lm Y
2
Soil Type Specimen Type (kN/m')' (kNim')' (%) Reference
EPK kaolinite Vacuum extruded 200 to 300 140000 to 190000 24 000 to 35 000 17 to 18 Hardin and Black (1968)
Ottawa sand Compacted by 70 to 280 50 000 to 180 000 1400 to 5500 1 to 11 Afifi and Woods (1971)
Quartz sand raining and
Quartz silt tamping
Dry clay

Kaolinite Vacuum extruded 70 to 550 4000 to 170 000 1000 to 8500 5 to 25 Marcuson and Wahls (1972)
Bentonite

Agsco sand Compacted by 70 to 280 50000 to 110000 2000 to 10 000 1 to 17 Afifi and Richart (1973)
Ottawa sand raining and
Air-dried EPK tamping
Kaolinite

Saturated EPK Vacuum extruded

Kaolinite

~~~",-,.~~~ -~~,""""'""''' i''""~"'c''S,--- --'-

SO 000 to 2600 000 2000 to 22 900 1 to 14 Stokoe and Richart (1973a, b)

Undisturbed a 70 to 220
Silty sand
Sandy silt
Clayey silt
Shale
32 500 to 54 000 =7000 15 to 18 Trudeau et al. (1974)
Boston blue clay Undisturbed a 70 to 700
26 OOO!'to 23 500 2 to 40 Anderson and Woods (1975, 1976)
Undisturbedd 35 to 415 13 000 to 235 000
9 Clays
1 Silt 50 000 to 200 000 4200 to 15 000 7 to 14 Stokoe and Abdel-razzak (1975)
Undisturbedd 35 to 70
Clay fills 365 000 to 1300 000 28 000 to 102 000 3 to 4 Yang and Hatheway (1976)
Decomposed marine Undisturbedd 325 to 830
limestone # 725 to 32 000 8 to 22 Lodde (1977)
ltJndisturbedd 17 to 550 7600 to 150 000
San Francisco Bay mud 5000 to 17 000 4 to 10 Fugro, Inc, (1977)
Undisturbedd 220 to 620 45 000 to 180 000
Dense silty sand 14 000 to 26 000 4 to 8 Fugro, Inc, (1977)
Undisturbedd 1280 to 1300 300 000 to, 320 000
Stiff OC' clay
Source: Anderson and Stokoe, 1977, copyright ASTM. Reprinted with permission. ;;1,
"I a defined by Eq, (01), 'i

"NG defined by Eq, (422),

c 1 kN/m 2 = 0.145 psi.
d Nominally undisturbed.
e Overconsolidated.

-"'
 115
FACTORS AFFECTING DYNAMIC SHEAR MODULUS
114 DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES

in which G 1000 is the shear modulus measured after 1000 minutes of constant
confining pressure (after completion of the primary consolidation).
The duration of primary consolidation and the magnitude of the long-
term time effect vary with such factors as soil type, initial void ratio,
undrained shearing strength, confining pressure, and stress history. Figure 6G DUE TO CHANGE
4.13 shows typical time-dependent modulus responses for different soils. IN VOID RATIO
Typical values of Ic and Nc are given in Table 4.3.
The shape of tbe low-amplitude modulus-time graph at a constant iG
,, - - - ·151
confining pressure depends primarily on whether the soil is predominantly Gtooo
fine-grained (silts and clays) or coarse-grained (sands).
Figure 4.14a illustrates typical changes in the shear modulus of a clay with
time at a constant confining pressure. The two distinct phases of modulus- --+- lONG-TERM TIME
EFFECT
time response are clear from this figure. First, during primary consolidation,
values of the shear modulus are initially constant. They then increase rapidly
and finally begin to level off. Second, during the long-term time effect,
values of the modulus increase linearly with the logarithm of time.
Figure 4.14b shows the vertical height change of the clay specimen during 0,5 ~
the constant-pressure confinement. By comparing the height change results
with the modulus-time graph, it can be seen that the end of the initial phase
in the modulus-time graph coincides with the end of primary consolidation.
4
The point of transition in the modulus-time graph for this loading sequence
is defined as the end of primary consolidation. Therefore, modulus values
determined at a time before the end of the primary consolidation is
complete are at an effective stress less than that assumed, because excess
pore-water pressures still exist in the specimen. ''
During the long-term time effect phase of modulus response, the shear '
8
(b) HEIGHT CHANGE
L~.::.:..:..:_.:.,-.__ ___._,__ -:'::,---~ 2.0
4
I 101 102 10 3 10
tO-WEEKS
DURATION OF CONFINEMENT, t (MIN)
SOl LS NG
F•rgure 4 .14 · Typical modulus and height changes with time for day at constant confining
<•> · d ·h · · )
pressure. (After Anderson and Stokoe, 1977, copyright ASTM. Reprmte wrt permrssron.
NC CLAYS 5-20
OC CLAYS 3-10
CLEAN SANOS .c 1-3
modulus increases almost linearly with the logarithm of time. In Figure
4.14a, this increase was monitored for 10,000 minutes or about o~e week
(Anderson and Stokoe,_ }.977). The coefficieJ~t of shear modul~s mcrease
'
:' W
ith time I is aboui~900 psi (6200 kN I m ) , and the normalized shear
' G'
SANDS : modulus increase with time Nc is about 15 percent.
The value of I generally increases as the confining pressure increases.
Values of N de~rease with increasing undrained shearing strength and
OL-----~----~----~----~-----' increase with increasing void ratio for fine-grained soils (Anderson and
to 1 to2 toJ to4 to5 Woods, 1976). Stress history also affects values of I 0 and Nc· Figure 4.15
DURATION OF CONFINEMENT (MIN) shows this effect for a series of modulus-time tests conducted on one
Figure 4.13. Effect of confinement time on shear modulus. (After Anderson and Stokoe, 1977, specimen. Values of the modulus were determined over approximately a
copyright ASTM. Reprinted with permission.)
 116
DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES
FACTORS AFFECTING DYNAMIC SHEAR MODULUS 117
12~-------,--------r--------r--------,
.. 28
<
X
AIR-DRY OTTAWA SAND 130- 50) X
<
w"' 0 0 .. 207 KN/111 2 190 w"'
.,; .,;
~
~
27 e0 = 0.5
~
~
0 y 4 10-3, ~
~
0- ON
"'~
~
~
JD-
,.,
c,.
< 0
w z ~ 61000 ~~
%< 26 180 We
~ ~ %z
~ ~<
w0 ~
0% w~
~ ~ co
~ i::'J. G DUE TO CHANGE IN YOlO RATIO ~X
::; ~~

~ ~

"'<,l. 25 6G N lo
~
2
Is .. LOG 10 (t 21t 1) G .. G1000 ~"
<
0
~

"' 1725 KN/12

170
"''
0
~

24
101 102
DETROIT CLAY
1
DURATION OF CONFINEMENT. '"'
t (min) '"'
o,'-
1
--------~~--------~--------~.-------_j
10
1
10 2 103 10-4
Figure 4.16. Typical modulus change with time for sand. (After Lodde, 1977; Anderson and
Stokoe, 1977, cbpyright ASTM. Reprinted;;,~~th permission.)
DURATION OF CONFINEIIENT, t (MIN)

Fi~ure 4.15. Effect _of stress history on shear modulus~time relationship. (After Anderson and
Stokoe, 1977, copynght ASTM. Reprinted with permission.)
one-week period of confinement at each pressure in the following sequence·
17, 34, 60, 34, and 17psi (117, 235, 414, 235, and 117kN/m 2 ). It can b~
observed that m the overconsolidated state values of I and N
d d · · ' a 0 were
re uce relative to value of Ia and N 0 in the normally consolidated state.
A typiCal modulus-time graph of a coarse-grained soil is shown in Fig.
4.16. It can be se~n that the shape of the modulus-time response for the
~ohes10nless soil differs significantly from that of the fine-grained soil shown
m Fig. 4.14. For the sand, the primary consolidation phase is not evident
Rather, the long-term time effect had begun by the time the first mea:
sur~ment was made. The long-term time effect is, however, similar to that
which occurs for clays.
In Fig. 4.16, the linear increase in modulus with the logarithm of time
was momtored for ~bout 10,000 min. Values of I a and Na for this sand are
250 psi (1725 kN /m ) and 1.0 percent, respectively. These values are much
smaller than those shown for the clays in Figur<> 4.14a.
Moduli m~asured -~t sheari ng strain amplitudes between 0.001 and 0.1
percent (stram of 10 to w- )
3
also increase with time.
The results of a number of tests show that long-term modulus increases
occur at low to mtermediate strain levels (0.001 to 0.1 percent) for stiffer
clays (Lodde, 1977). Preliminary results from long-term, high-amplitude
modulus tests on sand seem to indicate that long-term modulus increases
occur m clean, dry sands at strain amplitudes up to 0.1 percent as well.
Because of the general similarity between the increase in moduli with
time at low and high-shearing strain amplitudes, it seems reasonable to
conclude that many of the factors that affect the low-amplitude modulus
time response also affect the high-amplitude modulus-time response (at the
start of high-amplitude cycling) (Anderson and Stokoe, 1977). Anderson
and Stokoe (1977) also proposed a method, which can be used to predict the
in situ shear moduli from laboratory tests after allowing for time effects.
Degree of Saturation. Biot (1956) showed that the presence of fluid
exerts an important influence on the dilatational (longitudinal) wave velocity
but produces only a minor effect on the shear wave velocity. The fluid
affects the shear wave velocity only by adding to the mass of the particles in
motion. A study of the influence of degree of saturation on the shear wave
velocity for a sample of Ottawa sand shows that much of the difference
between the values for the dry and saturated conditions can be accounted
for by the effect of the weight of water. Therefore, it is sufficient for an
evaluation of V or G fi)J cohesionless soils to consider the in situ unit weight
·' .
and the effective pressure.
Frequency and Number of Cycles of Dynamic Load. The effect of
number of cycles and frequency of dynamic loading was investigated by
Hardin and Black (1969). For number of cycles between 1 and 100, the
dynamic shear modulus of dry sands was observed to increase slightly with
number of cycles whereas for cohesive soils a decrease in modulus with
number of cycles was observed. Low strain shear modulus was found to be
practically unaffected by the frequency of loading.

118 DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES
Magnitude of Dynamic Load. The magnitude of dynamic load controls
the shear strain levels induced in the soil and hence the dynamic shear
modulus should be expected to decrease with an increase in the dynamic
load.
Dynamic Prestrain. The effect of strain history on the dynamic shear
modulus of sands was investigated by Drnevich, Hall, and Richart (1967)
using torsional-vibration-type resonant column equipment. The soil samples
were first subjected to large amplitude vibrations (dynamic prestrain) for a
predetermined number of cycles and then the low-amplitude vibration
modulus was determined. It was observed that the value of the dynamic
shear modulus generally increased with the number of prestrain cycles, as
shown in Fig. 4.17. No data is available of the effect of dynamic prestrain on
the dynamic shear modulus of clays and silts.
119
EQUIVALENT SOIL SPRINGS
pressure under working conditions in the field. The. sample is then subjected
to an axial stress equal to the anticipated statlc stress under workmg
conditions. Positive and negative values of a small mcrement . of load
corresponding to the loading levels in the .field should then be apphed (Fig.
4 18) It will be seen that initially the stram mcreases after each apphcat10n
. t· le But after 6 to 10 cycles the additional axial stram generally
of s ress eye . ' . d' 1 ·
becomes negligible, and a closed loop on the loadmg-:-unloa mg eye e !S
obtained. The value of the modulus may then be determmed from the slope
of the line "aa" by using Eq. ( 4.23):
change in unit stress (4.23)
Modulus= corresponding change in unit deformation
The soil behaves as an elastic material in the sense that there is a
reduction in deformation when the stress is removed, but the matenal
absorbs energy and hence provides material damping. .
The load-deformation behavior of soils may also be represented m ter~s
of equivalent ;~oil springs which_ar_~ essentially, related to th~ Young s
modulus E, tlie shear modulus c;, ·and Pmsson s rat10. v. Thts concept
considerably simplifies the solution of many problems a?d ts commonly used
' in analyzing the machine foundation problem and ts d~scussed belo':.
The spring constant k is defined as the load per umt deflectiOn, 1.e.,
p (4.24a)
k = LI.Z

ao = 612 psf
o-0 "" 1188 psf 'YOx = 1.6 X w- 4
'Yox = 1.6 X lQ-4

Cyc!es of high-amplitude torsional vibration

Figure 4.17. Effect of number of cycles of high-amplitude vibration on the shear modulus at
low amplitude (C-190 Ottawa Sand, e0 =0.46, Hollow Cylindrical Specimens). (Drnevich, Hall, I
and Richart, 1967. © 1968 The University of New Mexico Press.) I
Static working
For analysis of the dynamic behavior of foundations-soil system, the soil
is usually represented by equivalent springs. This concept will now be
explained.
"' stress

4.4 EQUIVALENT SOIL SPRINGS

Axial strain
By way of illustration, let a triaxial test be performed on a sample of soil Figure 4.18. Ax·,·al stress vs. axial strain in a triaxial test using repeated static loading.
such that the confining pressure is as near as possible to the confining
 120
DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES
EQUIVALENT SOIL SPRINGS 121
in which P is the load on the spring (Fig. 4.19b) and I!.Z is the change in
length of the spring. may undergo vertical oscillations, horizontal translation only, rocking only,
Next, consider a plate of area A and thickness t that is subjected to a and yawing (torsion about the vertical axis). The corresponding conditions
pressure of umform intensity, p (Fig. 4.l9c). The change in the thickness of induced in the soil are (1) uniform compression, (2) uniform shear, (3)
the plate, l!.t, is given by nonuniform compression, and (4) nonuniform shear.
Therefore, the soil constant, characterizing the soil reaction below the
foundation block and the corresponding elastic deformation are different in
( 4.24b) each case. The value of the equivalent soil spring for any mode of vibration
may be computed from the dynamic shear modulus or Young's modulus,
Because the total load P is pA, the above equation may be rewritten as Poisson's ratio, and the geometry of the foundation contact area as ex-
plained in Chapter 6 (Sections 6.4 and 6.7).
Barkan (1962) defined a set of soil coefficients to represent the soil
reaction for any particular mode of vibration. These soil coefficients are
defined below:
or
1. Coefficient of Elastic Uniform Compression (C,J:
P EA
-=-=k uniform compression ( p)
l!.t t (4.25) ( 4.26)
c" = elastic settlement (s")
';o,- '7
in which P is the total load and k the spring constant.
It ts explamed m Chapter 6 (Section 6.2) that a rigid machine foundation From the definition, the spring constant k, is then

load
k' = elastic deformation

Therefore,

(4.27)

in which A is the area of the test plate or the foundation base.

(a) 2. Coefficient of Elastic Uniform Shear ( CJ:

(b) uniform shear Tav

( 4.28a)
C, = elastic shear displacements,
p

As for the spring constant k, the corresponding spring constant kx is

A
(4.28b)
~~~~~~~~
+
T
r'========-----V'; 3 & 4. Coefficient of Elastic Nonuniform Compression ( C1 ) and Coef-
ficient of Elastic Nonuniform Shear ( C",). Because the elastic deformation is
not uniform over the base of the block as in cases 1 and 2, no simple
(c) definitions for C<t> and C", can be given. However, definitions in terms of
Figure 4.19. Co~cept of spring constant in soil. (a) Unloaded spring· (b) static deflecti A . mathematical quantities and overall displacements (rotations) of the block
{c) plate as a sprrng. ' on z, and its geometry are given in Chapter 6 (Section 6.7).
The value of C, can be determined from Eq. (4.29) (Barkan, 1962)
 122 LABORATORY METHODS 123
DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES

c = 1.13£ _1_ ultrasonic pulse test, (3) cyclic simple shear test, ( 4) cyclic torsional simple
u I - vz VA ( 4.29) shear test, and (5) cyclic triaxial compression test.
in which
4.5.1 Resonant Column Test
E =Young's modulus
The resonant column test for determining the modulus and damping charac-
A = Area of the footing teristics of soils is based on the theory of wave propagation in prismatic rods
and (Richart et a!., 1970). Either compression waves or shear waves can be
v =Poisson's ratio propagated through the soil specimen from which either the Young's
modulus or shear modulus can be determined.
The value of C" varies inversely with the square root of the f Such a device consists essentially of a coil-magnet drive system, an
contact of the foundation with the soil. Thus if C and C h alrea o accelerometer or velocity transducer to monitor the motion of the drive
c ffi · t f 1 · . ' "' u2 are t eva ues of
system, a linear variable differential transducer (LVDT) or other type of
oe helen s o e asttc umform compression corresponding to areas A and
A 2 , t en 1 displacement transducer to detect a change in the vertical height of the soil
specimen, and a confining chamber.
In the test setup, the coil-magnet drive system is attached to a top cap,
( 4.30)
which is seated on a membrane-encased, cylindrical soil specimen. The soil
specimen can,be either hollow or sol~d, depending on the capabilities of the
However, for areas greater than 10m 2, A, is taken as !Om' only. This is
particular test" device. The bast'''"pedestal, upon which the specimen is
duhe to the fact that for large areas, soil rigidity and area effects cancel each
ot er. placed, is connected to a drainage line. Filter paper strips may be used along
the length of the specimen to accelerate specimen consolidation. The top
The values of the different soil coefficients are approximately related to
each other as g1ven m Eq. (4.31) (Barkan, 1962) cap and bottom pedestal are usually serrated or roughened in some manner
to assure good mechanical coupling between the soil and equipment. The
system is generally set up so that only a hydrostatic confining pressure can
c,- = ! cu ( 4.3!a) be applied, although anisotropic loading conditions can be simulated in
C 4, = 2Cu ( 4.3!b) some devices.
and An electrical system is employed to operate and monitor. the resonant-
column equipment. To obtain accurate shear wave velocity measurements, it
C1,=0.75C" is necessary to use electronic equipment (Fig. 4.20). In such a system, a
( 4.3lc)
signal generator supplies a sinusoidal voltage to the coils in the coil-magnet
Th~ vaflue of the ratio c.;c" depends upon the shape of area and for (alb) drive system. The magnetic field induced by the current in the coils interacts
ratio o 2, with the magnetic field from the permanent magnet, thereby resulting in a
Ci> =!.73Cu torsional oscillation of the drive cap and specimen. By varying the frequency
( 4.3ld)
of the input signal, the amplitude of vibration can be varied. An ac-
may be used in calculation. Also these coefficients will vary with area as
does.
c u
celerometer (or velocity transducer) located on the top cap generates a
voltage proportional to the amplitude of vibration of the soil-top-cap
It may be pointed out that the equivalent soil springs essentially depend system. This signal is c~nditioned and then displayed on an oscilloscope.
ohn ttheffvaluEes of E and G. Therefore, they will be influenced by all factors The amplitude and freqlency of the signal at resonance are monitored. An
t a a ect and G. ··· LVDT is used to monitor the changes in specimen height.
The purpose of the test is to vibrate the soil-top-cap system at the
first-mode resonance at which the material in a cross section at every
4.5 LABORATORY METHODS elevation vibrates in phase with the top of the specimen. The shear wave
velocity and shear modulus are then determined on the basis of system
The following laborato~y methods are used to determine the dynamic constants and the sizes, shape, and weight of the soil specimen (Drnevich,
elasl!c constants and dampmg values of soils: (!)resonant column test, (2) 1977; Drnevich et al., 1977).
124 DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES 125
LABORATORY METHODS

SINE-lAVE
r::::=~;t7'0(1,t) X
X
r--------1 VOLTitiE.TER SINE-WAVE
GENERATOR O(l,tl
GENERATOR
AHD
AMPLIFIER

J
FREQUENCY COUNTER f----.--j

{b) J!Jo = 0.5

(a) J/Jo = 00

"- .J Weightless spring

Dnvmg force '--""''

'--~-j CHARGE AMPLIFIER OSCILLOSCOPE

Rigid mass ~~O~,
Dashpot ~I'
ORAl NAGE

Figure 4.20. Typical electronics for resonantMcolumn device. Rigid mass Specimen, nonrigid
distributed mass

The resonant column technique was first applied to testing soils by the
Japanese engineers Ishimoto and !ida (1937) and Iida (1938, 1940). About
20 years later, Shannon et al. (1959) and Wilson and Dietrich (1960) weightless spring ,J; 0/'Fixed
described new applications of the resonant column principle (Woods, 1978).
It is possible to develop several versions of the resonant column test by Orivingfo*
using different end conditions to constrain the specimen. Some common end (d)
(c)
conditions are shown schematically in Fig. 4.21. Each configuration requires tic of resonant column end conditions (After Woods 1978.)
a slightly different type of driving equipment and methods of data interpre- Figure 4.21. Schema
tation. The fixed-free apparatus is the simplest configuration in terms of
equipment and interpretation. Apparatus of this type was described by Hall
and Richart (1963). In the fixed-free apparatus shown in Fig. 4.21a, the . n of Fl·g 4 21c could be called free-free. In such a case, a node
distribution of angular rotation 0 along the specimen is ~ sine wave, but by confi gurat10 · · · d' 'b t' o ld
. 'dh . ht of the specimen and the rotatwn lstn u IOU w u
will occur at m1 e1g ' . . · · 1 be
adding a mass with mass polar moment, 10 at the top of the specimen as in 1 • ve By adding end masses, the rotatwn d1stnbut10n can a so
b e a - sme wa . . . · b 1 d by a
Fig. 4.21b, the variation of 0 along the sample becomes nearly linear. Later ' I ]' For K = 1 0 tests the mertml mass IS a ance
made near y mear. o · ' . · 11 d be
models of the fixed-free device (Drnevich, 1967) take advantage of end- counter weight, but if !!>he changes the counterweight, an axm oa can
mass effects to obtain uniform strain distribution throughout the length of applied to the specimen. . · nt
the specimen. Th hearing strain on a circular cross section Ill a torswna1 resona
The apparatus in Fig. 4.21d has a fixed base and a top cap that is partially colun:'n ~est varies from zero at the center to a maximum at the outer edge.
restrained by a spring, which in turn reacts against an inertial mass. The To stud the influence of shearing strain amplitude on she~r modulus and
configuration of the apparatus shown in Fig. 4.21c can be described as the . y D . h (1967 1972) developed the hollow cyhnder apparatus
spring-base model. The apparatus of the Shannon-Wilson device is of this dhampm_g, F" rne4v2IC2 the co,nfiguration of which is similar to the schematic of
s own m Ig. · • · l t' · not
type, if the spring is considered stiff compared to the specimen's stiffness. . 4 21b The average shearing strain on any honzonta cross s~c wn IS. .
F Ig. · · · · d the sheanng stram IS
For a condition in which the spring is weak compared to the specimen, the greatly different from the maximum or mtmmum, an
 127
LABORATORY METHODS
126 DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES

Permanant

Soil
spec'! men

Top cap

No. 28 gauge
winding wire (b)
W AA
-:+-~· . • f t cOfutfin adapted for attenuation measurements. ( er
Figure 4.23. s·chematrcs o resonan ,, --
Woods 1978.)

. (W d 1978) but the technique still needs to be

shear wave attenuation oo s, '
Bottom cap perfected. .b d calibration procedure and aids for
Drnevich et a!. (1977) descn e a t that propagates either a rod
reducing data derived from an appara u~
Figure 4.22. Hollow specimen resonant column and torsional shear apparatus. (After compression wave or a shear wave or bot .
Drnevich, 1972.)

4 .5.2 Ultrasonic Pulse Test . .

enerate and receive ultrasomc waves m
uniform along the height of the specimen. Drnevich also increased the Piezoelectric crystals are used ~~Juce either compression or shear waves.
torque capacity of his device to produce "large" shearing strain amplitudes. soils, and some of them can p th t includes a pulse generator, an
Anderson (1974) used a modified "Drnevich" apparatus to test clays at Stephenson (1977) described a s:J~~s (t:ansmitter and receiver). The pulse
shearing strain amplitudes up to 1 percent. Woods (1978) tested dense sands oscilloscope, ~nd two ultraso~iCt direct current pulse to the transmittmg
on the same device at shearing strain amplitudes up to 0.5 percent at 40 psi g enerator dehvers a vanable vo tage, . ulse to the time base of the
. 1 •th a 7-V tngger P d
(276 kN 1m 2 ) confining pressure. probe simultaneous y WI h dueled tests on unconfine
Lord et a]. (1976) suggested a technique to measure. attenuation as a oscilloscope. With t~\s . apparatus, e con .
function of frequency in the resonant column apparatus. In the apparatus, specimens of cohesive 'soils. . h . e is that it is difficult to identify and
two straight lengths of coil winding wire are embedded a vertical distance d One of the drawbacks of this tee mqu More importantly the strain
· a1 f es of the waves. ' . h
apart in a soil specimen (Fig. 4.23a), which is excited longitudinally by short interpret exact arnv lm . d with this pulse technique, are only m t e
pulses of different carrier frequencies. As the waves travel past the wires, amplitudes, which can be achieve f the technique is that tests can be
. -n. ·mary advantage o . ·
the wires move with the velocity of their neighboring soil particles. Because very low region. "'e pn d. t while they are still retamed m a
the wires are in a magnetic field, they generate a voltage proportional to ft seafloor se Imen s . l f
performed on very so . h . e is not currently used routme y or
their Velocities. The voltage is measured at two points a known distance core liner (Woods, 1978). This tee mqu
apart making it possible for the operator to evaluate the coefficient of the measurement of soil properlies.
attenuation. A similar concept (Fig. 4.23b) was developed to determine
llH DYNAMIC SOil PROPERTIES

4.5.3 Cyclic Simple Shear Test L

I v..-:; ru

D
A soil element at xx, as indicated in Fig. 4.24, may be considered to be
subjected to a series of cyclic shear stresses, which may reverse many times
during the life of a machine foundation. In the case of a horizontal ground
surface, there are no shear stresses on the horizontal plane before the
foundation of a machine is installed. However, shear stresses are introduced I W//, 'lll
when soil is excavated for a foundation and when the machine is installed. l r
Soil sample
Normally, static stresses are also not constant at the base of an embedded Shearing chamber
foundation. Then, when the machine is operated, cyclic shear stresses are Plan view
introduced. Thus, the actual problem involved with machine foundations is
that there are normal as well as initial shear stresses that act on the
horizontal plane. Oscillatory shear stresses are also introduced. With a
surface footing, there are no initial shear stresses on the soil at the base of
the foundation, but these stresses are present on all other horizontal planes
below the ground surface. These conditions are different for earthquake
loading, because the normal stresses on the plane remain constant while
cyclic shear stresses are induced during the period of shaking. A simple
shear device simulates all these loadings and consists of a sample box, an
arrangement for applying a cyclic load to the soil, ·and an electronic
recording system. The Roscoe (1953) device has a box for a square-shaped
sample with side lengths of 6 em and a thickness of about 2 em. This box is
provided with two fixed side walls and two hinged end walls so that the
sample may be subjected to deformations of the type shown in Fig. 4.25.
The schematic diagram in Fig. 4.25 illustrates how the end walls rotate
simultaneously at the ends of the shearing chamber to deform the soil
I I
uniformly (Peacock and Seed, 1968). Kjellman (1951), Hvorslev and Kauf-
Soil deformation
man (1952), Bjerrum and Landra (1966), and Prakash et al. (1973) have
described this type of apparatus. Elevation
Typical shear-stress-shear-strain relationships obtained during cyclic sim- Figure 4 . 25 . Schematic diagram illustrating rotation of hinged end plates and soil deformation
ple shear tests are shown in Fig. 4.26a. A soil exhibits nonlinear stress-strain in oscillatory simple shear. (After Peacock and Seed, 1968.)
characteristics from the very beginning of the loading cycle. For purposes of
high stress-high strain loading such as that due to an earthquake analysis,
Shear
this behavior can be represented by a bilinear model, as shown in Fig. 4.26b stress
(Thiers and Seed, 1968). This bilinear model is defined by three parameters:

a a
•
t t _L Shear
strain

\ \((0\'0000\\ X
II I 111111 X
/;?5777747/
_, A
H (b)
(a)

Figure 4.24. Idealized stress condition for an element of soil below ground surface during an
earthquake. Figure 4.2&. (a) Stress-strain curve of a soil. (b) Bilinear model (After Thiers and Seed, 19&8.)
129
130 DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES 131
LABORATORY METHODS

(1) modulus G, until a limiting strain 'Y, is reached, (2) modulus G 2 beyond 40r-----.--,------,----,
strain 'Yy, and (3) strain 'Yy·
If the direction of strain is reversed, the behavior can again he deter-
mined hy using modulus G 1 until a strain change of 2y, is developed, and the
modulus G 2 again controls the behavior. This pattern is continued through-
out the cycle.
Typical stress-strain plots taken from simple shear tests of San Francisco "
Bay mud were made from the records of deformation and loads versus time ~ 20~~~~~----+-------r------1
data for different cycles of loading. Figure 4.27 shows such plots for cycle 1, '0
E
cycle 50, and cycle 200, with about 4 percent shearing strain. The decrease u

in peak load as the number of cycles increases is reflected by the progressive E

i r----~~~::;;r~~~~~~~
10
flattening of the stress-strain curves. Similar tests were performed at dif-
ferent peak strains, and plots of the dynamic moduli G 1 and G 2 versus peak
strains are shown in Fig. 4.28.
However, in machine foundations, the magnitude of dynamic
Peak strain,%
(oscillatory) load is small compared to the static load (Fig. 4.18). Hence, the
stress-strain loops stabilizes after 6 to 10 cycles, and no further irrecoverable (a) Dynamic modulus G 1
deformations occur. Consequently, the modulus corresponding to that con- ~,·
dition is adopted in machine foundation design. However, corrections for 1u 20
confining pressure and other factors need to be applied, as described in
Sections 4.3 and 4.7. "'
~

'
A major drawback of most of the cyclic simple shear apparatus is that ".2"
10
they do not permit measurement or control of lateral confining pressures 0
"0
0
during cyclic loading; therefore, it is impossible to investigate in detail the E
u
effects that K0 -consolidation has on the behavior of a given soil. '['
ro
c 00
>-
0 Peak strain,%
Shear
stress (b) Dynamic modulus G 2
(kgfcm 2)
Figure 4.28. Effect of cyclic loading on dynamic moduli. (a) Dynamic modulus G,. (b)
Dynamic modulus G2 • (After Thiers and Seed, 1968.)

4.5.4 Cyclic Torsional Simple Shear Test

In an attempt to provide the capability of measuring confining pressur~ and
controlling K 0 conditions, several investigators have developed torswnal
simple shear devices. ]$ihara and Li (1972) modified a tn.axml apparatus to
provide torsional straining capabilities. Although this device permits lateral
stress control it has a distinct disadvantage in that the sheanng strams of a
specimen bei~g tested can range from zero at the center of the specimen t? a
maximum at the outside radius (Woods, 1978). Other mvestigators mcludmg
Hardin (1971), Drnevich (1972), Yoshimi and Oh-Oka (1973), Ishibashi and
(a) Cycle 1 (b) Cycle 50 (c) Cycle 200
Sherif (1974), Ishihara and Yasuda (1975), Cho et al. (1976), and Iwasaki et
Figure 4.27. Stress-strain curves and bilinear models for San Francisco Bay mud. (a) Cycle no. a!. (1977) developed hollow cylinder torsional shear apparatus. The devices
1. (b) Cycle no. 50. (c) Cycle no. 200. (After Thiers and Seed, 1968.)
developed by Yoshimi and Oh-Oka, Ishibashi and Sherif, and Cho et al. are
 132 lABORATORY METHODS 133
DYNAMIC SOil PROPERTIES

based on the same concept but use much shorter specimens, and the height
at the outside and inside diameters can be varied.
. The apparatus (Fig. 4.22) designed by Drnevich (1972) has an advantage
m that both resonant column and cyclic torsional shear tests can be
performed in the same device. Ishihara and Yasuda (1975) also used a long,
hollow, cyhndncal sample configuration as did Iwasaki et al. (1977). It is
difficult to prepare specimens for the long, hollow, cylindrical devices, and,
obviously, "undisturbed," cohesionless soils cannot be tested in this device.
However, Woods (1978) was able to trim hollow, cylindrical specimens of
many different types of soils.
The cyclic torsional simple shear devices of Yoshimi and Oh-Oka
Ishib~shi and Sherif, and Cho et al. were designed to generate uniforO::
sheanng strams throughout the wall of a cylindrical specimen whose bottom
or top surface was tapered (Fig. 4.29) so that the taper would be exactly
proportional to the inside and outside radii of the hollow cylinder. "Undis-
turbed" sp~cimens can be formed more easily for the size and configuration
of this device than for the devices which require taller hollow cylindrical
specimens. Although the initial shearing stress conditions in a short hollow
cylindrical specimen were described as uniform by Ishibashi and Sherif
(1974), Ladd and Silver (1975) noted that, because the shearing stresses on
each boundary are not the same, all initial stresses cannot be uniform
throughout a sample.
4.5.5 Cyclic Triaxial Compression Test
Cyclic triaxial tests have been extensively used to study the stress-defor-
mation behavior of saturated sands and silts (Puri, 1984; Seed et al., 1986).
Also, Young's modulus E and the damping ratio ' have often been
measured in cyclic triaxial tests (Fig. 4.30) when strain-controlled tests have
been conducted. These tests are performed in essentially the same manner
as the stress-controlled tests for liquefaction studies. A servo-system is used
to apply cycles of controlled deformation. Young's modulus is determined
from the ratio of the applied axial stress to axial strain, and the shear
modulus is computed from Eq. ( 4.4).
As in all laboratory attempts to duplicate dynamic field conditions, cyclic
triaxial tests have limitations, among which are the following:
1. Shearing strain measurements below 10- 2 percent are generally dif-
ficult.
2. The extension and compression phases of each cycle produce different
results.(Annaki and Lee, 1977); therefore, the hysteresis loops are not
symmt!'fric in strain-controlleji tests, and samples tend to neck in
stress-controlled tests. '·
3. Void ratio redistribution occurs within the specimen during cyclic
testing (Castro and Poulos, 1977).

Vertical stress

---X
!t A
Compression

l
Boundaries indicated by heavy lines
~

~//~>-~
I

aH
""
0H 0H~u, •·

IJH I
I

"" D _ _!___ Area of Hysteresis Loop

~
- 21r Area of Triangle OAB & OA'B'
'"
Figure 4.29. Specimen, cross section and initial stress distribution in a hollow cylindrical Figure 4.30. Equivalent hysteretic stress-strain properties from cyclic triaxial test. (After Silver
sample with tapered ends. (After ladd and Silver, 1975.) and Park, 1975.)
134 DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES
FIELD METHODS 135
4. Stress concentrations occur at the cap and base of the specimen being
tested. 4.6 FIELD METHODS
5. The principal stress changes direction by 90° during the test.
The following methods for determining dynamic properties of soil are in use
Void ratio distribution is common to all cyclic shear tests, whereas the in different parts of the world.
other limitations are related mostly to the cyclic triaxial test.
It is generally agreed that (Seed et al.. 1978; Annaki and Lee, 1977) for 1. Cross-borehole wave propagation test
an earthquake-type excitation of soils, cyclic simple shear or cyclic torsional 2. Up-hole or down-hole wave propagation test
shear techniques are more appropriate than cyclic triaxial compression. 3. Surface wave propagation test
Wolfe et al. (1977) reported on their adaptation of the cyclic testing of a 4. Vertical footing resonance test
cubical device developed by Ko and Scott (1968). Their results compared 5. Horizontal footing resonance test
favorably with cyclic triaxial compression tests, but problems remained
6. Free vibration test on footings
concerning specimen preparation and appropriate testing methods to simu-
late _field conditions correctly with this apparatus (Woods, 1978). 7. Cyclic plate load test
Silver (1981) prepared a table (Table 4.4) indicating the relative quality 8. Standard penetration test
of each test technique for measuring dynamic soil properties.
Brief descriptions of these tests along with the typical setups and methods
of interpretation of data are presented in the following pages.
{'''[ . '"!;-~.:7
Table 4.4. Relative Quality of Laboratory Techniques for Measuring Dynamic Soil
Properties 4.6.1 Cross-Borehole Wave Propagation Test
Relative Quality of Test Results In the cross-borehole method (Stokoe and Woods, 1972), the velocity of
Shear Young's Material Effect of No. wave propagation is measured from one borehole to another. A minimum of
Technique Modulus Modulus Damping of Cycles Attenuation two boreholes are required, one for generating an impulse and the other for
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) the sensors. In Fig. 4.31, the impulse rod is struck on top, causing an
Resonant impulse to travel down the rod to the soil at the bottom of the hole. The
column Good Good Good Good shearing between the rod and the soil creates shear waves that travel
with horizontally through the soil to the vertical motion sensor in the second
adaptation Fair hole; the time required for a shear wave to traverse this known distance is
Ultrasonic monitored.
pulse Fair Fair Poor There are four important considerations in conducing a cross-borehole
Cyclic shear wave propagation test: (1) the boreholes, (2) the seismic source, (3)
triaxial Good Good Good the seismic receiver, and (4) the recording and timing equipment.
Cyclic
Although a minimum of two boreholes are required, for extensive
simple
shear Good investigations and for increased accuracy, three or more boreholes should be
Good Good
Cyclic preferred whenever possible. If boreholes are installed in a straight line,
torsional wave velocities can be calculated from the intervals of time required for
shear Good Good Good passage between any >J:,wo boreholes. Thus, the necessity for precisely
recording the triggering time is eliminated (Stokoe and Hoar, 1978). In
Source: Silver, 1981.
addition, the boreholes must be vertical for the travel distance to be
measured properly. In general, any borehole 10m or deeper should be
There are several available field methods with which the dynamic soil surveyed with an inclinometer or another logging device for determining its
properties and damping of soils can be determined. Salient features of these verticality (Woods, 1978).
methods will now be described. Impulsive sources are more often used, although both impulsive and-
steady-state seismic sources are in use. The major criteria for a seismic
 FIELD METHODS 137
136 DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES

(a) Up hole S = Source (b) Down hole

R = Receiver

Figure 4.32. (a) Up-hole and (b) down-hole techniques for measurement of velocity of wave
propagation.

(((((~it-
Transducer Impulse rod
Recorder

Figure 4.31. Sketch showing cross~bore hole technique for measurement of velocity of wave ~~~en
propagation. Trigger
geophone ~1:)"
~

\
source are: (1) It must be capable of generating predominantly one kind of Wooden
plate
wave. (2) It must be capable of repeating desired characteristics at a
predetermined energy level. Rubber Back
expander plate
Velocity transducers (geophones) that have natural frequencies of 4 to
15 Hz are adequate for detecting (receiving) the shear waves as they arrive
3-component
from the source. The receivers must he oriented in the shearing mode and geophone
should be securely coupled to the sides of the boring. The recording
equipment should be able to resolve arrival times of up to 0.2 msec or 5
percent of the travel time. Storage oscilloscopes are also often used ..

4.6.2 Up-Hole or Down-Hole Wave Propagation Tests
Up-hole and down-hole tests are performed by using only one borehole. In
the up-hole method, the receiver is placed at the surface, and shear waves
are generated at different depths within the borehole Fig. 4.32a. In the
down-hole method, the excitation is applied at the· surface·, and one or more
receivers are placed at different depths within the hole (Fig. 4.32b). Both
the up-hole and the down-hole methods give average values of wave
velocities for the soil between the excitation and the receiver if one receiver
is used, or between the receivers, if more than one is used in the borehole
(Richart, 1977). Figure 4.33 is a schematic diagram of a down-hole survey
with all principal elements included (Imai and Yoshimura. 1975).
Figure 4.33. Equipment and instrumentation for down~hole survey. (After Woods, 1978.)
4.6.3 Surface-Wave Propagation Test
Rayleigh waves and L'llve waves can be used to determine the shear moduli
of soils near the surface. The Rayleigh wave (R-wave) (Section 3.3) travels
in a zone close to the surface. An electromagnetic or other harmonic
vibrator can be used to generate a steady-state R-wave, and the ground
surface can be deformed as shown in Fig. 4.34. A mechanical oscillator is
usually set to work at approximately 10Hz. One ray is drawn away from the
centerline of the oscillator. One of the geophones connected to the horizon-
 138
DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES
Qo sin wt
f--_,._x
Figure 4.34. Deformed -shape of a half~space surface. (After Woods, 1978.)
tal plates of the oscilloscope is fixed 30 em away from the oscillator along the
ray so that the sensmg ax1s of the geophone is vertical. A similar geophone,
connected to the vertiCal plates of the oscilloscope, is moved along this ray
away from the oscillator. The second geophone is moved until the Lissajous
figure on the oscilloscope screen becomes a circle. The two signals are at the
same frequency and 90° out of phase. However, if the phase angle is
d1ffere~t than 90~, the Lissajous figure is an ellipse, and for a zero phase
angle, 1t 1s a strmght hne (Doebelin, 1966). The distance between the two
geophones is measured. This distance is then a measure of the wavelength of
the generated Rayle1gh wave. The test is repeated at other frequencies. The
test can also be conducted by using a phase meter in place of an oscillos-
cope. In case of uniform soil up. to infinite depths and the Lissajous figure of
a cncle, the wave length, A", of the propagating waves is given by
(4.32)
in which S is the measured distance between geophones.
The veloCity of the Rayleigh waves v, is then given by
( 4.33a)
or
(4.33b)
in which f is the frequency of vibration at which the wavelength has been
measured.
In case the phase angles corresponding to different distances between
g~ophones are recorded, a curve is plotted of th€ phase angles versus the
dt~tances. From the ~urve, the distance S between the geophones is deter-
mmed for a phase difference of 90°. The remaining computations remain
unaltered as above. Shear wave velocity may then be obtained from Eq
(4.~. . receivers the same test is performed with the source on the opposite side of
The elastic modulus E and the modulus G of the soil medium are
calculated as follows:
FIELD METHODS 139
(4.34)
and
G=V:p ( 4.35)
in which p is the mass density of the soil and v, the Poisson's ratio of the
soil.
Table 4.5 gives repesentative values for Poisson's ratios that can be used
in lieu of the measured values.
Table 4.5. Representative Values of Poisson's Ratio
Type of Soil v
Clay 0.5
Sand 0.3 -0.35
Rock 0.15-0.25
--------:c:-;;:"_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
-
~ .• c:-.
':£ ',,-
The effective depth of penetration of the R-wave has been empirically
related to one-half of Rayleigh's wavelength (Fry, 1963; Ballard, 1964).
A procedure for monitoring the shear wave velocities with depth based
on an impact of a falling weight and Spectral Analysis of the Surface Wave
(SASW) has been the subject of investigation by Nazarian et al., 1983.
In the field, two vertical velocity transducers are used as receivers. The
receivers are placed securely on the ground surface symmetrically about an
imaginary centerline. A transient impulse is transmitted to the soil by means
of an appropriate hammer. The range of frequencies over which the
receivers should function depends on the site being tested. To sample 50 to
100ft deep materials, the receiver should have a low natural frequency, in
the range of 1 to 2Hz. In contrast, for sampling shallow layers, the receivers
should be able to respond to high frequencies of 1000Hz or more.
Several tests with different receiver spacings are performed. The distance
between the receivers after every test is generally doubled. The geophones
are always placed symmetrically about the selected, imaginary, centerline.
Nazarian et al. (1983,~have shown that use of this setup reduces scatter in
data collection due to the fact that the distances covered in the previous
tests are always included in the next tests. In addition, at each receiver
spacing, two series of experiments are performed. First, the test is carried
out from one direction (forward profile) and then without relocating the
the receivers (reverse· profile). By running forward and reverse profiles and
by averaging the data of these two tests, the effect of any internal phase shift
between receivers is minimized.
140
DYNAMIC SOil PROPERTIES

The raw data obtained from the impact test is reduced with the help of a
dynamic signal analyzer (DSA), and the inversion curve is obtained. From
the different DSAs that are being commercially manufactured, the DSA
supplied by Hewlett Packard (HP 3562A) has been used successfully,
A typical shear wave profile for a site in which the velocity profiles have
been determined both by !he crosshole method and SASW method show
good agreement (Nazarian and Stokoe, 1984). The tally between the values
measured by the two methods is strikingly close. The SASW method is
economical, and less time consuming than the crossbore hole method and
has the advantage of complete automation (Nazarian and Stokoe, 1984;
Woods and Stokoe, 1985; Prakash, 1986). However, proper inversion
techniques must be used.

4.6.4 Vertical Footing Resonance Test

The block (footing) resonance test can be used for determining modulus and
damping values. According to IS 5249 a test block 1.5 x 0.75 x 0.70 m high
is cast either at the surface or in a pit 4.5 X 2.75 mat a suitable depth (Fig.
4.35a) and is excited in vertical vibrations. Two acceleration or displacement
transducers are mounted on top of the block (Fig. 4.35b) such that they

Motor oscillator
assembly

Concrete
IM 1501

Depth to be

Tied
Ia)
4 50 m

1 mfmin

[§]
l ,.

i'=;:J[O] ~ 2.75 m

'tr 1m min

(b)

Figure 4.35. Setup for a block~resonance test.

141
142 DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES
FIELD METHODS 143

sense vertical motion of the block. A mechanical oscillator, that works on

the principle of eccentric masses mounted on two shafts rotating in opposite
directions (Prakash, 1981) is mounted on the block so that it generates
purely vertical sinusoidal vibrations. The line of action of the vibrating force
passes through the center of gravity of the block. After a suitable dynamic
force value is chosen, the oscillator is operated at a constant frequency, and
the acceleration of the oscillatory motion of the block is monitored. The
oscillator frequency is increased in steps of small values from one cycle up to
the maximum frequency of the oscillator, and the signals of monitoring
transducers are recorded. The same procedure is repeated for different
dynamic force levels used in a test. At any force level and frequency, the
dynamic force should not exceed 20 percent of the total mass of the block
and motor-oscillator assembly. A form for recording results of this test is
shown in Table 4.6.
Determinaton of Coefficient of Elastic Uniform Compression of Soil
C". The amplitude of vibration A, at a given frequency f, is given by
because different forces cause different strain levels below the block. This is
accounted for when the appropriate design parameters are being chosen.
The coefficient of elastic uniform compression, C, of the soil is then
determined from Eq. (4.37), (Refer to Chapter 6, Section 6.7),
( 4.37)
in which fnz is the natural frequency in vertical vibrationS, m the mass of the
block, oscillator, and motor, and A the contact area of the block (footing)
with the soil.
The value of C" from Eq. ( 4.37) corresponds to the area of the test block
and for other areas; its value may be obtained by using Eq. (4.30).
Knowing the value of C", E may be obtained from Eq. (4.29). Shear
modulus can then be determined by using Eq. ( 4.4).

A=~
2 2 ( 4.36) 4.6.5 Horitontal Footing Resoilarice Test
' 4tr /
I For a horizontal footing (block) resonance test, the mechanical oscillator is
in which a, represents the vertical acceleration of the block in mm/sec 2, and f mounted on the block so that horizontal sinusoidal vibrations are generated
f is the frequency in Hz. in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the block. Three acceleration or
Amplitude vs. frequency curves are plotted for each force level to obtain displacement transducers are mounted on the side of the block with one
the natural frequency of the soil and the foundation system tested (Fig. near the top, a second near the bottom, and the third in the middle along
4.36). The natural frequency, fu., at different force levels is different the vertical centerline of the transverse face of the block to sense horizontal
vibrations (Fig. 4.35a). The oscillator is excited in several steps, starting
from rest. The signal of each acceleration pickup is amplified and moni-
tored. The remaining procedure is the same as for vertical resonance test.
Similar tests may be performed by exciting the block in the direction of
0.20 f-- -""' transverse axis.

0.16
1 r;
'E Determination of Coefficient of Elastic Uniform Shear of Soil, C,. In a
.s
.0..e"
u 0.12
I I
~ horizontal-vibration test, the amplitude of horizontal vibrations, A"' is
determined by the equation
E
"' 0.08
I !f ·~ ~ 140'_
( 4.38)
\

0.04
VJ ~~ r--o: 105°

70' in which ax is the horizontal acceleration in the direction under conside-

~
__ ,y ,/
ration, and f the frequency of the horizontal vibrations in hertz. Amplitude
0 "" r vs. frequency curves are plotted for each force level to obtain the natural
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
frequency, fnx, of the soil and block tested as for the case of vertical
Frequency, (Hz)
vibrations. A plot of the amplitude with the height of the block determines
Figure 4.36. Amplitude vs. frequency plot from vertical resonance test at raw mill site in its mode of vibrations. The coefficient of elastic uniform shear (C,) of the
Bhutan. (Prakash et al., 1976.)
soil is then determined by using Eq. ( 4.39). (For details, see Section 6.7.)
 FIELD METHODS 145
144 DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES

C ~ 87T Yf~x
2

(4.39)
' Y
(Ao + Io ± (Ao + Io) 2 - 4yA 0 I0
Load intensity
in which Y is equal to Mml Mmo• /,,x is the horizontal resonant frequency of
block soil system, A 0 is equal to AIM, I0 is equal to 3.46 (II Mm 0 ), Mm is the
mass moment of mertia of the block, oscillator, and motor about the
horizontal axis passing through the center of gravity of the block and
perpendicular to the direction of vibration, Mmo the mass moment of inertia
of the block, oscillator, and motor about the horizontal axis passing through
the center of the contact area of the block and soil and perpendicular to the
direction of vibration, and I the moment of inertia of the foundation contact
area about the horizontal axis passing through the center of gravity of the \
\
area and perpendicular to the direction of vibration. I
The coefficient of elastic uniform shear, C, should be corrected for area Ses I
effects as for the case of C". -r ,___ _ _ ___J

Elastic rebound - Se
4.6.6 Free Vibration Test on Footings (a) (b)

Free vibration tests may be performed by pulling the block and releasing it Figure 4.37. (a) Load intensity vs. settlement' ill a cyclic-plate-load test and (b) Load intensity
in a longitudinal direction or by hitting it with a hammer for vertical vs. elastic rebound from cyclic-plate-load test. (After Prakash, 1981.)
excitation. From the observed natural frequency, the C,, C,., E, and G
values can then be determined.
The elastic rebound of the plate corresponding to each intensity of
4.6. 7 Cyclic Plate Load Test loading can be obtained from the data obtained during cyclic-plate load
tests, as shown in Fig. 4.37a. The load intensity versus the elastic rebound is
The equipment for a cyclic-plate load test is similar to that used in a
static-plate load test. It is assembled according to details given in the plotted as shown in Fig. 4.37b.
American Society for Testing Materials (1977) or Barkan (1962) or in The value of C" can be calculated from Eq. ( 4.26). This equals slope of
textbooks on foundation engineering.
r the plot in Fig. 4.37b.
After the equipment has been set up and arranged, the initial readings of
the dml gauges are noted, and the first increment of static load is applied to
the plate. This load is kept constant for some time until no further
settlement occurs or until the rate of settlement becomes negligible. The
final readings of the dial gauges are then recorded. The entire load is
I
i
I
i
4.6.8 Standard Penetration Test
In the standard penetration test (SPT}, a standard split spoon sampler is
driven with a 140-lb hammer that falls freely through a distance of 30 in. The
number of blows for 12 in of penetration of the split spoon sampler is
removed and the plate is allowed to rebound. When no further rebound
occurs, the readings of the dial gauges are again noted. The load is then designated as theN value. This is Nmcasured· In a design problem using N
values, a correction for e~ective overburden pressure is applied (Peck et al.,
gradually increased until its magnitude is equal in value to the next higher
proposed stage of loading; the load is maintained constant and the final dial 1974). Although the test iS designated as a "standard" test, there are several
gauge readings are noted. The entire load is then r~ducect' to zero and final personal errors as well as errors that are equipment based. Therefore, the
dial gauge readings are recorded when the rate of rebound' becomes use of SPT to measure any soil property has been questioned by many
negligible. engineers (Woods, 1978). The "uses and abuses" of SPT have been de-
The cycles of loading, unloading, and reloading are continued until the scribed by Fletcher (1965}, Mohr (1966), and Ireland et al. (1970}. De
estimated ultimate load has been reached; the final values of dial gauge Mello (1971} presented an extensive review of SPT from which it is evident
readings are noted each time. The magnitude of the load increment is such that although SPT is used extensively in soil investigations, there has been
that the ultimate load is reached in five to six increments. no documented, carefully controlled research conducted on it. Schmertmann

146 DYNAMIC SOil PROPERTIES
{1975) described uses of SPT in estimating soil properties and pointed to
some hope for more accurate uses of SPT in the future with improvements
in the performance and understanding of the test. Recent careful studies by
Kovacs (1975), Kovacs et al. (1977a, b), Palacios (1977), and Schmertmann
(1975, 1977) have thrown new light on the potential of SPT for obtaining
consistent and useful soil properties. Seed (1976, 1979) and Seed et al.
{1983) presented correlations between SPT and observed liquefaction. It has
been reported that Chinese engineers also use this approach in their
attempts to assess the liquefaction potential of sand deposits.
Skempton (1986) has presented a more recent review on the effects of
overburden pressure, relative density particle size, aging and overcon-
solidation on the measured SPT values.
Schmertmann {1977) suggested that with SPT, either only those dynamic
properties for which SPT provides a direct model of the phenomenon can be
measured, if at all, or the factors which control the behavior of SPT
similarly control the correlative dynamic behavior. As an example of the
former, pile driving is an obvious direct model; of the latter, it has been
shown that the factors which affect cyclic liquefaction also affect SPT in a
parallel manner (Seed, 1976). Additional advantages of using SPT to
evaluate dynamic effects, according to Schmertmann (1977), are that SPT is
a dynamic test for modeling a dynamic phenomenon, and it is essentially
undrained for each blow in that it generates principally a shearing energy.
Seed et al. (1984) have correlated the energy input of different types of
SPT-hammers used in the United States, Japan, and China and have
proposed correction factors for the energy input of different hammers.
Imai (1977) reported a correlation between (uncorrected) N and shear
wave velocity, V,(m/sec) in 943 recordings at four urban locations in Japan
and was able to establish the following relationship:
V = 91N°. 337 ( 4.40)
' ·
In arriving at the above relationship, be converted the N values over 50
or under 1 from the penetrating length at the time of 50 or 1 blows into the
number of blows necessary for penetration as deep as 30 em. Prakash and
Puri (1981, 1984) successfully applied the above relationship in predicting
dynamic soil properties at different depths.
4.7 EVALUATION OF TEST DATA
Inthe twoprevious sections, laboratory and field methods for determining
soil moduli have been described. This leaves us the task of ascertaining the
strains and the confining pressures at which the moduli values have been
determined.
It is customary to make a plot of G versus shear strain. It is necessary to
147
DAMPING IN SOILS
determine G at a mean effective confining pressure corresponding to the
mean effective confining pressure below the prototype foundation and at a
shear strain which may be induced in the soil when the foundation is
subjected to dynamic load. Prakash (1981) and Prakash and 2Puri (1981)
used a mean confining pressure a01 of 1 kg/em' or (1000 kN/m ) to reduce
the data from different tests to a common confining pressure for comparison
purpose only using Eq. ( 4.15)
(4.15)
( 4.41)
and
_ _ vcrz ( 4.42)
ux = u = - -v
y 1-
The sam/;.~marks apply to arf"ivaluation of C", C<l, C,, and c., from
field tests. The application of the above procedure to actual field conditions
has been illustrated in solved examples (Section 4.9).
4.8 DAMPING IN SOILS
Types of Dgmping in Soils. The motion of the footing-soil system can
be damped by two specific energy losses: (1) the ab_r;~_!fl~I()IIOf"nerg)'':"It~m
the soil mass and (2) the dissipation of energy associ:~t.,dwitli tlie geometry
of the fo"iii1dationc-soi!..J;ystem:-Thefol"mer 1S known as material or internal
~ta~~~~~~:~;n;~i~~~~~;';;~~~;:~i"t;~~-i~t;;;;~i~1~i~!~ L fo ~,
4
Materi7d Dam in8] Damping in a freely vibrating system reduc~s the
pea amplitudes after each successive cycle. If the fore~ of dampmg IS
considered proportional to the velocity of the mollon, It IS called vtscous
damping (Section 2.4). . . .
When a cylindrical s_a,mple of soil is set into a state of free vibratiOn, as m
a resonant column test:1lhe vibration decreases in amplitude and eventually
disappears. This reduction in amplitude of vibration is caused by internal
damping within the soil mass. The decay of vibration is similar to that
described for the free vibration of a viscously damped system. It should,
however be understood that the internal damping in soils is not considered
to be the result of a viscous behavior; nevertheless, the theory for a
single-degree-of-freedom system with viscous damping is useful for describ-
ing the effect of the damping that occurs in soils.
 149
148 DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES DAMPING IN SOILS

The decay of free vibration of a single-degree-of-freedom system with =

viscous damping is described by the logarithmic decrement, which is defined ;:
as the natural logarithm of two successive arriplffiides..of motion, or f::
z I II I II
a= log, _l
z,
(2.77)
I
or v ' I•
a= 2-rrt; (2.80a)
I
~ ;:
The logarithmic decrement may be obtained experimentally from a re-
f::
1::
sonant-column test by setting a soil sample into steady-state forced vibra-
tion, then shutting off the driving power and recording the decay of f\h v -
amplitude with time. Figure 4.38a shows a typical vibration-decay curve I'
Ia I
obtained from a resonant-column test for Ottawa sand (Hardin, 1965; Hall,
1962). The logarithmic decrement was obtained from the decay curve by
plotting each amplitude against a cycle number on semilog graph paper (Fig. to J-,--.-~-,-,,.,--r-ITIII
4.38b). If the damping in the material produces an effect similar to that 9
occasioned by the viscously damped free vibrations, the plot is a straight line 8
on the semilog graph. Hall (1962) found that the damping determined from 7
the decay of steady-state vibrations in resonant-column samples of rounded
granular material is similar to viscous damping. The values of logarithmic
decrement varied from 0.02 to approximately 0.20 in his tests.
Hardin (1965) described further studies on resonant-column tests for
evaluating the ;!<!-'.~~£~'.:~ in sands. He also conducted an analytical study of
the applications of the Kelvin'- Voigt model (viscous damping) to represent
the material for comparison with the test results. He found that the
Kelvin-Voigt model satisfactorily represents the behavior of sands in small-
amplitude vibration tests, if the viscosity I-' is varied with frequency such that
ftW I G, is maintained a constant. This ratio is related to the logarithmic
decrement as given in Eq. (4.43) No. of cycles
(b)

· T ical free vibrationwdecay curves obtained from resonantwcolumn tests on

4 38
(4.43) 6~::=a ~and (a/!mplitude-time decay curves and (b) amplitude vs. cycle number plot. (After
Hardin, 1965.)
in which t!:...i.L£S?.~!!lsi~!!L'!Ls)1~~~--~~s<O?J.ity. Hardin (1965) recommended
values of the ratio of ,_.wiG for use in design. These may be represented in 2 • f
terms of the logarithmic decrement as confining pressures of 500 lbift' < (T0 < 3000 lblft and for frequencieS o
less than 600 cycles/sec. . .
Drnevich (1967) studied the effect of high-amplitude sh~anng strams on
a=9-rr(y,) \<T,r'·'
0
(4.44)
the damping in sands. He found that: (1) no change occ\l~s m dampmg With
Cr .... ,t- .,n >!'··•
cycles of prestrain for prestrain amplitudes less than 10 ; (2) the loga~ith-
in which Yo is the shearing~~{~;it~ ~~piit'~d~ ---and iT0 the mean confining
. d t vari·es with (0' )- 113 within the range of 400 to 2000 lb/ft for
pressure (expressed in lblft'). He also suggested that Eq. ( 4.44) be used mtc ecremen o _5 -4. d (3) an
only within the limits of the shearing-strain amplitudes of 10- 6 to 10- 4 for all shearing-strain amplitudes between 10 and 6.0 X 10 , an m Y
 151
150 DYNAMIC SOil PROPERTIES DAMPING IN SOilS

cycles of high amplitude prestrain increase damping in some cases to twice ' '
the original value. Significant increases in damping may be related in part to
the test procedure used to control the shearing-strain amplitude. As the
shear modulus increases because of the prestraining, the procedure of
maintaining a constant amplitude develops a larger strain energy at each
cycle. It would be expected that the hysteresis loop would then include a
larger area to represent the increased damping.
Richart et al. (1970) stated that the values of logarithmic decrement for
sands may be as large as 0.20 and that these can be estimated from Eq.
( 4.44 ). Some additional data on internal damping for several types of soils
are shown in Table 4.7. ~--------~-----······--·-"· · · · ....

Table 4.7. Some Typical Values of Internal Damping in Soils (a) steady-state vibrations.
Figure 4.39. Stress-strain curves for a system with hysteresis damping.
Equivalent
Type Soil g Reference
Dry sand and gravel 0.03-0.07 Weissmann and White (1961) The condftion for a decaying '\ibFation is illustrated in Fig. 4.39b. Point 1
Dry and saturated corresponds to the maximum stress in a cycle, which starts at pomt 1 and
sand 0.01-0.03 Hall and Richart (1963) ends at point 2. It is seen from this figure that the value of 11, depends o~
Dry sand 0.03 Whitman (1963) whether the steady-state A" or the decaying-vibration cond1t1?n A,d IS
Dry and saturated considered when the damping values are large. In case of decaymg vibra-
Barkan (1962)
tions, the relationship between the lqgarith!Il_ic_.~_e_c_!:~~_!lt and the !l'_ecJ~C
sands and gravels 0.05-0.06
Clay 0.02-0.05 Barkan (1962)
Silty sand 0.03-0.10 Stevens (1966) damping capacity is (Richar.!_.."!__'l~~,_]_~!O~
Dry sand 0.01-0.03 Hardin (1965) ----- ----------"
( 4.46)
Sour~e:Richart, Hall, and Woods, "Vibration of Soils and Foundations," © 1970, p. 398.
Repnnted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

Material damping in soils is also sometimes studied in terms of specific
damping capacity, which is defined as the ratio of the energy absorbed in one
cycle of vibration to the potential energy at maximum displacement in that
cycle. The damping capacity may be expressed as a percentage or as a
decimal. In a stress-strain diagram, the specific damping capacity may be
represented as the ratio of (1) the area enclosed by the hysteresis loop and
(2) the total area under the hysteresis loop. For the steady-state condition in
Fig. 4.39a, t the specific damping capacity ll" is given by
ilEu
A
1-l.cs-£
_
( 4.45)
" w
The term E. in Eq. (4.45) represents the strain energy described by the area
under the hysteresis loop.
t The horizontal scale in Fig. 4.39a is greatly exaggerated for simplicity of illustration.
in which k" represents the proportionality factor between strain energy and
the square of the displacement amplitude for the nth cycle of decaymg
vibration. It needs be emphasized that there is no general relat1o~sh1p
between Acs and 11 cd• but for small values of a, A"=
•
il,d, and the ralio of
1
the proportionality constants, K~+ 1 1 K", is approx1~ately ..
Sometimes the decrease in amplitude of vibratiOn w1th distance fro~ _a
source that is caused by energy losses in the soil is also evaluated. This IS
designated as attenuation (the energy loss as a function of distance) and IS
measured in terms of -W,e coefficient of attenuation a (1 /ft). The coeffic1ent
of attenuation is related to the logarithmic decrement by
z,. Va
{j= - - =Aa (4.47)
in which V is the wave velocity, w the circular frequency, and A the
wavelength of the propagating wave (Richart et al., 1970). . .
Attenuation needs to be distinguished from JI:~":'".t!..'.~~~~~ll_'!'f!~? (SectiOn
 153
152 DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES DAMPING IN SOILS

3.4), which occurs in elastic systems because of the dispersion of wave

energy from a source.
Internal damping in materials may also be evaluated by measuring the
angle at which the strain lags the stress in a sample undergoing sinusoidal
excitation. If the soil is assumed to be a linear viscoelastic solid, the complex
shear modulus G may be considered to be composed of a real and an
imaginary component, each of which is a function of frequency, such that

G*(w) = G 1 (w) + iG2 (w) (4.48a)

In Eq. (4.48a), G 1 (w) is the elastic component and G 2 (w) the viscous
component. The loss angle 15L is defined by

G,
tan 15 = - ( 4.48b)
L Gl

and it is related to the logarithmic decrement 15 and to the ratio p.w I G [see 2 3
Eq. (4.43)]. Thus, ':;~if;, Bx, B<t> or By, ~
· t d ·0 ratio for .,~scillation of rigid circular footing on the elastic
Figure 4.40. EquJValen ampl g d © 1970 226 Reprinted by permission of Prentice~
15 = 1T tan 8L ( 4.49) half-space. (Richart, Hall, and Woo s, C ' P· ·
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.)
From the above discussion, it can be seen that there are several methods
for measuring and describing the damping liisOITS. ..F~rthermore:··because
darniJTiigin~oil~~~ii"~~i!ses·;;;;mt~I11~Iiiii5lli~~if~·o(vf6rationJEq. 4. 44], i!_~ay
be convementto use different .method.s for differ~nt r"f!ges ()f amplitude damping constants obtained in the analog solutions (See Section 6.4) and
('Rlcilarlet al., 1970). Beneath machine foundations, the order llrinag- the expression for critical dampmg,
nii.llde of vibrations encountered in soils is such that the logarithmic
decrement should be less than 0.2. c = 2v'kiii (2.26)
'
~~9metl:i(;(J]i5a~P.i;~. It was shown in Chapter 3 (Section 3.4) that in With this approach, the damping ratio is
an elastic medium, energy is dispersed as it recedes from the source of
disturbance. This dispersion of energy produces response curves that have a c (2.27)
!; = -
finite amplitude of motion at resonance. This indicates that damping is c,
present in the system. However, the assumption of an ideal elastic half-
space precludes loss of energy because of inelastic behavior of the material, Expressions for the d~mping ratio (Section 6.4) are
which constitutes the half-space. ;This geometrical distribution of elastic- For vertical osctllauon,
w~~~_ll..~_::!\l:Jt.."s·_l.>=~-de~igf!"t"d as gf()'!'etr!f.(ll_!f:q!!'J!iiJg. · - ... ·... 0.425 ( 4.50a)
·- From each solution for vibration of a footing on a half-space, -",Yi!]tle of !;, = '[lJ;
the equivalent damping ratio !; is derived. This iS' then used in a lumped-
parameter.. analys!S:-Aconvenient method for evaluating !; is to equate the
For horizontal oscillation,
peak amplitudy of motion from the half-space solution to the peak am-
plitude obtain(ld from the mass-spring-dashpot system and then to solve for (4.50b)
g. Figure 4.40 wasprepared by using this method (Richart et al., 1970).
Approximately the same results can be obtained by calculating !; from the
 155
154 DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES DAMPING IN SOILS

For rocking oscillations,

X
( 4.50c}

For torsional oscillations,

0.50
(4.50d}
1 + 2B"
in which
B =(1-v} m ( 4.50e)
z 4 pr~

B = (7- 8v} .!!!._ ( 4.50f}

x 32(1- v) pr~
w
B = 3(1- v} Mmo
( 4.50g} • ce c rve for the damped forced vibrations. (After Lorenz, 1953,
"' 8 pr~ Figure 4.41. Ty~•ca1 resonan u
copyright ASTM:' Reprinted with permissionp:
and
B = Mmz (4.50h}
l/1 pr~ 2. Determine the asymptote
It must be noted that if the response of an actual machine foundation or a (4.52)
vibrating footing is monitored, the measured ~mp.li1J,I_d.e.s.r_e!!.ectJhe effu£!.!?!.
both the material ~nd geol!l.e_t!i£lJLc.!am£i!l.g. Barkan (1962) showed that an · M 1·n Eq . (4 .52} , because Z "' is measured in Fig. 4.41 and
irrcre1!se "inflie·-value of Poisson's ratio of soil leads to an increase in 3. D etermme
dissipation of energy from a vibrating foundation into the soil. Further, the (m 0 e) is a known quantity.
damping (combined material and geometrical} properties of soil are deter· 4. Determine k from Eq. ( 4.51).
mined not only by its characteristics (inertia and elastic properties) but by 5. Then damping constant c from
the size and mass of the foundation. A large amount of the data in the
( 4.53)
literature shows that the damping constant increases with the contact area of
the footing for vertical vibrations.
Lorenz (1953) recommended a graphical method for determining damp·
in which Z, is the amplitude at w = w,.
ing (combined material plus geometrical} from a forced amplitude frequency
graph by exciting a footing with vertical vibrations. For frequency-depen- Factors Affecting Damping. There are several factors that affect damp~
dent excitation, the maximum amplitude of motion zmax is in The more important of these are: strain level, confimng press~re, vot
2 ra~io number of cycles of oscillatory stress, and frequency of motton.
z = -c===m~0:=;ec=w~===, (2.49b} In' Table 4.8, the ini'~ortance of each variable is indicated by the symbols
m"' 2 2
V(k- Mw 2
} + (cw) ~ R d L (Hardin and Drnevich, 1972a). . . .
, Theandam~ing factor !; increases generally with an mcreasmg stra~~
and the procedure for determining damping is as follows: amplitude, decreasing confining pressure, '?creadsm~ vmd :a(t~~72~ldp~o-
. b of cycles of loadmg. Hardm an rnevtc
I. Draw a tangent from the origin of the coordinate system to the creasmg num e~d ex ressions for determining damping in a partic~lar
amplitude frequency curve (Fig. 4.41} so that it touches the curve at P~~~fe~h~~~s~derabl~ judgment is still needed to select ~value of da?'pmg
P . d . blem Fortunately the chmce ts not that dtfficult
to be taken m a estgn pro · •
w =
,
If
"V "M (4.51} and varied in machine foundation design.
 157
156 DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES EXAMPLES

Table 4.8. Parameters Affecting Damping for Complete Stress Reversal

Damping a
Clean Cohesive
Parameter Sands Soils
(I) (2) (3)

IT2. .··.Effective
Strain amplitude v /v
! mean principal stress v (v
. 3. :Void ratio v \ v '
4. Number of cycles of loading v \_vj
5. Degree of saturation L u
6. Overconsolidation ratio R L
7. Effective strength envelope L L
8. Octahedral shear stress L L
9.Frequency of loading (above 0.1 Hz) R L
10. Other time effects (thixotrophy) R L
II. Grain characteristics, size, shape, Figure 4.42. Soil profile (Example 4.9.1 ).
gradation, mineralogy R R
12. Soil structure R R
13. Volume change due to shear strain Dynamic shear modulus at point' A is given by
(for strains less than 0.5%) u R
(3.30)
G=V ,,2 p
Source: Hardin and Drnevich, 1972a.
a V means Very Important, L means Less Important, and R means Relatively Unimportant
= 120' x 1750 = 256.8 kg/em'
except as it may affect another parameter; U means relative importance is not clearly known at G 9.81 X 100 X 100
this time.
The effective overburden pressure at point A is given by cr,A:
4.9 EXAMPLES 5 X 1750 = 0.8750 kg/ em'
100 X 100
EXAMPLE 4.9.1
The soil profile at a site is shown in Fig. 4.42. A cross borehole test was The values of effective overburden pressure at B, C, and D may be
conducted at this site to determine the value of shear wave velocity in a calculated in a similar manner. These values of cr, for different pomts are
small area surrounding point A (Fig. 4.42) and its average value was shown in column 3 of Table 4.9.
observed to be 120 m/ sec. Calculate the value of dynamic shear modulus G The value of dynamic shear modulus at B may be ca~culated from the
for point A. Also determine the values of G for points B, C, and Din the known value at A by using Eq. ( 4.15} and cr, in place of 0'0aud replacmg 1
profile. If subsequently the water table rises to the ground surface, what will and 2 by B and A, respectively:
be the values of G at A, B, C, and D. Assume 'YJ = I. 75 g/ em 3 and
y,., = 2.05 g/cm 3 ( 4.15}

Solution
Dynamic Shear Modulus-water table 10m below ground level (as shown or
0 5
in Fig. 4.42}. 1.75 ) ' 2
(G) B = 256 ' 8 ( - -
0.875
= 363.2 kg/em
Observed value of shear wave velocity V, =120m/sec
Dry unit weight of soil 'Yd = 1.75 g/cm 3 The value of G at points C and D may be calculated in a similar manner.
3 These values are shown in column 5 of Table 4.9.
= 1750 kg/m
 159
EXAMPLES
DYNAMIC SHEAR MODULUS-WATER TABLE AT GROUND SURFACE
"
-'0
.0 c "
" 0" u ~
0\('f")V)OO Due to rise in water table, the effective overburden pressure decreases.
[-<
~ ~
"
t: ocirl~~
~ 0\00'70\ The new values of effective overburden pressure for points A, B, C and D
~
N
2 (j ~ ,......, N M('f") 3
s "-"' are shown in Table 4.9, column 4. ')',, = 2.05 g/ cm has been used in making
" u :;:: "
~

.,~

.c "" all these calculations.

"'~ The values of G corrected for the effect of rise in water table at different
-~ ~ points may be obtained by modifying the previous values for the change in

o-6
-
....c " "
2 ::: g
effective overburden pressure by using Eq. ( 4.15). These corrected values
are shown in Table 4.9, column 6.
..oo't:
-"
0
::E " OONM-.;:t
~a:)'"""'
2 s "g
~ 0('1')~~
lf)\O,.....,lrl
N('f")~"i" EXAMPLE 4.9.2
~ 0 ~ The'soil profile for a site is shown in Fig. 4.43a. Calculate the values of
- {.)2 dynamic shear modulus at different depths in the profile. Also plot the
variation of shear modulus with depth. Assume shear strain amplitude
'Yo= 10- 6 (i.e., low-amplitude vibration case).

Solution .•;_.,_,,
~
The values of low strain dynamiC shear modulus for the soil profile can be
.,;
... ,., ,.,
NV)f:-..0
calculated by using Eq. (4.9).
"
Q.
tnOI.rl-
c),_;~r-i
Gm"' = 1230(0CR)k ( · ;
29 3
2
05
- e) (0'0 ) psi (4.9)
E
+e
"'><
~
"~
O)N
'0 s
~ u The values of e, OCR, k, PI and 0'0 are needed for using this equation.
:1
c "'~
.0 ""
~.,. The values of e, PI, and OCR are given in the problem. These values are
~
- ·B "
~
c
~ " "
~~
0lb"'
~

~
also listed in Table 4.10, columns 2, 3, and 4, respectively.
The value of 0'0 is calculated as
~
0\ + ii2 + ii3
..a
i5 t:::" "
~
~0:: ao =
iiz = ii3 =
3
KoO\
"""
~ The values of K for different soil layers are calculated as follows:
0
~
For sand layers 1 and 2
"'
.c" K 0 = (1- sin</>)
"'
'5"' For normally consoli~ted clay (layer #3) K 0 is given by the equation below
"'>-c
Q
(Brooker and Ireland,' 1965)
oooo
0; tri 0 tr)' 0 K = 0.4 + 0.007(PI) for 0 s; PIs; 40
- -N 0

""
~
For the normally consolidated clay and PI= 30, K 0 is determined to be
0.61. (See also Fig. 4.49.)
....,; For over consolidated clay (layer #4), the value of K 0 is obtained from
charts given by Brooker and Ireland (1965). For PI= 55 and OCR= 2, the
"
:;:;
,_"' value of K 0 is determined to be 0.95 (Fig. 4.49).
158
 -0 ~

.
...,...,...,...,:::;,_,
0" " ::r .
_,.
,..
~

0
~ -
"='
.
tl:l 0"'
Ci(ll~(tl
(D<=:In
(!> ...
"
~
+:-.-oo-
" 0. "
;.. .
Or:n'"1-
~" 2 E. "'
e Depth (ftl
. og:=; " .. k-"'~"'
" . I.
~ ~
N
0. i "'
><-,.,..,
""" " '
"
(!>
0.
< -c
...,..,_
~ ~. ~ e:.
0
a
~
(!> 0
"
. if
.
-O>
"' ~
0o-· "
~

0 e... / ~§
or """0
s· _q, """
0>1 -< ...
"0. Nq[ ....S' ~

3•
;;·
0
0
0 ~
0

i:t' •
0
s "0. ""
~

(!>
,..
~

~ "'
0
3
15'

-l " "' !; 0
0
~
~
ro
0" " o'lr 82l ...3
0
"'
~
3

";....._,. ".... "....

(!>
(!>
!;;.
c
~
0
0
0
0
~
0
c
~

"" ~· 0"
< 0
~ ~

·"'

f'
~ 0

" :E""
(!>
c 0
u
0..

"".... :r-l "s· ...

~

~
0
~
N
~

ro~r~~~
0
"¥- 0
0 , 5"00~: «9,_.<::;:; ocoU.'. ·, '· o o 0 -<
"00
~
z
"" _,." g." ..
0
0" ;;; ~0 "'0 ~0~-o '".,_ ': . ~ "3.,. >
<h £ !l. ;., .,,£ !::;,
0 ' ,
0

" •• ' ' ' •

~
:E •3
~ < '
;::
s ·:. ~ . • ~ :'. . .~ :-:::: ~·:. ·:. < ,·.: :. .:_: . :. ;=;
0
"
s· ..... -c 0
0

..." V>
0
" 0
0 " "
s0<= 8g.
v.
0
"""
-l
;.
~
.;::

"'.
0
"
0" m
'-0
"
~

" "':::!m
~

Table 4.10. Values of Dynamic Shear Modulus at Different Depths (Example 4.9.2)
Lateral ':7' Mean
Effective Stress Effective Dynamic
Void Vertical (7"3 = (T2 Confining Shear
Depth Ratio Pressure = Ko iii Pressure Modulus
(ft) e fl- PI OCR K, r:T, (psf) (psf) r:T0 (psf) k G (psi) Remark
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)
0 1.10 0 1 0.50 0 0 0 0 0 Top of layer #1
2.5 1.10 0 1 0.50 250 125 ;f~ 166.7 0 2210.4
5.0 1.10 0 1 0.50 500 250 '~}-
333.3 0 3126.0 In layer #1
5.0 0.85 0 1 0.455 500 227.5 318.3 0 4455.6 In layer #2 (top)
10.0 0.85 0 1 0.455 763 347.1 485.8 0 5504.4
15.0 0.85 0 1 0.455 1026 466.8 653.2 0 6381.6 In layer #2
15.0 1.125 30 1 0.61 1026 625.9 759.2 0.24 4538.4 In layer #3 (top)
17.5 1.125 30 1 0.61 1157.5 706.1 856.5 0.24 4821.6
20.0 1.125 30 1 0.61 1289 786.3 953.8 0.24 5088.0 In layer #3
20.0 0.80 55 2 0.95 1289 1224.5 1246.0 0.38 12348.0 In layer #4
22.5 0.80 55 2 0.95 1458 1385.1 1409.4 0.38 13136.4
25.0 0.80 55 2 0.95 1627 1545.7 1572.8 0.38 13876.8

:::
 162
DYNAMIC SOil PROPERTIES

The value of G may now be calculated. The calculated values of G at

different depths are shown in Table 4.10, column 10, and are plotted in Fig.
4.43b.

EXAMPLE 4.9.3

The following tests were performed at a proposed factory site to deter-

mine the in situ dynamic properties of the soil.

1. Four steady-state vibration tests were conducted on a 1.5 x 0.75 x

0. 7 m high concrete block. The tests were conducted by subjecting the block
to a vertical unbalanced force and a horizontal unbalanced force. In both
cases, the tests were repeated at different settings of eccentric masses. The
data on observed resonant frequencies and corresponding amplitudes of
vibration are shown in Table 4.11, columns 1 through 4. The tests were
conducted in an open pit, and the base of the block was at 4.0 m below
ground level. The density of concrete was 2.4 t/m 3•
2. Two cyclic plate load tests were performed on 60 X 60 em plate in a pit
3 X 3 X 4.0 m deep. The typical cyclic plate load test data for Test-5 are •I •I •I ••
I
00
I •I •I ..
I I

plotted in Fig. 4.44 and the values of the load intensity and corresponding
.i~r - s-s;"~ ~ ~
00
~~
00
~ ~

X X-'_X X X X X X X
settlements are listed in Table 4.12, columns 1 through 3. ~~Vl
r-.i("<')ff)
"'v-:oo
"' 0 "'
"""' "'
("!')vi
"'"' "'"'
-::r..-.:

load intensity (kg/cm 2)

0 2 3 4 5 6
0

4
--"':::::- :'--....
~

~f'::...
., ~ ~
8 -
"'',I'.,,, ~-..., ~ "-""~>
0
s
.,.
II

E
E
' ' ' "', ~[\ j
c
w
E
12
' ' -...,
~~
w 0
Bw
"' ' ', '-...., ~
~ E
X

16 0 ;-:;
'' 0

1\
" 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X

20
'' <'>t--O
" ' 0 "'
~
"' 0
<'>t-- "' 0
"' r--
"' 0
"' r-- E

"'
~

' ', II

24
-....\ ~
'E
Figure 4.44. Settlement vs. load intensity {cyclic plate load test) (Example 4.9.3). Jj"

163
 165
EXAMPLES

N values

-::t-Mt-ov;
.,.)000<")("")
ViMOOO\t;'"--
('1'")7('1,....,,......,

:6:6!;:~M
rl"<TO\I.rlOO
~rl~NN

"'I ..,I "'I "'I "'I

--,.--1--
00000

x X X X X
l.rJ\O,....;om '
'7"1.00\000 Figure 4.45. Typical bore log of the site.(Prakash and Puri, 1984) (Example 4.9.3).
rlrlNv)v-;

3. A standard penetration test was performed, and a typical borehole log

for the site and the SPT values vs. depth are shown in Fig. 4.45. Water table
l- t-- -
~ci~ciN
\ONO,.....,O\
\0 '('f)
""
o..:,....;
..,...,.
OO'T
was not encountered in the borehole, which was 12m deep. The average in
3
7V1"1"("1'")N
situ density of the soil was 2.05 g/ cm
Determine from the above data

1. a plot of dynamic shear modulus vs. shear strain at a depth of 4.0 m.

~ 00
t-l.rlN\00
v-ioONr-..:0 2. a normalized plot of G/Gm, vs. shear strain.
NNN--
3. the variation of G vs. shear strain at the depth of 2.4 m.

Solution
v;
t--OV'> (1) Block vibration test
0001."--0tn
o,....;,....;triM Size of tbe block= 1.5 X 0.75 X 0.70 m
2
Area of the block A= 1.5 x 0.75 = 1.125 m
Weight of the bloc~.= (1.5 x 0.75 x 0.7) x 2.4 = 1.89 t
0000 v;
Mtrl'7NO
Weight of vibrator ='0.11 t
N~t--=>.0~ Weight of block and vibrator= 2.00 t
~ "'
Vertical Vibration Test:
2 2
v;v; C = 4'1T f nz m t/ 3 ( 4.37)
N000\,......;\0
NNMviv-i
" A m
2
c 4'1T (2.00) 2 3 2 3
"= l.lZ5 x 9 _81 f"' tim = 7.154!"' tim
164
 166
DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES EXAMPLES 167

or
0', 1 = Effective overburden pressure at the depth under consideration
C" = 0. 007154[~, kg/ em 3 0', 2 = Increase in vertical pressure occasioned by the static weight of the
for block

fu, = 29.75 Hz
0'" 1 = 37.5 x 2.05 = 76.875 g/ cm 2
= 0.076875 kg/ cm 2
C" = (0.007154)(29.75) 2 = 6.33 kg/cm 3
2
_ 4q [ 2mnv'm 2 +n 2 +1 m 2 +n +2
These calculated values of C" are shown in Table 4.11, column 5. The values avz = 41T mz + nz + 1 + m2n2 mz + nz + 1
of G are calculated from Cu as follows·•
2mnv' m + n + 1 J
2 2
. _1
+ sm (Taylor, 1948).
c = 1.13£
2
1
(4.29)
2 z
m +n +1+mn
2 z

" (1- v ) \Ill

Figure 4.46 may be used for computing 0'" 2
G= E
2(1 + v) (4.4)
- L/2- 75 -2
Substituting for E in terms of G from Eq. ( 4.4) into Eq. ( 4.29), we get m- -z-37.5-
B/2 37.5 •S<':
C = 1.13(2G(1 + v)] _1_ n= Z = 37.5 = 1
" (1- v 2 ) \Ill 2 2 2 2
or 0' = 4(2.4 X 70) [ 2 X 2 X 1V2 + 1 + 1 2 + 1 + 2
2
G = (1- v)(VA)C" " 4'1T 2 2 + 1 2 + 1 + 2 2.1 2 2 2 + 1 2 + 1
2 2
2 X 1.13 , _1 2 X 2 X 1V2 + 1 + 1]
(1- 0.33) +sm 2 2 + 1 2 + 1 +2 2 1 2
G= 2. (Y150 x 75)C"
26 2 2
= 134 g/cm = 0.134 kg/cm
2
= 31.44C" kg/cm
0'" = 0.076 + 0.134 = 0.210 kg/cm 2
For
C" = 6.33 kg/ cm 3 Mean effective confining pressure, 0'01 , letting K 0 = 0.5
G = 31.44 X 6.33
_ (2X0.5+1) 2
2 <T01 =0.21 =0.14kg/cm
= 199.01 kg/cm 3
2
The calculated values for G are shown in column 7, Table 4.11. The value of G for the mean effective confining pressure of 1 kg/cm may be
Correction for confining pressure obtained as follows:

. The mean effective confining pressure 0'01 at a depth of one-half the

w1dth = 75/2 = 37.5 em below the center of the blo'ck is given by
for
_ _ _ (2K0 + 1) G 1 = 199.01 kg/cm
2
Uoi - (T'v 3
in which 1.0 )0.5
G 2 = 199.01 ( 0.
14
2
= 531.9 kg/cm
 EXAMPLES 169

U JO Ui The values of G corrected to a mean effective confining pressure of

<e:3a:"' ": ~ ~ " "
~

f"! f"!
~
N "!
~
~ ~ 1 kg/cm 2 are shown in Table 4.11, column 9.
; Shear strain: Shear strain 'Yo is given by

Amplitude
'Yo= Width

~'
for amplitude= 0.185 mm

~~~~
0.185 -4
'Yo = = 2.46 X 10
750

~ '-( ~ The calculated values of 'Yo are shown in column 6 of Table 4.11.
oi
(2) Horizontal vibration test
N Moment of inertia of the base contact area about axis of rotation

~' II"',. I= 0.75 (\r:~= 0.2109 m'

~V~ VI
~; ~'<~r-~'~if~~h rh '); II I/ I I II I I
'll_.f/~/., rT I. 11111111 I 1 1 I
f
Height of combined center of gravity of block and vibrator L.

= 1.89 X 0.35 + 0.11 X 0.85 = O 37 5

"'~'l,.,ff$) r; '/. I. I II I 1 I I I L
20
. . 7 m
~ :·<(J//, . WI/I 'I I 7 I II I I
"' ~W,tC1rt,lfk1Vj r/ I I ///; Mass moment of inertia M m about an axis passing through the combined
f7"""<4·//;~~'/ '/ I ~Ill center of gravity and perpendicular to tbe plane of vibration is given by

..
~

~ '-'<..'// / J//'1///. ~
1.89 ( 1.5' + 0.70') 1.89 (0 3775-0 35)' 0.11 (0 85- 3775)'
"'-'<'/ / / ·'" // r////-
T""¥ /7
": =
Mm t 9.81 12 + 9.81 . . + 9.81 · O.
'//.1/ ///_/j :

.
~

" ;..;;.
,..'0 ::« /
..0 2
5 /~ %~W& ~ = 0.04669 t m/sec-
~ "'
~ ~ ~~1~~ Mass moment of inertia M mo:

'k~@~~
N

N v N =
2
1.89 (1.5 + 0.7') 1.89 (0 35)' 0.11 (0 85)'
v,.~·
_v .. Mmo t 9.81 12 + 9.81 · + 9.81 .
,-~~. 2
~
-
~

'"'" = 0.07569 t m/sec-

- %'k" 0: ~~;
~· ~
~

.
"":-:."'~.'<
Mm 0.04669
0
~0 0 0 0 0 <e~ 0 1,{} 0
r::::
1,{} 0
'.. ..., 'Y = Mmo = 0.07569 = 0.6168

~ M M N oi
U JO Ui
The values of C" may be obtained as follows:

t For calculations of Mm, M, 0 , and /, see Appendix 4.

168
 170 DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES EXAMPLES 171

2
C = 87T Yf:x For, p = 2.25 kg/cm 2
( 4.39)
" (A 0 + I 0 ) ± Y(A 0 + I 0 ) 2 - 4yA 0l 0
s, = 2.38- 1.505 = 0.875 mm
1.125
A= A
o m -===-- = 5.5181 p 2.25
c.=;.:= (0. 875110 ) = 25.71 kg/em
2
( 4.26)
2.0 )
( 9.81

I
0
=3 46 (-I-)=
• Mmo
3.46 (0.2109) _ 0 6408
0.07569 - ·
X
The values of C,. for other data in the cyclic plate load test may be
calculated in the same way and these are shown in Table 4.12, column 4.
The values of G for the test and the corresponding values at a mean
Substituting the values of A 0 , I0 , and yin Eq. (4.39), we get effective confining pressure of 1 kg/ em' may be computed in the same way
as for the case of block vibration test. Similarly, the strain level, Yo, may be
(0.6168)/~x
2
C = 8( 7T ) X obtained as a ratio of the elastic deflection to the width of the plate. All
" (5.5181 + 9.6407) ± Vc5.5181 + 9.6408)' these values are shown in Table 4.12, columns 5 through 9.

4 X 0.6168 X 5.5181 X 9.6408 ( 4) Standard penetration test

The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) value or N-value at 4.0 m is 13
c t- 48.7005[~ 3 • (Fig. 4.45). The,shear wave velocity, V, is given by
" - 15.1589 ± 9.9267 tim
= 9.30 f~ tim 3 ( 4.40)

= 0.00930[~ kg/ cm 3 = 91 (13) 0 "337 = 215.9 m/sec

or 2
2 (215.9) X 2.05(1000) k I 2 ( 4.35)
C,. = 2(0.0093 f~) = 0.0186 f~ kg/ cm 3 G = (V,) y/g = 9.81 X 100 X 100 g em

For = 974.0 kg/ em'

3
fu = 16' c.= 4.76 kg/cm _ 4 X 2.050 2
u,. = 100 X 100 = 0.82 kg/ em
The calculated values of C,. are shown in Table 4.11, column 5. The value
of c. may be calculated and corrected for confining pressure in the same _ (2K0 +1) 2
u 01 = 0.82 = 0.546 kg/ em
manner as for the case of vertical vibrations. Shear strains may also be 3
calculated in the same manner (column 6) Table 4.11.
2
Gat 1 kg/cm 2 = 1317 kg/cm
(3) Cyclic plate load test
The associated strain level in the wave propagation test is low. It is in the
From the load intensity versus settlement plot for the cyclic plate load • -6
range 10 .
test (Frg. 4.44), we can compute the elastic settlement as follows:
a. G vs. 'Yo·

in which The values of G vs. shear strain, y0 , are plotted in Fig. 4.47 (Curve A).

s, =Total settlement for a given applied pressure increment b. G/Gm, vs. y6 , i.e., normalized G/Gm, vs. Yo plot:
s P = Residual settlement after the load increment has been re-
moved. The values of G for different strain levels in plot A (Fig. 4.47) were
divided by Gm,, i.e., 1317 kg/cm 2• These values for different strain levels
t Since fn is the first natural frequency, negative sign has been used. are shown in Table 4.13, column 3, and are plotted in Fig. 4.47 (Plot B).
172
DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES EXAMPLES 173
151()0
The mean effective confining pressure
1.0
N~

E 1250 Legend
u 6 Block vibration test ~ 2.05 X 2.4( 0.5 X32 + 1)
"
0 1000 o Cyclic plate load test
0.8

"'
3
~
0
o From N values ~ 3.28 tim'
~ 750 0.6
0
E ~ ~ 0.328 kg/cm 2

"
<'•i 0.4
"'
C3
u
The value of G corresponding to the mean effective confining pressure of
i"ro 1 kg/cm 2 ~ 642.2 (110.328) 0 ' 5 ~ 1121.3 kglcm 2• This value of G is at a shear
250
strain level of 10· 6 and is Gm" for the depth of 2.4 m. The value of G at
0
~
0

2.4-m depth may be obtained by multiplying Gm" at 2.4 m with ordinates of

G/Gm"x plot (Plot B, Fig. 4.47). The values of G so obtained are shown in
Table 4.13, column 4, and are also plotted in Fig. 4.47, plot C. This plot
Shear strain 'Yo
shows the variation of G vs. 'Ye at 2.4-m depth for a mean effective confining
Figure 4.47. G vs. 'Yo and G/Gma~ vs. Yo (Prakash and Puri, 1984) (Example 4.9.3);. pressure of l.Okg/cm 2•

Table 4.13. G and Yo Values (Example 4.9.3) EXAMPLE 4.9.~- . -;;.. ~

1. In order to determine the in' situ dynamic properties of a soil at a

Shear G kg/em' proposed site for a machine foundation 10m X 8 m, the following tests were
Strain at 4.0-m G kg/em' at
G performed:
1', depth" 2.4-m depth'' (a) Vertical vibration tests on a block 1.5 m x 0.75 m x 0.70 m with
Gmax
(1) (2) different settings of the oscillator's eccentric masses. The data obtained
(3) ( 4)
are shown in Table 4.14, column 1 through 4. ·
1 X 10 6 13!7 1.0 1121.3
5 X 10' 6 (b) Cyclic plate load on a plate 30.5 em X 30.5 em. The elastic settle-
1225 0.930 1042.8
1 X 10' 5 1137 ment corresponding to a load intensity of 1.0 kg/ cm 2 is 2.4 mm, which
0.863 967.7
5 x 10··' 837 0.635 gives a c" value of 4.20 kg/cm 3
712.0
1 x 10·• 740 0.562 (c) Wave propagation test which gives an average value of the dynamic
630.2
5 x 10·' 425 0.323 362.1 shear moduli, G ~ 335.5 kg/cm 2 The distance between the geophones is
1 x 10·' 355 0.269 301.6 5.0m.
5 X 10·' 237 0.180 201.8
1 X 10·' 2. The permissible amplitude of vibration is 1.0 mm. Static stress below
200 0.152 170.4 2
the foundation is 0.7kg/cm •
a Gmax -1317 kg/cm 2 at 4.0-m depth. 3. The water table is 2.5 m below the ground level. The unit weight of
1
Gmax = 1121.3 kg/cm 2 at 2.4-m depth.
'
soil at the site is 1.7 g/cm 3, and the submerged unit weight is 1.05 g/cm 3
Find the value of C" for the design of the machine's foundation. The
c. G vs. 'Ye at 2.4-m depth 3
assumed density of the•.,concrete in the test block is 2.4 tim •
'
N value at 2.4-m depth ~ 7
Solution
Shear wave velocity V, ~ 91(7) 0 ' 337 ~ 175.3 m/sec ( 4.40) (1) Block vibration test.
2
G ~ (175.3) X 2.05 _ , By following the procedure illustrated in Example 4. 9 .3, one can analyze
9 . 81 - 6422 tim the block vibration test data. The values of C" for the area of the test block
can be computed from the observed natural frequencies of the vertical
~ 642.2 kg/ cm 2
vibrations. These values are shown in Table 4.14, column 5. The values of
 EXAMPLES 175

the shear strain levels are shown in Table 4.14, column 7. The mean
effective confining pressure ii0 below the test block can be computed in the2
Nt'--0\\0tn
same way, (as in Example 4.9.3) and its value is found to be 0.14 kg/cm
oci0~MN
,.....,....,--,....., The values of C" for ii0 = 1 kg/cm 2 are shown in Table 4.14, column 8.
(2) Cyclic plate load test.
3
"'
1 '<t
I ""
I ""
I .;-
I The value of C" from the cyclic load test data is 1/0.24 = 4.2 kg/ cm The
,.-., ,....._,....,
0000 0
,.....,.,...., 0
value of C" corresponding to the area of the test block can now be obtained.
t:, xxxxx X
0'
~

c"'=~
tnNOO-::tt---
00 N (4.30)
C~.~1 Az
Cuz = ~ 0.305 X 0.305 3
_ (1. X 0 _75 ) or , Cu 2 = 1.20 kg/em
42 5

-----
00000
«::t«::t-::1"-::t«::t

00000
The mean effective confining pressure at a depth of 30.5/2 = 15.25 em is
found to be 0.732 kg/cm 2• The corresponding shear strain level is equal to
2
2.4/(30.5 X 10) = 7.86 X 10- 3• The value of C" for ii0 = 1 kg/cm is equal to
112 3
(1/0.732) (1.2) = 1.46 kg/cm
7
(3) Wave prbpagation test ·s·
2
From the wave propagation test, G = 335.5 kg/cm • The value of C"
ooc:!ifn~b
00o.rio.ri-.,i corresponding to the area of the test block is obtained from

1.13£ 1 ( 4.29)
C" = (1- vz) vA
1!2 = 1.13 X 2G(1 + v) _1_ k /em'
"' <n
\OtnrlON
Q,....;('f)('f)tr) [1 - (0.33) 2 ] vA g
c:ic:iOOO
1.13 X 2 X 335.5 X (1 + 0.33) 1
2
(1- 0.33 ) Y150 X 75
= 10.67 kg/ cm 3
For the wave propagation test, the value of the dynamic shear
modulus is representative of a depth of L/2, in which L is the distance
between the geophones. The average effective confining pressure at a2
depth of 1/2(5/2) = 1.25 m is 1.7 x 1.25 X 100(2 X 0.5 + 1)/3 = 141.7 g/cm
X E
E u =i0.1417 kg/cm 2
The value of C" at a,~confining pressure of 1 kg/ cm is given by C" =
U<r; 2
<n
. o. 3
0<'> (1/0.1417) 0 · 5 x 10.67 = 28.41 kg/ cm •
"' The shear strain level associated with the wave propagation is taken as
10-'.

(4) C" vs. 'Yo 2

The values of C" for a mean effective confining pressure of 1.0 kg/cm
and for the area of the test block from the different tests and the corre-
sponding shear strain levels are plotted in Fig. 4.48.
174
 176
DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES OVERVIEW 177

30
and the value of C" corresponding to 0'0 = 0.726 kg/cm 2 is
"' ~I
I I I I I I I I
E I I I

"'
6
M
25 17.5(0.72611)0 · 5 = 14.9 kg/cm 3•
""
~
c 11o = 1 kg/cm 2
0
·;;; A = 1.5 X 0.75 m 2 (7) Correction for area
20
'"
0 ...... The area of the machine foundation= 10 x 8 =80m 2• This is more than

~
E
0
u 10m2 The value of C., corresponding to 10m2 will therefore be used in the
E 15 design (Barkan, 1962) and is given by
.E

~
.E
0 112
u 1.5X0.75)
.
~
ro
10
o Resonance test
C" = 14.9 (
10
= 4.99 kg/em
3

.~
0 A Cyclic plate lo~d test
cw
·o
5 c---"- W~~~,P'opagat,on The reader may note that no direct correction has been applied to the

I~w-2
value of C" for effects of water table as is usually done when calculating the
"'
0
u
w
0 I I I I I I
bearing capacity. However, this has been accounted for in calculating the
10 6 -
10 5 lQ-4 w-3 mean effective confining pressure.
Strain level 'YO

Figure 4.48. C., vs. 'Yo (Prakash and Puri, 1977) (Ex. 4.9.4).
4.1 o OVERvfEw
(5) Value of C" needed for the design of the machine foundation Soil moduli under dynamic loads depend on soil characteristics, such as
The shear strain level associated with the machine operation, 'Yo, is void ratio, relative density, stress history, preconsolidation pressure, confin-
(Prakash and Puri, 1977, 1981). ing pressure, and strain level. In machine foundations, the initial static stress
level and pulsating stress level are generally low, and the number of stress
Amplitude pulses are very large. Hence, the combination of all three factors needs to
'Yo= Width be such that the soil will not experience plastic deformations or else the
- 1.0 -4 machine foundation will undergo progressive settlements and tilt and fail.
'Yo- 8 X 1000 = 1. 25 X 10 Simple equations have been developed for use with available data to
make preliminary estimates of soil mgsJ)l]i ..at.loJ1U.tmin.qmplitudes for sands
From Fig. 4.48 the value of C" for 'Yo= 1.25 x 10- 4 is 17.5 kg/em' and
corresponds to 0'0 = 1.0 kg/ em 2• and c~_,J§9..:..HJJJ In this equation, the value of K 0 , th~~o~fflclent of
eaml pressure at rest, which is a function of the plasticity index and
This value of C" has to be corrected for the mean effective confining overconsolidation of clays, may be determined from Fig. 4.49. Therefore,
pressure below the foundation and the area of the block.
depending upon the strain value associated in a particular machine faun·
( 6) Correction for the confining pressure dation, a reasonable estimate of the soil modulus can be made. If the values
The ~ean effective confining pressure at a depth of 8/2 = 4.0 m below the · are determined at one confining pressure, the corresponding values at any
foundatiOn block can be calculated as follows: other confining pressure can be determined with the help of Eq. (4.15).
There is no universaLand unique relationship between soil moduli and
eTa= [(250 X 1.7 + 150 X 1.05) + 4 X 700 x
..
!J[ 2Ko3+ 1 ] strain. However, a nonillllized plot of moduli versus strain is an adequate
guide for deciphering values from one site to another in similar type of soil
in which I is the influence factor obtained from Fig. 4.46, m = LJ z = conditions. Several laboratory and field methods for determining soil moduli
10/4=2.5, and n=814=2. The value of /=0.181. Therefore, and damping have been described.
Time effects oo the moduli in clays have been described briefly, but more
rTo = ((250 X 1.7 + 150 X 1.05) + (4 X 700 X 0.181)][ 2 X 0; 5 + 1 J information on this particular aspect is needed.
2 Several comparisons have been made among the Gm,. values obtained
= 726 g/cm = 0.726 kg/cm 2 from different tests. Cunny and Fry (1973) determined the values of Gm,.
178 DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES 179
OVERVIEW

3. 0 (4.54}
•
v • ............. where
2. 5 / !-....
';- ~32
1/ F 1---- K,= 2o(N1''')
113

N = Corrected value of N measured in SPT test delivering 60% of the

0
v. ~ r--- I
theoretical free-fall energy,

5~ 8
1----
....
ii0 = mean effective confining pressures psf.

A correlation of standard penetration values with low-amplitude shear

--
c D • 4
-~ 1.0 2 is invariably performed in all soil investigations. SPT values have been
c
~ B
I successfully correlated with liquefaction potential of soils.
0.5
A
0 The detailed discussion on material and geometncal dampmg brought out
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Plasticity index, P.l.
Figure 4.49. K0 as function of overconsolidation ratio and plasticity index. (After Brooker and
Ireland, 1965; Lambe and Whitman, 1968.) Reprinted by permission of John Wiley, New York.
for 14 sites from laboratory and field tests. They used the steady-state,
surface vibration method to evaluate G m"' in the field, but applied the
resonant column test in the laboratory. The laboratory-determined shear
and compression moduli were found to range within ±50% of the in-situ
moduli. They observed that the cross-hole method would have given better
values of shear wave velocity V, at the depths from which undisturbed
samples were taken and that inclusion of the secondary time effect would
have brought the laboratory cohesive-soil values nearer to the field values.
The secondary time effect is negligible for sands. Stokoe and Richart
(1973a, b) and Iwasaki and Tatsuoka (1977) found agreement between the
resonant column and the cross-hole field test values. Prakash and Puri
(1981), who obtained in-situ data on dynamic soil constants by making
resonance tests on blocks, the shear modulus test, the wave propagation
test, and the cyclic-plate-load test at several sites, reduced the modulus G
values to a mean effective confining pressure ii0 of 100 kN /m 2 for purposes
of comparison and suggested a method for rational evaluation of test data.
They suggested that the value of dynamic shear modulus for analysis and
design should be selected after taking into consideration the effect of
important parameters influencing its value.
Standard penetration values have been related with low strain shear
modulus (Gm,,) in psf for sands by Seed et al. (1986) by Eq. (4.54)
modulus in sands is particularly welcome, since the standard penetration test
.
The use of such correlations necessitated a considerable effort m Stan-
dardizing the otherwise non standard standard penetration test. (Seed et al.
1985; Skempton, 1986}. . .
80 the fact thah as in the resonant..•oolumn test, only material damping is
obtained from laboratory tests, whereas in footing resonance tests, com-
bined material and geometrical damping are obtained. . .
Hardin and Drnevich (1972b} demonstrated that the matenal_<'."...l11_P!~g
factor I; may be expressed as
--~-----------~---.....-------·-<·--""
I;= l;m"(1- cf-)
m"'
(4.55)
in which l;m,, is equal to 2k 1 17T and k 1 is ratio of the hatched area show? in
Fig. 4.50 and the area of triangle abc, A (obc): There. are ma?y questiOns
concerning the validity of this equatiOn, and 1ts use m a design problem.
This indicates that more work needs to be done in this direction.
Machine foundations generally are partially embed~ed when they are
installed. This reduces the._ampiltuifeol motio-natThe resonant peaks,
increases the value of the resonant frequency, and i~creases t~e _e~~:~!~~e
damping. However, the effects on amplitude and frequency~~n··me tests
depeiiaupon the mode of vibration and m~gmtude of the. motiOn as well.
For motions within the range of des1gn cntena for machmery, 1t appears
that thi~ reduction Jn '.l.~!?!~tude_~esulting from partial embed~e~t.Is~~-t-he
order of 10 to 25 percent.
The ti~~·-effe(iis- for' damping in clays were studed by Marcusson and
Wahls ( 1977) with a Hardin oscillator in the laboratory part1~ularly to
determine the time-dependent characteristics of the dampmg rat1o of !SO-
tropically consolidated specimens of kaolinite and calcmm bentomte. They
used a steady-state method and the decay of free .vib~ations to obta~n the1r
results. After completion of the primary consolidatiOn, they stud1ed the
 180
DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES OVERVIEW 181

used to determine the cyclic properties of soils at very small strains in a

' Gmax triaxial apparatus. Results of tests conducted using Monetery 0 sand were
a compared to test results obtained using resonant column apparatus. In 14
cases involving various soil types, the authors found that the ratio of the
maximum shear modulus determined by either shear wave velocity meas-
a urements or resonant column apparatus to that determined using this testing
methodology ranged between 0.55 to 1.26, with an average value of 0. 92.
The authors have concluded, however, that the moduli and damping data
obtained from resonant column apparatus are more reliable than those from
cyclic triaxial apparatus, except for very dense soils. The unique benefit of
using cyclic triaxial apparatus is that a complete stress-strain relationship as
a function of strain can be obtained along with post-cyclic monotonic
behavior.
-';+----__j d Dyvik and Madshus ( 1985) described in detail the installation and use of
' piezoceramic bender elements in a variety of standard geotechnical labora-
tory testing equipment, triaxial, direct simple shear and oedometer devices
Figure 4.50. Geometric relationship betw h to measure G of the specimens during consolidation and/ or shear. For
and Drnevich, 1972b.) een s ear modulus and damping ratio. (After Hardin
purposes of cg>p1parison, piezoceramiP bender elements were also installed
in a resonant column device (Itardin oscillator). Simultaneous meas-
d . . urements of G m" were taken on five different clays at different confining
yna~mc response as a function of time for both drained d d .
conditiOns. an un ramed stress levels and durations both for loading and unloading. The results of
both techniques over a range of Gm., from 10 to 150 MPa (145.0 to
fo/~:~,J~i~~d a~hdat ;~ep~:~~:n1orat~o ~ecr~ased approximately 12 percent 2175.0 psi) were in excellent agreement. By incorporating bender elements
dimensionless time ratio during se~on~n omte per logarithmic cycle of a into these laboratory testing devices, more information is obtained on the
mended that to evaluate th ~ry compressiOn. Thus, they recom- variation of shear modulus at large strains.
should be continued t fie efftects of lime m c!aye~ soils, at least one test In Equation (4.9), the shear modulus has been expressed as a function of
. . o ve o ten limes the lime after th . iJ-0 , the mean effective confining pressures. However, Stokoe et a!. (1985)
consohdatwn. Particular attention should be .d e. ~nmary
Instrument error when performi'ng I t pm to the possihJhty of studied the effect of state of stress on the shear wave velocity and shear
. ong- erm tests. modulus of a dry sand in a large-scale triaxial device in which cubic soil
The questiOn of dynamic prope t' .
k . . r Ies, I.e., strength parameters for earth- samples measuring 7 ft on a side were loaded in isotropic, biaxial, and
qua e type loadmg has been discussed by Prakash (1981)
No senous efforts have been d' t d · triaxial states of stress. Stiffness of the sand skeleton was evaluated by
Poisson's ratio of soils AI b Irec e tow~rd the determination of the propagating shear waves along each principal stress axis of the sample at
bet . . so etter correlatiOns need to be established pressure of 10 to 40 psi. All testing was performed at !ow-amplitude strains
nee~~:nbda~pmg dand the different factors that affect it, and further studies (less than 0.001 percent) and at wave frequencies less than 3000Hz. Shear
e Irecte towards evaluatiOns of the . Id .
to vibrations of footings supported by 1 d_g~_<:>,:U"!!:!gt__al!lJllllg_I_e~ wave velocity was found to depend about equally on only two principal
supported by soils that vary in stiffnes:y:~t~ ;.:pe t~a o:s welfil ~s of footings stresses; (1) in the direction of wave propagation and (2) in the direction of
As alread 1 · d (F' con mng pressure particle motion, and it,ras determined to be relatively independent of the
field result ydeffxp ame . Igure 4.9), different tests in the laboratory and third principal stress. ·· ·
m t erent strams In tri · 1 t --
can be developed Eff t h . b axia ests, generally intermediate strains Yu and Richart (1984) tested three sands under six different stress paths
. or s ave een made to extend the strain ra . to study the effect of stress ratio on shear modulus of sands. They
~=:~n~~::~:t~r:a:cE:::t: !:~! s~~ll ~~er~ediate
to values and in ~~:~i~~ recommend modifying Hardin's equation [Eq. ( 4.9)] by replacing u 0 =
profile with depth from the spec! u,es. I e. etermmatwn of shear wave (j-1 + a-, + a-, )1 /3 by
ra ana ysis of surface waves (SASW)
appears to be a promising field method for the future. ,
Ladd and Dutko (1985) presented detailed testing procedure which was
 182
DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES
REFERENCES 183
in which a-. and ii6 are principal stresses in the direction of shear wave
propagation and along the particle motion respectively. They also proposed 10. ( ) If you had a choice to order either laboratory tests or field tests for
two new equations for Gm", which depended on a function of principal a determination of soil modulii for design of a machme foundatmn,
stress ratios (ii1 /ii3 or ii,lii,). what would be your preference? Justify completely. .
Thus, it would appear that our understanding of the factors affecting (b) Write a small note ~n the future role of standard penetratiOn test
shear modulus is gradually improving, and some of the concepts presented in estimating the soil moduh1.
in this chapter may need a revision as more information becomes available.
Machine foundations may be supported on piles in some cases. The
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, . .

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 1H5
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' ·
T orstona
·' 1 Sh ear oa d•'ng ," Tech . Memo . No · 1264. Public Works Res. Inst., mts ry o
L

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DYNAMIC SOil PROPERTIES
Marcuson, W. F., III, and Wahls, H. E. (1977). Effects of time on damping ratio of clays.
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DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES

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!·Co
mpres~
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R· h 1 C' . ' · ·'
· · ' ' . '
· allow setsmtc exploration in soil dynamics
· specified values. The vibration am!'ifit~des depend upon the natural frequen-
zc ar ommemorattve Lectures R D Wood Ed"t p · · cy of the vibrating system, the operating frequency, and the magnitude of
sored by the Geotechnical Engine~rin.g Division SAm~~~· c~~c~:dgmgDs otfa_tseossionbspon-
120-156. ' · · · ·• e rm, cto er 23, the applied dynamic forces and moments (Section 2.5). The information on
magnitude and characteristics of the dynamic loads imposed by the machine
YangGe~~~c~n~~gat~:'a~ A.SW. (1~76). Dynamic response of tropical marine limestone. J. on the foundation is thus vital for a satisfactory design of the machine
· · m. oc. Ctv. Eng. 102(GT-2) 123-138
IV.
Yoshimi, Y. and Oh-Oka H (1973) A · · ' . ' foundation system. This information is generally supplied by the manufac-
Conf. S~il Mech Fo , d. E nng torston apparatus for simple shear tests. Proc. Int.
M.

· un · ng., oscow, Vol. 1 Pt 2 501-506 turer of the machine and should be procured from him. This presents
Yu P d R" · ' . ' . difficulty sometimes since the interests of the client and the manufacturer of
, G~o~~h ~char~· F. AE. (1984). ~tress ratio effects on shear modulus of dry sands. J.
· ng. zv., m. Soc. Ctv. Eng. 110(3), 331-345. the machine are not in unison, and the manufacturer of the machine may
not like to admit that large unbalanced forces may occur from operation of
the machine supplied by him. The situation is of course different for certain
types of equipment such as compaction machinery, where unbalanced forces
are purposely developed.
The process of computation of unbalanced forces due to operation of
reciprocating and rotary machines is discussed in this chapter.

5.1 UNBALANCED FORCES IN RECIPROCATING MACHINES

The simplest examp1~ of a reciprocating machine is the basic crank

mechanism (Fig. 5.1) consisting of a piston, piston rod, connecting rod, and
the crank rod. The crank mechanism is used to convert reciprocating motion
into rotary motion or vice versa, and, is used in internal combustion
engines, steam engines, reciprocating pumps, and compressors. The recip-
rocating machines may be of single-cylinder type or multicylinder type in
which case several cylinders are mounted according to a definite pattern on
a common crankshaft. Forces generated due to a single-cylinder recip-
rocating machine are considered first.
189
 191
190 UNBALANCED FORCES FOR DESIGN OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS UNBALANCED FORCES IN RECIPROCATING MACHINES
(5.2)
OB = OC + CB = r cos 8 + l cos</>

where </> =Angle between the connecting rod and the X axis, and
8 =Angle between crank rod and X- aXIS. t
Substituting for OB from Eq. (5.2) into Eq. (5.1), we ge

x = r(1-cos 8) + 1(1-cos </>)

p

Cylinder
or
(5.3)
ll x =r(1-coswt)+l(1-cos</>)

---
p
B II
II X From triangles AOC and ACB (Fig. 5.1)
JJ0
%
I• AC = r sin 8 = l sin</>
Xp 'I

Letting 8 = "!I -' ·:r

_t:-- -;to'_,_~ r . (5.4)
r---c--~~----------l+c----------~ sin <f> = lsm wt
2 112
_ ( _ . 2 "')'/2 = (1- (~ sin wt)
Figure 5.1. Motion of a crank mechanism.
)
(5.5)
:.cos</>- 1 sm '" I
Single-Cylinder Machines may be
The value of r/1 is usually small (around 0.25) and Eq. (5.5)
The motion characteristics of the different components of the crank written in a series form [Eq. (5.6)]:
mechanism (Fig. 5.1) are as follows:

a. The piston and the piston rod undergo an oscillatory motion along X
"'-
cos '" -
(1- 2 1
.!__ sin2 wt-- r4 sin4
2 1' 8 I
4
wt + ...
) (5.6)

axis
h. Different points on the crank rod undergo a rotational motion about Neglecting higher powers of r/1 in Eq. (5.6), we get,
the axis of rotation through 0.
(5.7)
c. The connecting rod AB undergoes a complex motion, the end A has a cos </> = ( 1- ;;, sin' wt)
circular motion, end B moves linearly and points between A and B
move along elliptical paths. "' f E (57) into Eq. (5.3), we get
Substituting the value of cos '"' rom q. .
Unbalanced forces associated with motion of each of these components of r2 . 2 (5.8)
the crank mechanism will now be considered. ~P = r(1- cos wt) + 21 sm w1

Forces Due to Piston Motion. Let the crank rotate With a constant angular Equation (5.8) may be rewritten as
velocity w as shown (Fig. 5.1) causing displacement xP of the piston with 2
reference to its extreme outward position. Let the length of the connecting xP = r( 1 _cos wt) + ~~ (1- cos 2wt)
rod be l and crank radius r. The displacement of the piston is given by

xP = (r +I)- OB (5.1) or

OB may be calculated from Eq. (5.2)

xP = r( 1 + ;I) _r(cos wt + ;I cos 2wt) (5.9)
 193
UNBALANCED FORCES IN RECIPROCATING MACHINES
192 UNBALANCED FORCES FOR DESIGN OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS
(5.14)
Equation (5.8) shows that the piston motion is periodic but not necessarily
harmonic. Equation (5.9) expresses the piston motion in terms of a primary . t. n of radius 0 A and may be resolved into compo-
component that varies with the frequency of rotation and a secondary F acts along t h e dnee IO
component that varies at twice the frequency of rotation. The magnitude of n~nts along the directions of X and z.
the secondary component depends upon the r II ratio and if the length of the . R d The unbalanced forces due to
connecting rod is large compared to the crank radius r, the influence of the Forces Due :a Mo:i~:e 0:a~::c~~~:~~d ~;y be determined with reasonable
secondary component becomes negligible and the piston motion may be complex mo wn o. f the connecting rod by a concentrated
considered harmonic. The velocity xP and acceleration xp of the piston may accuracy by replacmg the mass M" 0 M and M should be
be obtained by differentiating Eq. (5.9): M at A and a mass Mh at B. Masses "' b . .
:e~~rmi~~d such that the resultant unbalanced force due ~o th;~mou~n~s
the same as due to motion of the connecting rod. Magmtu es. o "'an
iP = rw (sin wt + ;l sin 2wt) (5.10) may be determined from Eq. (5.15) and (5.16) respectively.
b

.. = rw '( cos wt + 7
xP r cos 2wt) (5.11) (5.15)

The inertia force FP due to translatory motion of the piston and piston
rod is thus given by Eq. (5.12): and -;~-:-.·7
(5.16)
Ma2-f.:·MIJ=Mcr
(5.12)
where I,, I, = distances of A and B' respectively' from the mass centre M of
in which
the connecting rod. · d ay be
M at A will be undergoing a rotary motiOn an m
MP =mass of piston, piston rod and cross head . h
T e mass a2 b 1 f e F due to
combined with the mass of the crank M,,. The un a ance ore ..; M in
rotation of masses at A may be obtained by replacmg M,, by (Ma, ,,)
Force Due to Motion of Crank Rod. The unbalanced force due to rotary
motion of the crank will now be determined. The unbalance in the crank- Eq. (5.14):
shaft may be replaced by an equivalent mass at the crankpin A so as to 2 2 (5.17)
produce the same inertia force as due to motion of the crank. Since all FA =(Ma1 +Ma 2 )rw =MArw
points on the crank rod move in a circular path, equivalent mass can be
determined from Eq. (5.13):
wh~~~i~rly: :~!a~:~!a~:gm~;~e a:o~~idered along with th;,rto~rna(~_;;~
the inertia force Fn may be obtamed by addmg Mb to P m q.
(5.13)

in which Fn = (Mb + MP)rw'( cos wt + ~cos 2wt)

M , 1 = Equivalent mass of crank rod lumped at A

M, =mass of crank rod acting at its centre of gravity K
= "'fo.1 8 rw '(cos wt + I cos 2wt)
(5.18)

r = crank radius
where M = total reciprocating in ass at B. . . .
and The f~ce FA at any time can be resolved into Its honzontal and vertical
components given by
r 1 = distances of center of gravity of crank rod from 0
FAX = MArw cos wt
2 (5.19a)
The inertia (centrifugal) force F, due to rotation of mass M , 1 is given by Eq.
(5.14): and
 194
UNBALANCED FORCES FOR DESIGN OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS UNBALANCED FORCES IN RECIPROCATING MACHINES 195

Fz = M,\rw 2 sin wt (5.19b) z

F,
~h';Je ~x atd F, are, respectively, the horizontal and vertical components
A· esn tmg force Fx m the direction of X is then given by

Fx =FAX+ FB = MArw 2 cos wt + Msrw 2 ( cos wt + y cos 2wt)

2 2 2
- M r w
- Arw cos wt + MBrw 2 cos wt + MB-1- cos 2wt
(5.20)
It is observed from Eqs (5 19b) d ( 5 20 )
crank mechan. s . .. . an . that the operation of a single
motion F I m gives nse to unbalanced forces in the direction of piston
motion ~ a~ also. m a directiOn perpendicular to the direction of piston
pl) Counterweights

(d . , · orce m the directiOn of piston motion has both ·

bee;~~::~:/fr~~ ~ and secondary (depending on 2w) component1'~;';:~
of the iston m . q. (5.20). The force m a direction perpendicular to that
. Pd f otwn has only a pnmary component [see Eq. (5 19b)] The
magmtu e o pnmary and secondary components of F can be . . . F, --,. };,.,..
separatmg the terms containing w and 2w in Eq. (5.20): obtamed by
Figure 5.2. Principle of counterbalancing (both horizontal and vertical components due to
x - M A rw 2 cos wt + M Brw 2 cos wt
F'- rotating mass and counterweights balance).
(5.21)
and
The secondary component F; is unchanged and is given by Eq. (5.22). The
unbalanced force in the direction of Z becomes zero after counterbalancing.
(5.22) As the primary unbalanced force in the direction of piston motion has the
where F'x -- th e pnmary
· component of F and F"- th d same frequency as that of the crank rotation Eq. (5.23), it is possible to
of Fx. x x - e secon ary component install a mass on the crank to completely eliminate or minimize this force.
The unbalanced force due to rotation f h However, the rotation of this counterbalancing mass will increase the force
installing a mass M' known
• . A
°.
t e mass M A can be balanced by
as counterwe 1ght at f .
in a direciton perpendicular to the piston motion. Therefore, it is impossible
dtrectwn of radius 0 A (Fig 5 2 ) Th . an ang1e o 180° Wtth the to completely eliminate the unbalanced forces due to operation of a single
·
from 0 are selected so that it · · e magmtude of M' A an
d · d.
tts tstance cylinder reciprocating engine which is thus inherently unbalanced, and its
1
opposite to that produced bya "J.tays ~~duces a centrifugal force equal and operation gives rise to unbalanced forces both along and perpendicular to
forces is known as counterbalanci::. d s process of reducmg unbalanced the direction of piston motion. The force in the direction of piston motion
reducing vibrations in certain c g a~ ts used as a remedial measure for has a primary as well as secondary component, whereas the force perpen-
resulting unbalanced force in thea~es. . hen co~nterbala~cing is done, the dicular to the direction of piston motion has only the primary component. In
(5.23) [by making MA,; 0 in Eq. (~~~~)]~ of piston motiOn ts given by Eq. the case of multicylind11r engines, however, it is possible to mount the
cylinders so as to completely eliminate the unbalanced forces. The unbal-
2 2
anced forces due to operation of multicylinder engines are now considered.
Fx-M
-
rw cos 2wt
srw 2 cos wt + Ms--
I (5.23)
Multicylinder Engines
The primary component of Fx is then given by Eq. (5 .24): A schematic layout of a horizontal multicylinder engine is shown in Fig .
5.3a. The cylinders are located in a plane parallel to xy plane and have a
F; = Msrw 2 cos wt linear arrangement. The cylinders are parallel to each other. The crankshaft
(5.24)
 197
196 UNBALANCED FORCES FOR DESIGN OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS UNBALANCED FORCES IN RECIPROCATING MACHINES
2 2
Direction of Fxi = (MA, + Ms,) r,w' cos (wt +a,)+ MBi r, ~ cos 2(wt +.a,) (5.26)
Y
T

I
I
1 crank rotation

rShaft Cylinder # i
z
I tJJe---,---j --3] in ':hichbalanced force in the z direction due to operation of ith cylinder,
: 1'1 F,, =~~balanced force in the x direction due to operatiOn of tth cybnder.

or1 ----~~~-------1~----------~
Y,
i~sultant exciting forces transmitted to the foundatiOn due to operatlon of
X all the n cylinders are given by
ill Y!
2:" (5.27a)
~q---L-i-n y F, = w'
i=l
r,M Ai sin ( wt + a,)

Cylinder #1

1
I

x-j Fx = w' i r,[ (MAi + MsJ cos(wt +a,)+ Ms, cos 2(wt +a,)]
i~l (5.27b)
y (a) (b)

Figure 5.3. Schematic layout of (a) multicylinder horizontal engine in xy plane (piston motion . rs ·27) may be written as
· 1, E qs,,_~:
. are 1"denuca
in x direction, Engine shaft is parallel to y axis.) (b) Orientation of axes. If all cylinders

F = rw'MA
z
2:" sin (wt +a,)
i=l
(5.28a)

is parallel to Y axis and the crank rotation is in XZ plane with the origin of
and
coordinates at 0, the combined mass center of gravity of the engine and the
foundation.
The arrangement of multicylinder engine under consideration will gen- F =rw'f(MA +Ms) i; cos(wt+ a,)+ l Ms ~1 cos2(wt+ a,)}
erate unbalanced forces in the directions of X and Z. The magnitude of X l i~l ' (5.28b)
unbalanced force due to any cylinder will depend upon the crank angle a
which defines the relative position of pistons in different cylinders at any The exciting moments due to these unbalanced forces are given by
time. For example, a = 180" for a two-cylinder engine implies that when the
piston in one of the cylinders is in the extreme right piston, the piston in the " (5.29a)
M="'FY
~
other cylinder is in the extreme left position. That is, they operate out of X
i=l
Zl l

phase. The unbalanced forces due to operation of a multicylinder engine can

be computed by following the principle that was used for the case of a " (5.29b)
My ="'Fx
L..J Zl I
single-cylinder engine and then determining the resultant force in a given i=l
direction as the algebraic sum of the components of forces due to all the " (5.29c)
cylinders in that direction. Depending upon the mounting arrangement of M z ="'FY
L..J XI I

different cylinders in a multicylinder engine, its operation may result in the i=l

generation of either the unbalanced forces or unbalanced moments or both. where

Let the total number of cylinders be n. The unbalanced forces due to
operation of the ith cylinder may be obtained from Eqs. (5.19b) and (5.20) M = Exciting moment about the axis of X
X

by replacing MA with MA,, Mn with Mn 1, r by r, and changing wt to M = Exciting moment about the y axis
y
(wt +a;). This substitution gives
and
(5.25) M = Exciting moment abont the Z-axis
'
 198
UNBALANCED FORCES FOR DESIGN OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS UNBALANCED FORCES IN RECIPROCATING MACHINES 199

!he exciting moments will have primary and secondary components depend- Unbalanced moments and forces in any particular case may be calculated
mg upon the ~ature of unbalanced forces generated by the machine. from the mounting details of cylinders and crank angles a. The compu-
The conditiOns for balancing the fo~ces and moments generated by tations become simple when all cylinders are identical and crank and
operatiOn ~fa honzontally mounted multiCylmder engine can be established connecting rods are of uniform cross section. When counterweights are used
by exammmg Eqs. (5.28) and (5.29). The primary component of exciting to balance the exciting force due to rotating mass M A, Eqs. (5.28) become
forces Will be balanced if [from Eqs. (5.28a and b)]
n F, =0 (5.33a)
2.: sin (wt +a,)= 0
and
t=l
(5.30a)
Fx= rw
2
~ [ M 8 cos(wt+ a,)+ IM 8 cos2(wt+ a,)] (5.33b)

n The primary and secondary components of Fx are then given by

2.: cos (wt +a,)= 0
t=l
(5.30b) n

F~ = rw 2 M 8 2.: [cos (wt +a,)] (5.33c)

The secondary component will be balanced if i=l

2 2 n
n
F: = -rw- M 8 ,~[cos
"' 2(wt +a,)] (5.33d)
.2.: cos 2(wt +a,)= 0
i=l
(5.30c) 1
-~;. ,' :>"

The primary component of the exciting moments will be balanced if Eqs Substituting the value ofF, from Eqs. (5.33a) in Eqs. (5.29a,b), we get
(5.31) are satisfied: ·
(5.34a)
n

.2.:
i=l
X, sin ( wt + a ) = 0
I (5.31a) M y =0 (5.34b)
n
Also (5.34c)
.2.:
1=1
Y, cos (wt +a,)= 0 (5.31b)
n Substituting the values ofF; and F: from Eqs. (5.33c,d) in Eqs. (5.29c), we
2.:
1=1
Y, sin (wt +a,)= 0 (5.31c)
get
n

In the case under consideration, only the force Fx has a secondary compo- M;=LF;iyi (5.35a)
i=l
nent and the secondary component of moment will be balanced if
n
n M"="'
Z L.,; F".Y
XI I
(5.35b)
.2.:
1=1
Y,cos2(wt+ a,)=O (5.32)
i=l

in which, M ~ = the primary component of M z and M~ = the secondary

The unbalanced exciting loads due to operation of reciprocating machine component of M,. .
may be balanced dependmg on geometerical location of the equipment arid .It is observed from l!qs. (5.33) and (5.34) that in case of multicylinder
the crank angle. · engines in which the rotating masses have been counterbalanced we get only
So far, we have c6nsidered the unbalanced exciting loads due to ope- the exciting forces and moments given below:
ratiOn of honwntally mounted smgle or multicylinder engines. For vertically
mounted engmes (piston motwn along Z axis), the exciting loads can be 1. Exciting force along the direction of piston motion, this force has both
computed by mterchangmg X with Z in Eqs. (5.19)-(5.24) for single- primary and secondary components
cylmder engmes and m Eqs. (5.28) and (5.29) for multicylinder engines. For 2. Exciting moment about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the
piston motion along Y axis, replace X by y in the above equations. engines; this moment has both primary and secondary components
200
UNBALANCED FORCES FOR DESIGN OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS
UNBALANCED FORCES IN ROTARY MACHINES 201
It is also observed from Eqs. (5.33c) and (5.33d) that the maximum
secondary force is equal to r/1 X (maximum primary force in that direction). Unbalanced primary and secondary forces and couples due to single and
The absolute values of the exciting forces and moments depend upon the multicylinder engines for different crank arrangements are summarized in
cr~k :ngle a. For example, for the two-cylinder engine with crank angle Table 5.1 (Newcomb, 1951). In case all the cylinders of a multicylinder
a- 90 (Fig. 5.4) and rotatmg mass counterbalanced, we have, from engine are not identical, the exciting loads should be calculated using Eqs.
equatiOnS (5.33), (5.27) and (5.29). Besides the forces due to engine operation, there will be
F, = 0 additional forces due to machines being operated by the engine or vice
versa. The resultant exciting loads will influence the dynamic response of the
F~ = rw Mn[cos wt +cos (wt + 90°)] = rw 2Mn[cos wt- sin wt]
2
foundation. The horizontal forces due to engine operation will also give
exciting moments about the combined center of gravity of the machine
= V2rw 2M 8 cos (wt + 45°)
foundation system.
= 1.41 x (primary force due to single cylinder) (5.36a)
2 2
F"x = -r w- Mn[cos 2wt +cos 2(wt + 90)] 5.2 UNBALANCED FORCES IN ROTARY MACHINES
1
rzwz Exciting force due to rotation of an unbalanced shaft (Fig. 5.5a) is given
= - - M 8 [cos2wt- cos2wt] = 0 (5.36b) by
1
~~milarly, it can be shown that component of primary moment M; is given (5.37)

M; = 1.41 x (primary component of force due to single cylinder) x D

in which m =mass of rotor and e =effective eccentricity, that is, the
distance of the mass center from the axis of rotation. The horizontal and
(5.36c) vertical components of the unbalanced force are given by
where D =distance between center line of the pistons, and
2
2 2 Fx = mew cos wt (5.38a)
D D
"- r w-M8 [ 2cos2wt-2cos2
M,-- 1
( wt+z 7T)J
and
2
r w2 D
= - -2 M 8 [cos2wt+cos2wt] 2 •
F z =mew sin wt (5.38b)
1
rzwz
= - - M nD cos 2wt High-speed rotary machines are well balanced and the eccentricity e is
1 generally very small. However, due to their high speed of rotation, the
=(secondary force due to a single cylinder) x D' (5.36d) magnitude of exciting loads may be significant. Further, the effective
eccentricity may increase due to wear and tear, and balancing may be
necessary to keep the unbalance within tolerable limits. When two rotary
machines of the same capacity and having the same unbalance are coupled
together, the unbalanced mass in each of them may be in-phase as shown in
Fig. 5.5b, out-of-phase'•by 180° as shown in Fig. 5.5c, or at any phase, as
shown in Fig. 5.5d. The unbalanced force for the case shown in Fig. 5.5b is

-----+D/2 ----
0
D/2
X
given by

F= 2mew 2 (5.39a)

The vertical and horizontal components of the unbalanced force are given
by
Figure 5.4. Two cranks at 90°,
Fx = 2mew 2 cos wt (5.39b)
:::"'

Table 5.1. Unbalanced Forces and Couples for Different Crank Arrangements
Crank Arrangements Forces Couples
Primary Secondary Primary Secondary
Single crank F' without F"

_A_ counter wts.

(0.5) F' with
None None

counter wts.

k
F'D without
Two cranks at 180° 0 2F" counter wts. None
F'
In-line cylinders T D with

~
counter wts.
Opposed cylinders 0 0 Nil Nil

(1.41) F' without (1.41) F' D without

Two cranks at 90°
1~ counter wts.
(0.707) F' with
counter wts.
0 counter wts.
(0.707) F' D without
counter wts .
F'D

y
.
Two cylinders on F' without
one crank counter wts. (1.41) F" Nil Nil
Cylinders at 90° 0 with
counter wts.

2F' without

~
Two cylinders on 0 None Nil
counter wts.
one crank
F' with
Opposed cylinders
counter wts.
(3.46) F' D without
(3.46) F' D

~
Three cranks at 120° counter wts.
0 .. 0
'"' (1.73) F' D with
). counter wts.

r J,llt
~
Four cylinders 0 0 0
0
(1.41) F' D without
Cranks at 180° counter wts.

+~
0 (0.707) F' D with 4.0 F"D
0
Cranks at 90° counter wts.
,.~,

.
''-~

~~
Six cylinders
0 0
0 0

Source: Newcomb, 1951. Reprinted with the permission of the ASME.

D = cylinder-center distance (in)
F' = Primary force
F" = Secondary force

"'
0

"'
 204
UNBALANCED FORCES FOR DESIGN OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS
EXAMPLES 205

The components of the moment M in horizontal and vertical directions

are given by
2
Mx = mew l cos wt (5.39e)
2
Mz =mew 1sin wt (5.39f)
X
(a) When masses have an orientation as shown in Fig. 5.5d, the machine
operation will give rise to both an unbalanced force and a moment. For
design, the worst combination of loads should be assumed to be acting on
the foundation. The unbalanced force will be given by Eq. (5.39a) and
unbalanced moment by Eq. (5.39d). For more than two rotors on a common
shaft, combined unbalanced forces and moments may be obtained in a
similar manner.
(b)
5.3 UNBALANCED FORCES DUE TO IMPACT LOADS

Machines such as forging hammers, punch presses, and stamping mach-

ines produce inwact or pulse-type loads. There is no method to date (1987)
m to define the fbrces imposed on tile\"foundation due to an impact and the
variation of these forces with time. This information may however be
m
.t' obtained experimentally. Experimental data on impact tests on 30-cm-
diameter instrumented model footing (Drnevich and Hall, 1966; Lysmer and
lei Richart, 1966) indicates that the shape and duration of the loading pulse
varies with the energy of impact and energy absorbing characteristics of
supporting medium such as elastic pads. The necessity to acquire such data
m on prototype foundations of this type cannot be overstressed.
..._
' We have so far considered the nature of unbalanced exciting loads due to
• operation of different types of machine. The process of calculation of
. t' exciting loads will now be illustrated with some typical examples.
(d)
5.4 EXAMPLES
Figure_ 5.5. Unbalanced forces due to rotary machines. (a) single rotor; (b) two rotors with
•: ual m phase u~balance; (c) two rotors with equal unbalance with a phase difference of 180°· EXAMPLE 5.4.1
1 1 two rotors with equal unbalance at any phase. ' A horizontal single cylinder reciprocating engine is mounted on a foun-
dation block as shown in Fig. 5.6. The center line of the piston is 30 em
and above the top of the block and the center of the crank lies vertically above
the mass center of the combined machine foundation system. The data on
(5.39c) the engine is as follows~''
For the case of rotors shown in Fig. 5.5c, the res~ltant unbalanced forces Weight of the piston and piston rod= 10.5 kg
due to the two masses at any time cancel out, but there is a resulting Weight of crank assumed concentrated at the crank pin= 4.6 kg
moment M gtven by
Weight of connecting rod= 5.3 kg
M = mew 2 (l) (5.39d) Length of connecting rod l = 45 em
Crank radius r = 15 em
in which l = distance between the mass center of gravities of rotors as shown Operating speed of engine = 600 rpm
m Ftg. 5.5c.
The connect;ng rod is of uniform cross section.
206 UNBALANCED FORCES FOR DESIGN OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS EXAMPLES 207

(a) When counterweights are not installed

1. Force in the vertical direction (perpendicular to direction of piston
motion) F,
F~ , F"x
Fz = MArw 2 sin wt (5.19)
(FJm" = MArw 2 = 0.739(0.15)(62.83) 2 = 436.6 kg= 0.4366 t
2. Force in horizontal direction (along the direction of piston motion)
Fx
The primary component of force F~ in the horizontal direction is
m given by
(5.21)
(F~)m" = (MA + M 8 )rw = (0.739 + 1.340)(0.15)(62.83)
Foundation 2 2
Combined block
e.G.
= 1231.0 kg= 1.231 t
The secondary component F~ in the horizontal direction is
givenc?Y
-~·;·-::M r 2 w~
Figure 5.6. Schematics of Problem 5.4.1. F" =- · B cos 2wt (5.22)
X l
2 2 2 2
M 8 r w = (1.340)(0.15) (62.83) = k =
(F~)m, = [ (0.45) 264 .5 g 0 .2645 t
Compute the unbalanced exciting forces and moments for the design of
the foundation assuming: 3. Unbalanced excited moments
The force F, passes through the mass center of gravity 0 and
(a) No counterweights are installed has no moment about it. The unbalanced force FY along the
(b) Counterweights are installed. direciton of Y is zero and therefore the exciting moment Mx is
Also find the magnitude of the counterweights zero. The only exciting moment in this problem is MY due to the
primary and secondary components of Fx and tries to cause ro-
Solution tation about Y axis through the center of gravity.
Total rotating mass at M A due to crank and connecting rod The primary component of moment M~ is given by (Fig. 5.6)
M~ = F~h = (1.231)(0.3 + 1.0) = 1.60 t m
4.6+ t{5.3)
9.81 The secondary component of the moment M; is given by
=0.739kgsec 2 /m M; = F:h = (0.2645)(0.3 + 1.0) = 0.344 t m

. d 10.5 + H5.3) (b) When counterweigH'ts are installed

T o t a I mass at B due to ptston an crank rod M = ,.------;~';-'---'-
8 9.81 4. The mass of the counterweight depends upon its distance from the
center of rotation. If the counterweight is installed at the same
= 1.340 kg sec 2/m distance from the center of rotation as the mass M A, then M =
2 1
Operating speed of the engine w MA =0.739kgsec /m-

600(21T) 5. Exciting force Fz

= = 62.83 rad/sec
60 F, =0
 209
208 UNBALANCED FORCES FOR DESIGN OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS .·. EXAMPLES
.!
6. Unbalanced force Fx in the direction of X
The primary component F~ is given by z
2
F; = M 8 rw cos wt (5.24)
(F~)m, = M 8 rw = (1.34)(0.15)(62.83) = 793.5 kg= 0.7935 t
2 2

(')
The secondary component F~ is unchanged and its value is equal to
0.2645 t as calculated in part (a).
7. Exciting moment
The primary component of exciting moment M ~ is given by
M; = F~h = (0.7935)(1.3) = 1.0315 t m. The secondary component
of the exciting moment M;
remains unchanged and is equal to
0.344 t m as calculated in part (a). 1.0 m

EXAMPLE 5.4.2
j_
In Example 5.4.1 if the engine was mounted vertically with XZ as the plane
of crank rotation and the counterweights are installed, determine the
exciting forces and moments for design of the foundation. Assume that the
line of motion of the piston lies along the Z axis through the center of
(b)
gravity of the engine and the foundation.
Figure 5.7.
t f
(a) Arrangemen o era
nks a
,
= 180°· (b) Schematic sketch showing line of action

Solution of exciting loads.

Data is as given in Example 5 .4.1.
The direction of the piston motion is vertical and along Z axis and
counterbalancing has been done: foundation. The two cylinders are identical in all respects. The data for the
· d ers ts
cyhn · as gtven
· below · The connecting rods are of umform cross
(a) Unbalanced force along the direction of piston motion: F,. The
primary component of unbalanced force F, is obtained from Eq. (5.24) section. The crank angle a = 180".
by replacing X by Z, F; = M 8 rw 2 cos wt
2
Weight of piston and piston rod= 5.2 kg
(F;)m, = M 8 rw = (1.34)(0.15)(62.83) 2 = 793.5 kg= 0.7935 t Weight of crank assumed at crank pm = 2.1 kg
The secondary component of force F~ is similary given by F~ = Weight of connecting rod= 4.2 kg
2
(M 8 r w 2/l) cos 2wt [Eq. (5.22)] Length of connecting rod l = 45 em
2
Crank radius r = 15 em
2 2 2
" r w (1.340)(0.15) (62.83) Operating speed of engine = 1500 rpm
(FJm" = MB - 1- = (0.45) = 264.5 kg= 0.2645 t
Compute the unbalanced exciting loads for design of the foundation for
(b) Unbalanced force in a direction perpendicular to piston motion the engine. Assume n~~~counterbalancing has been done.
Because of counterbalancing, Fx = 0
Solution
(c) Unbalanced exciting moments. As F; and F~ pass through 0 and 4.2)
Fx = 0, no unbalanced moments are generated and Mx = My = M, = 0. 2.1+ ( T '
· M-
Total rotatmg mass A - 9.81 =0428kgsec/m
·
EXAMPLE 5.4.3
4.2)
A two-cylinder engine is mounted on a foundation so that the direction of 5.2+ ( 2 2
piston motion is parallel to Z axis and plane of crank rotation is XZ as · · =0 ·744kgsec /m
Total rectprocatmg mass M n -- 9.81
shown in Fig. 5.7. The engine is mounted symmetrically with respect to the
 210
UNBALANCED FORCES FOR DESIGN OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS REFERENCES 211

2
Operating speed of engine= w = 'lT(~~OO) = 157.07 sec- 1 (c) Unbalanced forces Fx
1. Unbalanced force Fx 1 due to cylinder #1
2.
Crank angle a = 1800 Fx 1 = M Arw sm wt (From 5.19b)
2
(a) Unbalanced forces and moments Fx 1 = (0.428)(0.15)(157.07) sin wt = 1583.8 (sin wt) kg
The direction of piston motion is along Z axis. The unbalanced forces = 1.5838(sin wt) t
F, along the direction of piston motion in this case are obtained by
replacmg X With Z m Eqs. (5.21) and (5.22). Similarly the unbalanced 2. Unbalanced force Fx 2 due to cylinder #2
forces Fx perpendicular to direction of piston motion are obtained by Fx 2 = (0.428)(0.15)(157.07)' sin (wt + 180") = 1.5838(-sin wt) t
mterchangmg Z and X in Eq. (5.19b).
3. Resultant forces Fx
(b) Unbalanced forces F; Fx = Fx 1 + Fx 2 = 1.5838 (sin wt- sin wt) = 0
1. Primary component F;, due to cylinder #1
(d) Unbalanced moments
F;, = (MA + Ms)rw 2
cos wt (From 5.21) The only exciting moments in this case results from the fact that F;,
= (0.428 + 0.744)(0.15)(157.07) 2 cos wt = 4337.1 (cos wt) kg and F' are equal in magnitude but act in opposite directions and thus
form :couple that causes rotation about y axis. The moment of this
= 4.3771 (cos wt) t primary couple M; is given:l>r' (Fig. 5.7)
2. Secondary component F;, due to cylinder #1 M; = F;,(D) = 4.377(0.5) cos wt = 2.188 cos wt t m
2 2
F 11 r w The foundation should be designed for the following exciting forces and
zl = MB - - COS 2wt (From 5.22)
1 moments:
2
0 ) (0.15) 2 F, = F; = 1.8354 t (secondary)
= ( .744 (0. 4S) (157.D7) cos 2wt = 9.17 (cos 2wt) kg
MY= M; = 2.188 t m (primary)
= 0.9177 (cos 2wt) t
3. Primary component F::Z due to cylinder #2
REFERENCES
F;, = (0.428 + 0.744)(0.15)(157.07) 2 cos(wt + 180")
Drnevich, V. P., and Hall, J. R., Jr. (1966). Transient loading tests on a circular footing. J. Soil
= 4.3771( -cos wt) t Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 92 (SM-6), 153-157.
Lysmer, J., and Richart, F. E., Jr. (1966). Dynamic response of footings to vertical loading. I.
4. Secondary component F'::,_ due to cylinder #2 Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 92 (SM-1), 65-91.
2

~~·.~~))
Newcomb, W.K. (1951). Principles of foundation design for engines and compressors. Trans.
F'::,_ = (0.744) (157,07) 2 cos 2(wt + 180") ASME 73, 307-312, 313-318.

=0.9177 (cos2wt)t
5. Resultant primary component F;
F; = F;, + F;, = 4.3771 (cos wt- cos wt) = 0
6. Resultant secondary component
F~ = F~ 1 + F~ = 0.9177(cos 2wt) + 0.9177 cos 2wt
= 1.8354 cos 2wt t
(F;)"'"' = 1.8354 t

6 1. There should be at least 30 percent difference between the operating
Foundations for
Reciprocating Machines
Reciprocating machines are probably the oldest machines used by man-
kind. The classical example is a crank mechanism (Fig. 5.1) which is used to
convert translatory motion into mtary motion and vice versa (Section 5.1).
Typical examples of reciprocating machines are steam engines, internal
combustion engines (e.g., petrol, diesel, and gas engines), pumps and ·
compressors. These machines may consist of a single cylinder and a piston
which may be single acting or double acting, may consist of multicylinders
with pistons operating in a regular pattern and mounted on a common
crank. The pumps and compressors belonging to the category of recip-
rocating machines may be of the single-stage or multiple-stage type depend-
ing on whether the total compression is developed in one or more than one
operation. The multiple-stage arrangement may consist of either several
piston-cylinders operated by a common engine or several different engines.
The direction of piston movement may be horizontal or vertical. Most
reciprocating machines have operating speeds that are smaller than 1200-
1500 rpm. Reciprocating machines operating at higher speeds are sometimes
encountered.
The foundations for reciprocating machines usually consist of rigid con-
crete blocks that have openings for mounting the machines. The machines
may be mounted directly on a concrete block or on suitably designed elastic
pads. Block foundations resting on springs are also sometimes used.
6.1 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
The general criteria for ensuring long-term satisfactory performance of a
machine foundation with respect to static and dynamic stability are set forth
in Chapter 1 (Section 1.2}. The foundation requirements for reciprocating
machines with respect to dynamic stability are as follows:
212
MODES OF VIBRATION OF A RIGID FOUNDATION BLOCK 213
speed of the machine and the natural frequency of the soil foundation
system.
2. The amplitudes of vibration must be less than the specified per-
missible values.
3. In the soil, the resultant stresses occasioned by the combined action
of static and dynamic loads should not exceed the permissible values.
The natural frequency of the foundation soil system is strongly influenced
by the base contact area of the foundation, its geometry, mass, depth of
embedment, and stiffness and damping properties of the soil. Besides these
factors, the amplitudes of vibration are influenced by the unbalanced forces
and moments associated with the machine's operation. It is mentioned in
Chapter 4 that soils undergo increasing strains when subjected to combined
static and dynamic loads, but if the magnitude of dynamic load is very small
compared to the static load, as is the case with most reciprocating machines,
the increase in strain after the first few applications of the dynamic load is
negligible. Therefore a soil may b.e·:'!ssumed to behave as an elastic material
under such loading conditions (Fig. 4.18). The fact that permissible static
soil pressures below machine foundations are generally smaller than the
corresponding soil pressures beneath ordinary footings, helps to ensure the
above behavior. Therefore, the residual or plastic settlement of a soli below
an adequately designed machine foundation is generally negligible.
6.2 MODES OF VIBRATION OF A RIGID FOUNDATION BLOCK
It may be assumed that rigid foundation experiences only rigid body
displacements. Therefore, under the influence of superimposed forces and
moments a rigid concrete block can vibrate in six dtfferent modes (Ftg. 6.1):
1. Translation along the Z axis
2. Translation along the X axis
3. Translation along the Y axis
4. Rotation around the X axis (pitching)
5. Rotation around Jhe Y axis (rocking)
6. Rotation around"the Z axis (yawing)
Any movement of the block can be resolved into these six independent
displacements. Hence, the block has six degrees of freedom (or modes of
vibration) and six corresponding natural frequenctes. Of the stx modes,
translation along the Z axis and rotation around the Z axis can occur
independently of any other motion. However, translation along the X or Y
axis and corresponding rotation about the Y or X axis, respectively, always
 214
FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES ELASTIC HALF-SPACE METHOD 215

Vertical
V'
Torsion (yawing)
t 0' 0'

•o

~+X
w ~ ~ 00
Longitud ina I Figure 6.2. Lamb's problems for steady-s!ate o~cillating force or ~ulse loa_ding acting at a point
(three-dimensional) or along a line (two-dimensional). (a) For verhcalload•ng at the surfa.ce. (b)
For horizontal loading at the surface. (c) For vertical loading within the body. (d) For horazon~al
loading within the body. (After Lamb, 1904. After Richart, Hall, and Woods, "Vibrations of S?ds
and foundations/'© (1970, p. 193. Reprinted by permission of PrenticeRHall, Englewood Chffs,
z New Jersey.)
Figure 6.1. Modes of vibration of a rigid block foundation.

tropic, sellf\cinfinite body, whi~~_,is referred to as an elastic half-spac~.

occur together and are called coupled modes. Therefore, in analyzing rigid
Mathematical solutions for computJng the response of a footmg vibratmg m
block foundations, one is concerned with four types of motion of which two
different modes have been obtained by several investigators. Lamb's (1904)
(translation along the Z axis and rotation around the z axis) are in-
study of the response of an elastic half-space excited by a periodic vertical
dependent, and two (translation along the X axis and rotation around the Y
force acting along a vertical axis is the first investigatiOn m this area. This
axis and vice versa) are coupled and occur simultaneously. The nature of soil
problem, which is also known as "dynamic Boussinesq loading", was
reactions that come into play for the different modes of vibration are
different, as already discussed in Section 4.4. analyzed as a two-dimensional wave propagation case. The study was then
extended to cover conditions of vibratiOn occasiOned by a honzontal oscillat-
ing force acting on the surface and by a vertical or horizontal line load acting
6.3 METHODS OF ANALYSIS at any point within an elastic medium. These cases are Ill~strated m Fig. 6.2.
Lamb also demonstrated how a series of vertical penodic forces havmg
different frequencies could be combined and replaced by a single force
Several methods are used in analyzing the vibration characteristics of
block foundations, they are as follows: acting on the surface. Lamb's solution covered hoth steady-state .and
transient cases for calculation of surface displacement. Lamb also obtamed
1. Elastic half-space method, solutions for the response of a vibrating foundation by considering it as a
problem of three-dimensional wave propagation. ·
2. Linear elastic weightless spring method
3. Linear elastic weighted spring method, and
4. Empirical methods Vertical Vibrations of a Footing
The problem of a ~brating rigid, circular footing resting on the_ surface of
Because only the first two are used in practice, these are described in detail an elastic half-space was exammed by Reissner (1936, 1937). His solution
here. ·· for the vertical displacement at the center of the footing was based upon the
solution obtained by Lamb in 1904. In this problem, the vertical dis-
placement can be expressed by
6.4 ELASTIC HALF-SPACE METHOD

The elastic half-space method idealizes the machine foundation as a (6.1)

vibrating mechanical oscillator with a circular base resting on the surface of
the ground. The ground is assumed to be an elastic, homogeneous, iso- in which
 216
FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES
ELASTIC HALF-SPACE METHOD 217
P, =the magnitude of the oscillating force,
w =forcing frequency (rad/sec) 3. Parabolic
G =the dynamic shear modulus of the medium
r, = radius of the footing (6.6)
f1 and [, = Reissner's displacement functions.

Reissner (1936) observed that the displacement functions t, and /; were

depe~dent on the Poissons' ratiov of the medium and the fre~uenc/ of the Figure 6.3 shows the amplitude frequency response of a typical footing
exc1tmg force. The dimensionless terms were defined by him as follows: for the three types of pressure distribution for b = 5 and v = ~. Parabolic
and uniform pressure distributions produced a higher displacement than a
a = wr /p = wro- 2wfro rigid base. This shows the importance of pressure distribution below the
, oVa v -1.7""" (6.2) base of the footing (Richart and Whitman, 1967). Improvement on com-
and
·' ' puted response can be made if the amplitude response is based upon a
weighted average vertical displacement (Housner and Castellani, 1969). The
b=-=-
m W effect of change in the Poisson's ratio of the elastic half-space on tbe
(6.3) steady-state vibration response of the footing for the case of a rigid base
P r'o Ysro'
in which pressure distribution is shown in Fig. 6.4 (Richart and Whitman, 1967).
The valups of the displacementJunctions, [, andf2 , Eq. (6.1) for values of
ao =dimensionless frequency ratio v = 0.25, 0~33 and 0.5 for tbe ihr"ee types of pressure distribution and for
V, = shear wave velocity a0 = 0 to 1.5 were obtained by Sung (1953b). The amplitude frequency
response for the case of constant force excitation and frequency-dependent
m =mass of the footing (including the mass of the machine)
excitation and for different values of mass ratio b, and for v = 0.25 are
b =mass ratio
shown in Fig. 6.5 (Richart, 1962). Figure 6.5 brings out the effect of mass
y,. = unit weight of soil ratio on the peak response amplitude. A high mass ratio (greater height of
p = unit mass density of soil footing and smaller contact radius) implies a large amplitude of vibration for

It can be seen from Eq. (6.3) that the mass ratio essentially describes the
relatiOn between the mass of the vibrating footing and a certain mass of the
elastic half-space.
Reissners' solution was extended by Quinlan (1953) and Sung (1953a),
both of whom considered the effect of three types of vertical contact
pressures bel?w the base occasioned by an oscillating vertical force. The
pressure distnbutiOns considered were

1. Rigid base
p eiwt
(T = 0

z 27TroVr~-r2 (6.4)

az=O for r>r 0

2. Uniform

(6.5)

Figure 6.3. Effect of pressure distribution on the theoretical response of vertically vibrating
rigid footing (After Richart and Whitman, 1967.)
 ELASTIC HALF-SPACE METHOD 219

a given set of conditions. Another significant point revealed when one

compares Figs. 6.5a and b with Figs. 2.10a and 2.13a is that the general
shapes of the response curves are similar. The curves for the low values of
Rigid mass ratio b correspond with the curves for the high damping ratios. This
b ~ 5 implies that the vertical vibrations of a rigid body on an elastic half-space
~I~ 1.0 are damped. This damping occurs as a result of the energy being dissipated
into the elastic half-space by the elastic waves radiating away from the
vibrating body. This loss of energy is referred to as geometrical damping (see
Fig. 3.14).
The values of the displacement functions, {1 and { 2 , were computed by
Sung on the assumption that the pressure distribution remained unchanged
o~------t;------~------~--
0.5 1.0 1.5 with frequency. Bycroft (1956) evaluated the weighted average of dis,
placements beneath the footing and established displacement functions for
Figure 6.4. Effect of Poisson's rati th . I rigid base pressure distribution (Fig. 6.6). For the static case, a0 is equal to
(After Richart and Whitman, 1967.)o on eorebca response of a vertically vibrating footing.
zero, and f 2 also equals zero, The static displacement, Z,, due to a vertical
load P0 is given by

Vibration amplitude = Az l (6.7a)

b~4o ~4 ~T
1//7/.////7/ Equation (6.7a) helps to define the value of the equivalent spring constant
Po = constant
k, for vertical vibrations as follows:
.;:I~
0 4Gr 0
k, = (1- v) (6.7b)
".Ef
u

"'•
~

..§ 0.3 . . - - - - . . - - - - - , - - - - - - - ,
"-
E
ro 0.3
~
c•
.Q
~
c
•E 0.2 ~
I
0.2
0
<
0.]
"g_
•c
E
,
0
__..;>.._-----.j]/4
0

0 " .___.::::..-c-~:-1112
1.5 0
1.5
114
112
(,)
. ~
;•g~!e 6.5. Ampli~ude versus frequency relations for vertical oscillation of a rigid circular Frequency ratio, ao
oo .;~g ~n an elast~c halfMspace (v = ! ). (a) For constant amplitude of exciting force (b) For Figure 6.6. Displacement functions for a rigid circular footing vibrating vertically on the
exc1 mg orce amphtude dependent on exciting frequency. (After Richart, 1962 .) ·
surface of an elastic half~space. (After Rycroft, 1956.)
218
 220
FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES ELASTIC HALF-SPACE METHOD 221

Hsieh's Analog. The basic solutions of Reissner were modified by Hsieh

in which
(19~2) for the purpose of obtammg an equation for vertical vibrations
simllar to the equation for damped vibrations of a single-degree-of-freedom
system. A ng1d, Circular, weightless disc of radius r resting on the surface of Gro ( -[2 ) r; , 17':. ( - [2 )
(6.12)
0 c. = --;;;-- !'1 + !'2 = -;;- v Gp !'1 + !'2
an elastic half-space was first considered (Fig. 6.7a). This disc was subjected 0
to a vertical oscillating force
and
Q = Qoeh<>~ (6.8)
(6.13)
The vertical displacement is given by

Thus, both c, and k, · are dependent upon a 0 and v. Next Hsieh also
(6.9) considered a rigid cylindrical footing of total weight W placed on the surface
of an elastic half-space and excited by a vertical periodic force P (Fig. 6.7b).
By differentiating Eq. (6.9) with respect to time, one gets The equation of motion of such a system is given by
2
dz wQ eiwt W d z = P- Q
dt = G~ (if; - [,) (6.14)
0
( 6.10) g dt 2
This leads to By substitut1hg Q from Eq. (6.1'i):into Eq. (6.14), one obtains

f 1 wz- f z dz
~
= Qow
Gr
(f'1 +f')e'w' W d z
2
dz P iwt
2 --+ 2 c -+kz=P= e 0
(6.15)
0
g dt ' dt '
or
Equation (6.15), which is known as Hsieh's Analog, illustrates that
= ~~ u; + t~l
0
vertical vibrations of a footing on an elastic half-space can be represented in
terms of an equivalent damped spring-mass model with the difference that
both the spring constant and damping are frequency dependent.
(6.11)
Lysmer's Analog. Lysmer and Richart (1966) proposed a simplified
mass-spring-dashpot analog known as Lysmer's Analog for calculating the
p
response of a rigid circular footing subject to vertical oscillations. They also
defined a new displacement function F as
Q
Weightless
rigid disk 4 .
Block
mass = m
F= - -
1 -v
f= F 1 + tF2 (6.16)

Q The components of F are practically independent of v, as shown in Fig.

G, v, p G, v, p
6.8. Lysmer also defise,d a modified mass ratio as
1-v 1-v m
+z B, = -4- b = -4- - , (6.17)
pro
dz
Q = Czdt + kzz in which B.= modified mass ratio for vertical vibrations. By using the values
Ia) of F and B, Lysmer and Richart (1966) developed the response curves
(b)
shown in Fig. 6.9.
Figu~e 6:7. Parameters in Hsieh's equations. (After Hsieh, 1962. Published by Thomas Telfo d The effect of frequency ratio on the variation in damping and spring
Publications.) r
factors was studied. It was observed that frequency-independent constant
 223
ELASTIC HALF-SPACE METHOD

values of these quantities could be used in the frequency ranges of practical

interest. The spring constant was taken as equal to its static value and is
given by
'
112
t 4Grb
k =--
z 1- v
(6.18)
.;:
I 114
which is same as Eq. ( 6. 7b) and damping could be represented by

""•
c
0
~
0
3 .4r; _ r-:::7"
c.= (1- v) v pG
(6.19)
E
0
u
By using the above values of spring and damping constants and the theory of
vibrations (Chapter 2), natural frequency "'"' is determined as

'V!7S
w = (6.20)
nz T:i
The responss;; curves between the magnification factor, M, and a 0 , shown by
1.0 1.5 the dotted lines in Fig. 6.9 wef<;'.''obtained. These are close to the exact
Dimensionless frequency, a0 solutions obtained with the elastic half-space model. The equation of motion
~ii~~::.~-~~ ~riation of modified displacement function with Poisson's ratio. (After Lysmer and for the Lysmer's Analog may thus be written as
6
3.4r! 4Gr (6.21)
mi + ( _ v)
1
vPGi + (1 _ ~) z = P

The damping ratio ~' is obtained as

3r-----~r------,-------,------~

0 - - Half-space theory

"'G'""'-~
""::;
(v =
1
3}
- - - - Simplified analog

II 2 Bz = 5 or
::;," (6.22)

Resonance occurs only when B, "'0.3, and the following approximate

formulas for resonanct< condition for frequency-independent constant force
excitation were establr~hed:
V, yB,-0.36
w =- (6.23a)
nz ro Bz

2 and
Dimensionless frequency, a 0
(6.23b)
;igure 6·?· ,Response of a rigid circular footing to a vertical force developed by a constant
orce exc1tahon. (After Lysmer and Richart, 1966.)

222
 225
224 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES ELASTIC HALF-SPACE METHOD

w
The amplitude at operating frequency can be obtained by using theory of
7-8v
B x = ~--=---,- -m - 7-8v
32(1- v) pr; - 32(1- v) 'YJ 0
--, (6.25)
vibration [Chapter 2, Eq. (2.44b)]:
P, The dimensionless frequency factor a ox is equal to wr"yprG. The ex-
A = P,
pressions for the equivalent spring and damping factors are as follows: The
' k,V (1- r 2 2
) + (2/j) 2 k,{[1- (wlw,,)']' + (2~,w/w,j}ll 2

equivalent spring
(6.23c)
(6.26)
For a frequency-dependent exciting force, which is normally the case with
forces associated with machine operation, the resonant frequency is given by
and the equivalent damping

(6.24a) _ 18.4(1- v) 2, f::(J (6.27)

ex- 7-Sv ravPv

The maximum vibration amplitude for frequency dependent exciting force is The damping ratio ~x is given by
given by
ex 0.2875 (6.28)
~ =-=--
A = _m_,e c::-::~,;;B~,== X CC ~
(6.24b)
' m 0.85y B,- 0.18
The equation of the analog for sliding is
in which me= unbalanced rotating mass and e =eccentricity _of mass "m "
from the axis of rotation. e
(6.29)
The mass in the above analog is the total mass vibrating on the surface of
the elastic half-space. The shape of the magnification factor M versus a for By comparison with Equations (2.37) and (2.11),
constant force excitation in Fig. 6.9 shows that the peaks at ;esonancea are
relatively flat, and significant damping is associated with the vertical mode of (6.30)
vibration.

The curves for the magnification factors M x versus nondimensional frequen-

Sliding Vibrations of a Footing cy factor aox derived through the elastic half-space solution are compared
As pointed out in Section 6.2, the sliding and rocking vibrations of a rigid with the curves for the analog solution in Fig. 6.10 (Hall, 1967). The flat
peaks on the curves in Fig. 6.10 indicate that the mode of vibration for
block foundation are coupled and occur simultaneously, but for simplicity it
IS necessary to study the cases of pure sliding and rocking vibration first. The
horizontal sliding is also associated with significant damping as in the case of
vertical vibrations. It may be mentioned here that the expressions for sliding
information on natural frequencies of pure rocking and sliding is used to
compute response of foundations undergoing simultaneous rocking and along the y axis are also similar.
shdmg. It Will be shown later that the natural frequency in sliding alone is
very close to the lower natural frequency of combined rocking and sliding. Rocking Vibrations of a Rigid Circular Footing
Arnold et al. (1955) and Bycroft (1956) presented analytical solutions for The problem of pui'b rocking vibrations was analyzed by Arnold et al.
horizontal translation of a rigid circular disc resting on the surface of an (1955) and Bycroft (1956). They assumed that the vertical pressure below
elastic half-space and excited by a horizontal force,,~px = Ptiiwt. Their results
the footing varied according to
were expressed in terms of the dimensionless frequency ratio a and mass
ratio b; the solution was valid for all values of v. In a manne; similar to
(6.31)
Lysmer's solution, Hall (1967) developed an analog between the elastic
half-space solution and an equivalent, damped-spring-mass system.
in which MY is the exciting moment in the ZX plane that causes rotation
Hall's Analog. Hall (1967) defined the modified mass ratio for sliding as
 227
226 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES ElASTIC HAlF-SPACE METHOD

Mysinwt r-"\
Bx = 5
- - Exact solution
---Analog solution - - Exact sqluf1on
---Analog solution

2
:£'
;'l"
"'
c
0 2
"'•u
~
'2
00
•
"

o.sot__L-~L-~-~-~o~.s~-L-~~-L-_L-~-~~k--~~
"''
d' · 1 frequency factor for rocking only of a
Figure 6.11. Ma~nification f~ctorlvfersus l(~~ns•o~a~~s 1967. © 1968 The University of New
rigid circular footmg on elastic ha -space. er '
a~
Mexico Press.)

Figure 6.1 0. Response of a rigid circular footing on an elastic half space for pure sliding. (After
Hall, 1967. © 1968 The University of New Mexico Press.) · . ring-dashpot model that
Hall (1967) proposed an eqmva1ent mass-sp . . . . he
could be used to evaluate the response of a rockmg ngtd footmg ond t b
surface of an elastic half-space. His analog for rockmg ts represente y
about tbe Y axis, and cf> is the angle of rotation. Figure 6.11 illustrates the (6.33)
geometry of the problem and sbows a plot of the magnification factor, M 1
vs. dimensionless frequency factor ao.P for different values of the inertia ratio
B 1 (analogous to mass ratio in case of translation.) The inertia ratio Bq, is in which
defined as
kq, =spring constant for rocking
B = 3( 1 - V) _M_mo = ~ _M-"'m"'-o('--1_-_v-'-) cq, =damping constant
" 8
5
pr o 8 'Y, 5
(6.32) .,,
-r
g 0 The terms k• and c• c;n be computed as follows:
8Gr~ (6.34a)
in which Mmo is the mass moment of inertia of the foundation and machine
about the axis of rotation (in this case they axis, not shown). kq, = 3(1- v)
It may be seen in Fig. 6.11 that the response curves are characterized by
relatively sharp peaks compared to the case of vertical vibrations. Hence and
smaller damping is associated with the rocking mode of vibration (see Fig. (6.34b)
4.40). Cq, = (1- v)(1 + B 4J
 229
228 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES ELASTIC HALF-SPACE METHOD

For critical damping,

(6.35)

and the damping ratio for rocking l;q, is given by

(; = ,S;_ = 0.15 (6.36)

1
c1" (l+B,p)VB:;
The undamped natural frequency of rocking wn<P is given by

Wn<P ={If. mo
(6.37)

The analog solution is shown in Fig. 6.11 by dotted lines along with the
elastic half-space solution and is in rather close agreement with it.

Torsional Vibrations of a Rigid Circular Footing 0

br:fifiro
Gof=~
The problem of torsional vibrations (rotation about the Z axis) of a
circular footing resting on the surface of an elastic half-space was analyzed • . 1 f nc factor at resonance for torsional
by Reissner (1937) and Reissner and Sagoci (1944). The horizontal dis- Figure. 6.12. lnert~ahratioHv~rsusd ~:~:·o~~i~ra;~~~eof ~oils and Foundations,"© 1970, P·
vibrations (After RIC art, a an I d crff N Jersey)
placement in the case of a rigid footing varies linearly from the axis of 215. Repr.inted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Englewoo ' s, ew .
rotation as shown in Fig. 6.12. The inertia ratio, s., for this case may be
defined as

The undamped natural frequency wn.; of the torsional vibrations is given by

(6.38)

(6.41a)
in which Mm, =polar mass moment of inertia of the footing around the
vertical axis of rotation. The analog solution for the case of torsional
vibrations may be expressed as follows (Richart et al. 1970): The amplitude of vibrations A'' is given by
(6.39)
(6.41b)
in which tf; = angular rotation of the footing around the vertical axis of
k~, =equivalent soil
rotation, c"' =damping constant for torsional vibratit?ns,
spring constant for torsional vibrations, and M,e'w' =horizontal exciting
moment acting about the Z axis. The spring constant k 1, and the damping in which the damping ratio (; 1• is given by
constant c 1, are given by (Richart and Whitman, 1967)
0.5 (6.42)
16 I; =
k,, = 3
3
Gro ( 6.40a) " (1 + 2B,1.)
effective damping in case of
1.6r~y'Gp As in the case for rocking vibrations, t he
c1, = 1 + B,,, {6.40b) torsional vibrations is small (see Fig. 4.40).
230 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES ELASTIC HALF-SPACE METHOD 231

Coupled Rocking and Sliding Vibrations of a Rigid Circular Footing Equation (6.43) max then be written as
It has already been. stated (Section 6.2) that either rocking or sliding (6.45)
Rx = cxi + kxx- Lex¢- Lkxcf> = 0
alo~e IS an tdeal condttton. In actuahty, the motion of a footing excited by a
honzontal force or a vertical moment involves both rocking and sliding.
Similarly, the moment M R, which represents the moment due to the
Figure 6.13 tllustrates the conditions of a rigid circular footing that rests on
the surface of an elastic half-space and is excited by a vertical moment, resistance of the elastic half-space, may be written as
M,(t) = M,e'w' and a horizontal force Px(t) = Pxe'w' acting at its center of ( 6.46)
gravity. Let the footing's center of gravity lie on the vertical axis which
passes through the center of the circular base, at a height L above the
surface of the half-space. The motion of the footing may be expressed in The equation of motion for sliding is
terms of the translation of the center of gravity x and the rotation angle q,. (6.47)
The equation of motion may be obtained by considering the limiting
eqmhbnum of the exciting and resisting forces and moments in terms of
Newton's Second Law. The horizontal resisting forceR at the base is given arid rocking
by X
( 6.48)
(6.43)
in which M m us the mass momentp.frinertia of the foundation about an axis
in which X0 =displacement at the base and is given by that passes through the system's center of gravity and perpendicular to the
xo =X- Lcf> (6.44) plane of vibrations.
By substituting MR and Rx from Eqs. (6.46) and (6.45), respectively, in
Eq. (6.48), one obtains

+ •

}i" +x
Equations (6.47) and (6.49) demonstrate that coupling of the two mo-
tions, i.e. sliding and rocking, takes place because the center of gravity of
~+Px (b)
the footing and the point at which the horizontal reactive force R x of the
elastic half-space is applied are not the same. If L equals zero, there is no
coupling effect, and sliding and rocking are independent. Particular solu-
tions of Eqs. (6.47) aud (6.49) may be obtained by substituting

•
1-1
(a)

I I 'N
• (6.50a)
I I I I r- I I
I
7 I 11 'I J(-- and
/~ I
I I ~ I + 0 (6.50b)
l_ I! ! .~ l

llr-
r
'/
~Fx
-A'r£0
X
0 I in wbich A and B are arbitrary constants.
When a footing rests on an elastic half-space, the values of both the
1: spring constant and damping coefficients are frequency dependent and must
(c) be calculated at any given frequency before the above equations can be
Figure 6.13. Coupled rocking and sliding vibrations of a rigid circular block on an elastic solved. However, if the spring constant and damping are assumed to have a
halfMspace. (After Richart and Whitman, 1967.) frequency independent constant value as in the case of analog solutions for
 232
FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES ELASTIC HALF-SPACE METHOD 233

sliding a~d rocking, Eqs. ( 6.47) and ( 6.49) can be easily solved. The natural w, 1 and w, 2 are the two natural frequencies of the soil-foundation system
freq~encws of coupled rocking and sliding are obtained by making the undergoing vibrations due to combined rocking and sliding. The rocking and
forcmg functiOns Px · e'w' and M/w' in Eqs. (6.47) and Eq. (6.49) e ual to sliding may be in-phase or out-of-phase depending on the value of operating
zero. Th1s leads to: q frequency w and the two natural frequencies w, 1 and w, 2 • This point is
discussed in detail in Section 6.7.
( 6.5la) Damped amplitudes of rocking and sliding occasioned by an exciting
moment MY can be cbtained as follows:
and
_ _M Y [(w2nx )2 + (2<Sx wnx )'JL12
A - 2 (6.55a)
x M, A(w )
(6.51b)
By substituting Eqs. (6.50a,b) into Eqs. (6.51a,b) and rearranging the (6.55b)
terms, the frequency equat10n IS obtamed as given below (Prakash and Puri
1980, 1981b) '
The value of A(w 2 ) is obtained from Eq. (6.56)
4 _ 2
w2
n</>
+ (I) nx
2
_
4< <
Sx S<f> Wnx (t)n</>)
2
W nx W n<f>]
2 2
[ wnd w,d ( + ~~""""""
y y y
+4[~xwnxwnd (w2 -w2 )+ ~q,W,q,W,d ( 2- 2 ]2-
'Y rt<f> nd y (t)I!X (l)nd) -0

(6.52)
in which
Damped amplitudes of rocking and sliding occasioned by a horizontal force
Px are given by Eq. 6.57(a,b)
( 6.53)
px
Ax=-M
w,d = damped natural frequency in coupled rocking and sliding. m m
~x = damping ratio for sliding vibrations
1;1 = damping ratio for rocking vibrations

If ~x= {;1 = 0, that is, when there is no damping in the system then Eq.
(6.52) reduces to ' and
2 2 2 2

w,
4-
w,
2 Wnx + Wnq,) + W,xwn1>
= 0 (6.57b)
(
y y (6.54a)

in which w, is the undamped natural frequency o"r the system. In case the footing is subjected to the action of a moment and a
Because the effect of damping on natural frequency is small one may horizontal force, the resulting amplitudes of sliding and rocking may be
calculate the undamped natural frequency for coupled rocking and sliding by obtained by adding the corresponding solutions from Eqs. (6.55) and (6.57).
usmg Eq. (6.54a). Solving Eq. (6.54a) as a quadratic in w~, we get Rigorous solutions for Eqs. (6.47) and (6.49) can be obtained for both
elastic half-space and Halls' analog by using numerical techniques on a
1
w2 = _ [w 2 + (J)n<fl
2 ) + , /( 2 + 2 )2 2 2 high-speed digital computer. .For numerical solutions, frequency-dependent
nJ,2 2y /IX - v {J)ntf, -4ywncf>(l)Nx] {J)/JX
(6.54b) stiffness and damping can also be considered.
234 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES 235
EFFECT OF FOOTING SHAPE ON VIBRATORY RESPONSE

So far in our discussion, we assumed that the footing has a circular

contact area. Mostly the footings are either rectangular or square. We will
now consider the effect of footing shape of its dynamic response.
0.16

6.5 EFFECT OF FOOTING SHAPE ON VIBRATORY RESPONSE ~

0.12
I
5
The natural frequency of a footing is influenced by its shape. Elastic 0.08 ..........
half-space theory was developed for an oscillator with a circular contact "" -(2 ..............................
area. Its applicability to footings of rectangular and square base areas has
- - - Elorduy et ~1:-~igid rectangular}-._ 1
also been investigated. - - - - Bycroft-R1g1d c1rcular v - 4
The problem involving vertical oscillations of a rigid, rectangular footing --Sung-Rigid circular

on the surface of an elastic half-space was analyzed by Sung (1953b), who 1.0 1.5
0.5
used the earlier solution of Lamb (1904). Kobori (1962) and Thomson and
Kobori (1963) obtained the displacement functions, [ 1 and / 2 for the
displacement at the center of a uniformly loaded rectangular surface area.
Elorduy et al. (1967) obtained solutions (in terms of the displacement 0.24 ~------,-------,-------,
functions f 1 and / 2 ) for vertically vibrating rectangular (alb= 2) and square
'0 ·''>
(alb= 1) footings resting on the surface of elastic half-space for a typical
case of v = ! and compared them with the solutions of Sung (1953a) and " ~"(I" -~---~
Bycroft (1956), who based their calculations on an equivalent circular area.
Their solutions are shown in Fig. 6.14 for the cases of square and rectan-
gular footings, respectively. Because these displacement functions are prac-
'\; 'Y-;:~--
:-"\
/

~12
ea/2
o/2
~
tically the same, it is acceptable to use solutions of a rigid circular base I
having an area equivalent to a given square or rectangular contact area for 0 0.12 ', " b/2 +
alb up to 2.0 for approximate response calculations. Similarly, for rocking < '\ ~ Rectangle
'- ' a
or torsional vibrations of rectangular or square footings, one may compute -fz '- '-' - ~ 2
an equivalent radius of a circular footing so that the moment of inertia of ' b
the given footing about the axis of rotation is the same as that of an '
equivalent circular footing about the same axis. Thus, the equivalent radius
ro, may be calculated as follows:
For translation along the Z, X, or Y axis, 0 0.5 1.0 1.5

( 6.58a) (b)

Fi ure 6 .14. Displacement functions for vertical. vibration. of rigid squar~ an~ rectangular
For rocking about Y or X axis, fo!tings. (After Richart, Halk and Woods, 11 Vibrat1ons of Sm~s and Foundations, © 1970, P·
212. Reprinted by permission'-of Prentice-Hall, Englewood Chffs, New Jersey.)
11
ba') '
(6.58b)
roo/= ro = ( 37T
in which
For torsional vibrations about Z axis, b = width of the foundation (parallel to the axis of rotation for rocking)
and
r
o
=r =(ab(a'61T+ b') )II'= (21")11'
ol)t 1T
(6.58c)
a = length of the foundation (perpendicular to the axis of rotation for
rocking).

236 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES
For footings with length to width ratios greater than 6, an ideal two-
dimensional condition can be assumed and the footings treated as strip
footings which can be analyzed by applying Quinlan's (1953) method.
The above discussion implies that a footing of any shape whether it is a
circle or a rectangle, will respond similarly as long as the areas of the
footings are the same. A footing having an area of 8.0 m 2 will have an
equivalent radius of 1.6 m for translational oscillations regardless of its
shape, which may be a circle with a diameter of 3.2 m or a rectangle with
length of width ratio of 4.0. However, the actual response of these two
footings may not be the same.
It has been found that two footings of different shapes will not behave
identically, even though the equivalent radius based upon equal areas for
translational modes are the same (Chae, 1969). In an accurate analysis,
footing shape must be taken into account. Based upon his experimental
observations (Chae, 1969) suggested that the concept of equivalent circular
areas may be used to predict natural frequencies but that the perimeter
characteristics should be taken into account for reasonable predictions of the
amplitudes.
The problem of vertical vibrations of rectangular footings has also been
studied by Dasgupta and Rao (1978), who used a three-dimensional finite
element model and three different vertical pressure distributions at the
footing soil interface. However, their model is too complex for the design of
ordinary machine foundations. Besides, no comparison with actual obser-
vations has been reported.
It is a common practice to transform area of any shape to an equivalent
circle of same area (for translational modes) or equivalent moment of inertia
(for rocking or torsional modes) (Richart and Whitman, 1967; Whitman and
Richart, 1967). Dobry and Gazetas (1986) and Dobry et a!. (1986) have
suggested that this procedure of using the concept of equivalent radius has
limitations and the foundation shape defined by the aspect ratio a/ b has a
significant influence on dynamic stiffness and damping values, especially in
cases of long foundations.
6.6 VIBRATIONS OF A RIGID CIRCULAR FOOTING SUPPORTED BY
AN ELASTIC LAYER
In elastic half-space theory it is assumed that the medium 'is homoge-
neous. Actual soil deposits are layered and in certairi" cases, the response of
a footing may be affected by the stiffness or rigidity of underlying layers of
soil. The problem of a vibrating footing on a layered medium has received
the attention of several investigators (Reissner, 1937; Warburton, 1957;
Arnold eta!., 1955; Bycroft, 1956). It is assumed that the footing rests on
the surface of an isotropic, homogeneous, elastic material of thickness H
that extends to infinity horizontally. This layer rests on a semi-infinite body
of infinite rigidity.
237
VIBRATIONS OF A RIGID CIRCULAR FOOTING
Vertical Vibrations
Bycroft (1956) considered the problem of a vertically vibrating rigid
circular footing resting on an elastic layer. He. assum~d a ngtd~base-type
distribution of vertical pressure below the footmg (this assumption IS not
strictly correct) and computed values of average static_ displacement for
different values of layer thickness ratio Hlr 0 in which HIS the th1ckness of
the elastic layer as shown in Fig. 6.15. The values of the ratiO of average
static displacement (Z,li for the layered case, to the value of a stahc
displacement (Z,)~ when H-'>oo (elastic half-space) and the Hlro ratiO are
plotted in Fig. 6.15. The values of the ratio of a spnng coeffiCient (k,), for
the layered case, to the value of (k,)" for the elastic half-space, versus the
H f r value are also plotted in the same figure. Th1s figure shows clearly the
stiff~ning effect that an underlying rigid layer has on the vertlcal m~twn of a
footing, which is obvious from the reduced statlc displacement and mc~eased
spring coefficient. For large values of H/r 0 (>4), the hehavwr approx1mates
that of a footing on an elastic half-space. For lower values of H fro ( <1), the
motion is signijicantly affected by the stiffness of the_ underlymg ng1d layer.
Bycroft (1956fconsidered the case of.a weightless ng1d Clfcular d1sc (B, :" 0)
resting on the surface of a half-space, and Warburton (1957) _obtamed
solutions for the case of B, > 0. Both of them noted that amphtudes of
motion become infinite at resonance for the case of B 2 equal to zero. Th1s
occurs because of the resonance of the layer itself , which acts as a column
\ (kz)I,;,,I~ (kz}o;, = 4Gr0
Y...... __(k,)oo ' (I - ,)
0,2
------------
OL__L__j2___L__4L_~--~6~-L--~8~_L~~~--~~~
H
'o'
Figure 6.15. Static displacement and spring constant for vertical loading of a rigid circular
footing on an elastic layer (After Rycroft, 1956.)
238 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES 239
VIBRATIONS Of A RIGID CIRCULAR FOOTING

of elastic material fixed at the base, free at the top, and restrained against
lateral deformations on the side. In this condition, it behaves like a rod of
elastic material. The conditions involving the vibrations of such a column of
soil have already been discussed in Chapter 3 (Section 3.1). Vibrations in
higher modes are possible for such a case. For a footing which has a certain
weight in which B, > 0, the amplitudes are finite at resonance, but are
amplified by the underlying hard layer. The increase in amplitude at
resonance occurs because the underlying hard layer obstructs the transmis-
sion of the wave energy away from the vibrating footing and reflects back a
part of this energy into the layer. This results in reduced geometrical
damping. The energy is finally dissipated by transmission in a horizontal
direction. Kuhlemeyer (1969) discussed the transmission of wave energy
into a layered medium. An estimate of the amplitude magnification at
resonance for a vertically vibrating footing on anelastic layer is given in
Table 6.1. The magnification factor, ML in Table 6.1 is defined as
( 6.59)
in which (Z,) 1 =dynamic amplitude of the elastic layer and (Z,)oo =static
deflection (elastic half-space). The term (Z,)oo is given by
(Z) = (1- v)P, (6.60)
s oo 4Gro
It may be noted here tbat a hard rock underlying a relatively thin layer of
elastic soil may cause large amplification of the vertical amplitudes because
of the reflection of energy back into the soil. Special care must be taken m
the design of a machine foundation for such a case.
Torsional Vibrations
The problem of torsional vibrations of a rigid circular footing on an
elastic layer overlying a rigid layer was investigated by Re1ssner (1937),
Arnold et al. (1955) and Bycroft (1956).
The results provided by Bycroft (1956) on B, vs. a0 for different values of
H/r are shown in Fig. 6.16. Based upon model tests as well as theoretiCal
inve~tigations, Arnold et al. (1955) observed that as the. elastic layer
becomes thinner in comparison with the radius of the footmg, effective
damping is decreased and is less than that for a torsionally vibrating footing
on an elastic half-space. Bycroft (1956) demonstrated that as the H/ro
becomes sm}tller, the natural fr$quency of the torsional vibrations ap-
proaches the natural frequency of ''rod of radius r o and length H v1bratmg
in torsion as a column fixed at the base and free at the top. Cases of
torsional vibration of such columns have been discussed in Chapter 3
(Section 3.1).

By using the magnification factors given in Table 6.1 for an appropriate

value of b, the amplitude at resonance can be computed by using Eqs.
(6.59) and (6.60).

Table 6.1. Magnification Factors for Vertical Vibration of

Rigid Circular Footing Supported by an Elastic Layer
(v = l)
ML for
H Rigid
b=O b=5 b = 10 b =20 b =30
ro
1 00 5.8 11.4 20.5 28.9
2 00 8.0 16.1 30.6 40.8
3 00 4.7 9.5 23:7 36.0
4 00 3.4 5.9 15.6 27.9
00 1 1.21 1.60 2.22 2.72

Source: Richart, Hall, and Woods, "Vibrations of Soils and

Foundations," © 1970, p. 234. Reprinted by permission of
""•
figure 6.16. lntertia ratio vs. dimensionless frequency at resonance for torsional vibrations of
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. a rigid circular footing on an elastic layer. (After Rycroft, 1956.)
 240 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES LINEAR ELASTIC WEIGHTLESS SPRING METHOD 241

6.7 LINEAR ELASTIC WEIGHTLESS SPRING METHOD

The linear elastic weightless spring method is sometimes used for analysis
t P, sin wt Pz sin wt

of machine foundations and utilizes the concept that the displacement of a m m

loaded foundation resting on the surface of a soil can be determined by
simulating the soil with a set of independent linear elastic springs that can /
produce equivalent reactive forces to the displacements developed. This Ia I
concept commonly known as the elastic subgrade reaction theory has been
described by Hayashi (1921), Heteyni (1946), and Terzaghi (1943, 1955). (b)
The idea of using elastic springs was extensively developed by Barkan
(1962) for the purpose of predicting the dynamic response of machine
foundations. His concept is based upon the following simplifying as- Pz sin wt
sumptions:

1. The foundation block is infinitely rigid compared with the soil. m

2. The soil underlying the foundation is weightless.

3. The soil can be simulated by linear elastic springs.
4. Damping in the soil beneath a foundation may be neglected.
5. The foundation is resting on the surface of the soil.

These assumptions make it possible to represent the foundation-soil lei

system with an equivalent mass-spring system in which the mass represents figure 6.17. Vertical vibrations of a rigid block: (a) actual case, (b) soil replaced by equivalent
the foundation and machine, and the spring represents the elasticity of the spring kz, and (c) equivalent model.
soil. The methods for determining the elastic soil springs for different modes
of vibration have already been discussed in Chapter 4 (Section 4.4).
of a vibrating centered mass that rests on a spring, and the theory. of
vibrations for an undamped single-degree-of-freedom system can be applied
Vertical Vibrations (Section 2.3). The equation of motion for the system in forced vtbrat10n ts
For the purpose of computation, consider a situation in which a foun- therefore written as (neglecting damping m Sect10n 2.5)
dation block rests on the surface of the ground and is excited by the vertical
unbalanced force P,(t) generated by the operation of a machine (Fig. ( 6.61)
6.17a). Let the unbalanced force be represented by
in which
P,(t) = P, sin wt
m = mass of the foundation and the machine
and the idealized equivalent spring-mass system by Fig. 6.17b. If the center z = vertical displacement of the foundation with respect to equilibrium
of gravity of the foundation and machine and the centroid of the base area position; ~::
of the foundation in contact with the soil lie on f vertical line that coincides
with the line of action of the exciting force P,, then the foundation will
.
k =equivalent spring constant of the soil
. for vertical vibrations;
w =frequency of operation of the machme.
vibrate vertically only. Because the foundation block is assumed to be rigid,
its displacement may be defined by the displacement of its center of gravity, It is shown in Chapter 4 (Section 4.4) that the value of k, can be
and the vibrating mass may therefore be considered to be a concentrated determined from
point mass. This assumption justifies the model shown in Fig. 6.17c. The
problem of a vertically vibrating foundation is thus reduced to the analysis k, = C,A ( 4.27)
 242 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES LINEAR ElASTIC WEIGHTlESS SPRING METHOD 243

in which Px sin wt Px sin wt

A = area of contact of the foundation with the soil.

Equation (6.61) may thus be written as

(6.62)
Therefore, the natural frequency of a vertically vibrating system is given by

c A]'/2
wnz = [ ~ rad/sec (6.63a)
or
lei

/,
nz
=- 1 [cmA]'
27T -"-
1
'
Hz (6.63b)
Figure 6.18. Block foundation that slides only, and its equivalent model.

in which
Therefore, Eq. (6.65a) may be written as
w," =The circular natural frequency (undamped) of the soil foundation
system in vertical vibration (rad/sec); mi + c·';tf =
;
PX sin wt (6.65b)
f"' =Natural frequency of vertical vibrations (Hz)
The frequency of sliding vibrations of the system is
The amplitude of the vertical vibrations A, is given by
(CA)
112
wnx = -'- rad/sec (6.66a)
A = _P_,'-,;Csi::::n_w~t~ m
, m( Wnz 2 _ z) (6.64a)
W

or the maximum amplitude of motion is given hy or /,

nx
=-
1 (C,A)
27T m
--
112
Hz (6.66h)

(6.64b) in which

Sliding Vibrations
wnx =The circular natural frequency of the sliding vibrations in radians/
sec and
Consider a horizontal unbalanced force, Px(t) = Px sin wt, to act on a /,nx =The natural frequency of the sliding vibrations in cycles/sec or Hz.
block foundation as illustrated in Fig. 6.18. The vibrations of the foundation
in this case are analogous to vertical vibrations and may be expressed in The amplitude of the sliding vibrations is given by
terms of Eq. (6.65a):
px
A = , z (6.67)
(6.65a) x m(w nx - w )
in which
The expressions for frequency and amplitude in sliding are thus similar to
x =sliding displacement of the foundation, from its equilibrium position; the expressions for vertical vibrations.
and
A =the base area of the foundation; and
Rocking Vibrations
kx =the equivalent spring constant of the soil in sliding; and is given by
Consider now only the rocking vibrations induced in a fo~ndati?n bl~ck
(4.28b) · · moment M Y (t) • Here , M y (t) = M y sm wt m whtch
by an externally excttmg
 245
244 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES LINEAR ELASTIC WEIGHTLESS SPRING METHOD

M, denotes the moment acting in the XZ plane (Fig. 6.19a). The footing is Because the displacement angle cf> is small, tan cf> = cf> in radians and the
symmetrical about the Y axis, and the center of mass of the foundation and moment
the machine and the centroid of the base area lie on a vertical line and in the
(6.70)
plane of the moment. The displaced position of the foundation is shown in
Fig. 6.19a, and its rotation is cf>. The equation of motion may be obtained by
applying Newton's second law of motion as explained below. in which

1. Moment M; occasioned by the inertia of the foundation is given by L = the distance between the center of gravity and the axis of rotation,
and
M=-M
1
;;..
mo<f-' (6.68) W =the weight of the foundation.
in which
Mmo is the moment of inertia of the mass of the foundation and machine 3. Moment MR occasioned by the soil reaction.
with respect to the axis of rotation. Consider an element dA of the foundation area in contact with the soil and
2. Moment Mw occasioned by the displaced position of the center of located at a distance l from the axis of rotation (Fig. 6.19b). The soil
gravity of the foundation is given by reaction depends upon the displacement at the point under consideration
and varies from zero at the center of rotation to a maximum value at the
Mw = WL tan cf> (6.69) edge of the fo9ting. The soil reaction over the elementary area dA is given
by r,- ,,/"
dR = c.zq, dA (6.71)

in which
C =the coefficient of elastic nonuniform compression. The reactive
" moment dM R occasioned by the soil reaction dR is given by
Initial position
2
dMR = ldR = -C,I c/> dA
Displaced position
If the foundation does not lose contact with the soil, then the soil reaction
will be as shown in Fig. 6.19b, and the total reactive moment MR against the
foundation area in contact with the soil is given by

(a)
MR =- r c,/cf> dA =- c.q, I I' dA = - c,)cf> (6.72)

in which I is the moment of inertia of the foundation area in contact with the
I" soil with respect to the axis of rotation.
"~(

4. The exciting moment My(t) = M, sin wt. The equation of motion may
therefore be written as

- Mm,;j, + WLcf>- C"lcf> + M, sin wt = 0

(b)
or
Figure 6.19. Rocking vibrations of a rigid block: (a) Block under excitation due to an applied (6.73)
moment (b) Soil reaction below the base.
 246
FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES LINEAR ELASTIC WEIGHTLESS SPRING METHOD 247

The natural frequency of the system is given by

in which h is the height of the point above the base where amplitude is to be
determined. It may be further noted that for a footing that rocks about Y
C I- W£)112
wn</> = ( "'M rad/sec (6.74a) axis and has dimensions, a and b along the X and Y axis, respectively, I is
mo given by
or ba 3
1=- (6.79)
12
_ 1 (C1 I-WL)';'
fn</>- Z1r M Hz (6.74b) The response of the footing to rocking is thus affected by the dimension of
mo
the footing perpendicular to the axis of vibration, and this principle may be
in which used to an advantage in proportioning the foundations undergoing rocking
vibrations.
w"'" =circular natural frequency of rocking vibrations (rad/sec) Rocking vibrations occur mostly in machines that are mounted on high
fn</> =natural frequency (Hz) pedestals and have unbalanced horizontal forces and exciting moments.

In Eq. (6.74a,b), the value of WL is negligible compared to the value of c I Torsional (Yawing) Vibrations
and may be neglected. This leads to "'
A foundation is excited in torsional vibration when it is acted upon by a
w
n</>
=(C•I)II'
M (6.74c)
horizontal moment, M,(t) = M,.,.~in wt, around the vertical axis that passes
through the center of gravity of"ihe foundation, and the position of the
mo foundation at any time may be defined in terms of the angle of rotation </J.
By comparing Eq. (6.73) with Eq. (6.61), and neglecting WL one obtains The horizontal displacement at the base will vary according to the
distance from the vertical axis of rotation (Fig. 6.20), and the resistance of
k1 = c1 I (6.75)
in which z
k </> = Equivalent spring for rocking vibrations.
Mz sin wt

The amplitude of rocking vibrations A is given by

1

A = MY
</> Mmo(w~</>- w 2 ) (6.76) X

Th~ effect of ro~king is to increase the amplitudes of the vertical and

honzontal vtbratmns. The maximum amplitude of vertical t"
mo !On oc-
y
castoned by rocking is given by (a) lsometeric view

(6.77)

in which a. is the dimension of the footing perpendicular to the axis of

rotatmn. Stmtbriy, the contribution of rocking, towards the horizontal
amphtudes ts given by A x)
(b) Plan

Figure 6.20. Torsional vibrations of rigid block: (a) Block subjected to horizontal moment. (b)
(6.78) Development of nonuniform shear below the base.
248 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES 249
liNEAR ELASTIC WEIGHTLESS SPRING METHOD

the soil will thus be a nonuniform shear, which may be defined in terms of a
coefficient of elastic nonuniform shear C1,. As for rocking vibrations, the
equation of motion for torsional vibrations may be expressed as
(6.80)
in which
M m< = mass moment of inertia of the machine and foundation about the
vertical axis of rotation (polar mass moment of inertia) and
J" =the polar moment of inertia of the foundation's base area.
The natural frequency of the torsional vibrations is given by
assumed that the center of gravity of the machine and foundation and
centroid of the foundation base area are located on a vertical axis. Figure
6.21 shows a foundation that is excited by the following forces and mo-
ments , referred to the combined center of gravity of the foundation and the
macQ.ine:
1. Vertical force, P"(t) = P" sin wt,
2. Horizontal force, PJt) = P, sin wt, and
3. Moment, My(t) =MY sin wt
If the origin of coordinates is located at the center of gravity, 0, the
following displacements of the foundation need to be considered (Fig. 6.21):

1. Displacement in the vertical direction z,

(6.81a) 2. Displacement in the horizontal direction x 0 at the base and
or 3. Rotation of the base </>

1 ( cM"' J' ) 112 Hz The equatio~~ of motion referrecf't6 the center of gravity may be written by
!,,< = -2 (6.81b) applying d'Alemberts principle as follows:
71" m<

By comparing Eq. (6.80) with the equation of motion of a vertically -mi + Z,=O (6.85)
vibrating footing [Eq. (6.61)], one finds that the spring constant for torsional -mi+X,=O (6.86)
vibrations (non-uniform shear conditions at the base) is given by
-Mm'¥
-"+M=O
1
(6.87)
(6.82)
in which
The amplitude of torsional vibrations, A • is given by

M"
A,,= M ( 2 2) ( 6.83)
mz WmJ!- W

and the horizontal displacement A;, occasioned by torsion by

Initial position
Ah = rA,1, (6.84) Displaced position

in which

r = horizontal distance of the point on the foundation from the axis of

yawing
_l__
•
Vibrations Accompanied by Simultaneous Rocking, Sliding, and Vertical
Displacement
In ?'ost situa~ions, a machine foundation will simultaneously slide, rock, Figure 6.21. Block subjected to the action of simultaneous vertical P"(t), horizontal P,..(t)
and VIbrate vertically under the action of corresponding exciting forces. It is forces and moment Mr(t).
250
FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES LINEAR ELASTIC WEIGHTLESS SPRING METHOD 251

Z, =projection of all external forces acting on the foundation on the z (6.93)

axis '
X,= pr?jection of all external forces acting on the foundation, on the X 6. Moment M 2 occasioned by the horizontal soil reaction x 1 is given by
aXIS

M, = sum of all external moments acting on the foundation and lying on M 2 = C,AL(x ~ L</>) ( 6. 94)
the XZ plane, and
M m = mass moment of inertia of the machine and foundation about an 7. Moment Mn occasioned by the soil resistance [as in Eq. (6.72)]
axis passing through combined center of gravity and perpendicular
to the plane of vibrations. ( 6. 95)

At any time t, the following forces will act on the foundation: By substituting the value of the forces and moments in Eqs. (6.85) to
(6.87), one obtains
l. Weight W of the foundation and machine. Projection on the X axis
equals zero and on the Z axis equals Z 1 = ~ W. . mi + C.Az = P,(t) (6.96)
2. Soil reaction z,
occasioned by settlement of the foundation under the mx + C,Ax ~ C,AL</> = Px(t) (6.97)
action of tbe static weight W:
Mm¢ ~ c,ALx + (C•I ~ WL + C,AL )</> = My(t) 2
( 6.98)
·;!c·'·:~
( 6.88) Equation (6.96) contains only the terms of z, and in no way depends upon
in which Eqs. (6.97) and (6.98). Hence it follows that the vertical vibrations of the
foundation occur independently of any other motion. Equations (6.97) and
(6.98) contain both x and q, and are interdependent. Therefore, sliding and
z" =elastic settlement caused by the weight of the foundation and
machine rocking are coupled modes. Because the vertical vibrations of a foundation
occur independently of any other vibrations, the treatment given earlier in
A = the area of the foundation
this article for vertical vibrations will hold in the present case also. A
solution for simultaneous rocking and sliding vibrations will now be ob-
3. Soil reaction Z 3 at any time t occasioned by the displacement z of the
tained.
foundatwn measured from the equilibrium position is given by
Natural Frequencies of Coupled Rocking and Sliding. The system that is
( 6.89) considered here is a two-degree-of-freedom system. The solutions for natur-
4. Horizontal soil reaction X 1 at the base is
al frequencies are obtained by considering the free vibrations of the system,
and, therefore, the forcing functions in Equations (6.97) and (6.98), may be
replaced by zero. From this, one obtains
(6.90)
in which X0 is given by ( 6.99)

and
X 0 =X~ L</> (6.91) 'ii'J:.
Mm¢ ~ C,ALx + (C4,I ~ WL + C,AL 2 )</> = 0 (6.100)
in which x =horizontal displacement of the center of gravity. By
substituting this value of X 0 in Eq. 6.90 one obtains Particular solutions of these equations may be assumed to be

X,=~ C,A(x ~ L¢) (6.92) X= X sin (w t +a)

0
(6.101)

5. Moment M 1 occasioned by the displacement of the center of gravity of and

the foundatwn-machme-system is given by
<P = <P sin (w 0 t +a) (6.102)
 252
FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES
LINEAR ELASTIC WEIGHTLESS SPRING METHOD 253

!n ';hich Xd: <1> and " are arbitrary constants whose values depend upon the
mttta1 con thons of motion.
W
w'[( C•/-M WL) + C,A(MmM+ mL
4 _
""
2
)
+ m
C,A ( C.;I-
Mm
WL)J =
0
. Bdy substituting Eqs. (6.101) and (6.102) into eqs. {6.99) and (6.100) and m m m
d 1v1 mg by sm (w, t + "), one obtains (6.109)
2
-mw,X + C,AX- C AL<P = 0 By definition, the quantity (Mm + mL 2 ) is the mass moment of inertia of the
' foundation and machine about an axis that passes through the centroid of
or the base contact area and is perpendicular to the plane of vibrations. This is
denoted by Mmo. Thus,
X(C,A- mw!)- C,AL<P = 0 (6.103) (6.110a)
and
Further, by letting
Mm
-- = y where 1 > y > 0 (6.110b)
Mmo
or
Equation (6.109) may be rewritten as
2
-C,ALX+<P(C,AL +Crb 1-WL-MmWn')=0 (6.104)
(6.111)
From Eq. (6.103),

X= C,AL<P However,
C,.A- mw~ (6.105)
C,A 2
----;;;:-- = W nx (6.66a)
By substituting the value of X from Eq. (6.105) into E (
obtains q. 6.104), ooe
and

<1>[-c;A'L'+(C.;l-WL+CAL'-M w n2 )(CA- ')]-O C.; I- WL 2

r m 7 mwn - = wn<l> (6.74a)
Mmo
(6.106)
By making these substitutions, Eq. (6.111) may be written as
For a nhontrivial solution, <1> cannot be zero. Hence the expression within the
parent eses must be zero. This leads to 2 + 2 2 2
4
wn-
(wnx wll</:>) wn2 + wnxwn<f>
=0 ( 6.112)
'Y 'Y

Equation (6.112) is known as the frequency equation for combined rocking

(6.107)
and sliding and is the same as Eq. (6.54a). This equation has two positive
Th~ term w,: which represents the natural frequency in combined sliding roots, w 111 and W 112 , which correspond to two natural frequencies of the
an rockmg, IS the only unknown in Eq. (6.107), which can now be solved system, w, 1 and w,,,''and have the following inter-relationship with the
EquatiOn (6.107) may be rewritten as follows: ·· · limiting natural frequencies, wnx and W q,. The smaller of the two natural
11

frequencies or lower natural frequency, w112 , is smaller than the smallest of

- C'A'L'
, ' z ' +C,A(C,I-WL)-CAM w' -CAL'
+C,AL T T mwll
2 the two limiting frequencies,. and the larger natural frequency is always
larger than w,, and w, •. The roots of Eq. (6.112) are:
/11 /11

-(C.J-WL)mw 2 +Mm mw'=O

'+' " (6.108)
11

By dividing by mMm and rearranging, one obtains w'

nl.2
= ~2 [(w~x +'Y w~•) ± (6.113)
 255
254 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES LINEAR ELASTIC WEIGHTLESS SPRING METHOD

(6.120)
Equation ( 6.113) may be rewritten as

or
2
CAL
"
2
+ Cl-
,, WL- Mmw A (6.121a)
(6.54b) A X~ C"AL •
Also
By substituting for A, from above in Eq. (6.119),
2 2)
(6.114) (C"AL 2 +C 4,J-WL-M"'w )(C"A-mw A -CALA ~P
.p r <f> x
C"AL
2 2
2 X 2
W 11 q, W 11 x
w,l w,z (6.115) which gives
y

and A,~~
C"AL
2
Wnl- W,z
2 1 [( W"<l>
=-
2 2 )2
+ Wnx -
4 YWn<f>Wnx
2 2 )]1/2 (6.116) 2
y M [{;,A(C,I- WL) _ w".[TC"A(mL + Mm)
m m mM m {. mMm
Amplitudes of Vibration ----::---:c_.::.C~,A:.::L::..__ _ _--: P, (6.121b)
Having determined the natural frequencies of the system, one may now
m Mm [
2 2 2
2 + w'
wnxwn,P- "'- ( wnx ) + w' J
compute the amplitudes of vibration for the following three cases: y y
n<fl

Case I. If only the horizontal force Px sin wt is acting, Eqs. (6.97) and By substituting from Eqs. (6.114) and (6.115) into Eq. (6.12lb), we get
(6.98) may be rewritten as follows:
C"AL p
mi + C"Ax - C"AL</> ~ Px sin wt (6.117) A </> ~ mMm[wnlw,z-w
2 2 2( 2 +
Wnl
2 )
w,2
+ w 'l X

and (6.121c)

Mm¢ + </>(C"AL + C4J- WL)- C"ALx ~ 0

2
(6.118)
Let
Assume that the particular solution to these equations are
(6.122)
x=Axsinwt
Thus,
</> ~ A 1 sin wt
_ C"AL P (6.123)
in which Ax and Aq, are the maximum sliding ·and rocking amplitudes, A,- t.(w2) x
respectively. By substituting these solutions into the above equations, one
obtains By substituting for A<l> in Eq. (6.121a), we get
(6.119)
(6.124)
and
 256
FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES LINEAR ELASTIC WEIGHTLESS SPRING METHOD 257

Case II. If only moment MY sin wt is acting. then Eqs. (6.97) and (6.98) forms of vibrations correspond to the frequencies W111 and W112 of the
may be rewntten as
foundation. The vibrations are characterized by a certain relationship be-
tween the amplitudes Ax and A"', which depends upon the foundation's size
nVi + C~Ax- C~AL<f> = 0 (6.125) and soil properties but not on the initial conditions of the foundation's
and movement. Assume that the foundation is subjected only to the exciting
moment MY. From Eqs. (6.127) and (6.128), one obtains
(6.126)
(6.131)
By assumi?g solutions as for Eqs. (6.117) and (6.118), it can be sho h
the fol!owmg expressions hold: wn t at
in which the radius vector p is the ratio of amplitudes in sliding and rocking,
A _ C~AL respectively. It can be seen from Eq. (6.131) that when w is very small,
x- b.(w') MY (6.127) p "' L and the foundation rotates about an axis that passes through the
and -centroid of the base contact area, and sliding in absent.
As w increases up to W112 , (w!x- w!
2 ) is greater than zero, and p is
therefore greater than L, and Ax and Aq, have the same sign. It means that
( 6.128) during vibrations at frequencies w < w112 , when the center of gravity is
displaced >m· a result of sliding.Jn,. the positive direction of the x axis, the
Case III. If both the unbalanced force Px and moment M are actin , rotation of the foundation is also •positive and the sliding and rocking are in
the amplitudes of motwn are determined as follows: Y g phase. This form of vibration is shown in Fig. 6.22a. In such a case, the
foundation will undergo rocking vibrations with respect to a point at a
distance p from the center of gravity of the foundation. The value of p is
given by the absolute value of expression after substituting "'nz for win Eq.
(6.131).
and It can be seen that when w = wnx, p ~co and the foundation experiences
only sliding vibrations. When the frequencies w > wnx, p becomes negative,
A·= (C~AL)Px + (C~A- mw 2 )Mr and the axis of rotation shifts above the center of gravity. The sliding and
q, b.(w') (6.129b)
rocking then occur out of phase by 180". This form of vibration is shown in
Fig. 6.22b. .
The total amplitude of the vertical and horizontal vibrations may be
computed by using Eqs. ( 6. 77) and (6. 78), respectively. Tbus,

(6.130a) ' I ' _.--..-"\

\
I /
/
\
and r--- / \
\
_,
\

(6.130b)
L \
in which h = height of the top of the foundation above the combined center \
of gravity. p \
\ .... ..--
Form of Vibrations Associated with Combined Rocking and Sliding L 0
v

In the ca~e of simultaneous rocking and sliding, the soil foundation system is
(•} (b)

Figure 6.22. Simultaneous rocking and sliding (a) in-phase with each other; (b) in-phase
charactenzed by the two natural frequencies wn, and wn,. Well-defined
opposition.
 258
FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES
Effect of Eccentric Distribution of Foundation and Machine Mass on Natural
Frequenctes
In the analysis so far, it has been assumed that the center of gravity of the
mass of the. foundatwn and machme and the centroid of the base area lie
along a vertical axis. An eccentric distribution of machine mass may occur
when a machme and a generator or a motor are coupled on the same shaft.
Sometimes an. eccentricity in the mass distribution is caused by asymmetry
of the foundatwn because of the presence therein of cavities and openings.
Such asymmetry can often be ehmmated by adjusting the centroid of the
foundatwn area that is in contact with the soil. Sometimes when this cannot
be d~ne, one has to take into account the asymmetric distribution of the
m~ss m ord~r to compute the foundation's vibrations. In such situations, the
soil foundatwn system will behave as a three-degree-of-freedom system and
should be analyzed accordingly.
Validity of Assumptions For Computing Response of Block Foundations
While developing the basis for linear weightless spring theory, several
Simphfymg assumptions were made. The effect of these assumptions on the
computed response of a foundation will now be evaluated.
1. Rigidity of the Foundation. The assumption concerning the rigidity of
a foundatwn IS defimtely verified in practice, because a concrete block can
be considered infinitely rigid in comparison with soil.
2. Soil U~derlying the Foundation Is Weightless. This assumption is not
v~hd m a stnct sense, because a certain mass of soil will oscillate in phase
With a v1bratmg foundation. Pauw (1953), Balakrishna (1961), and Hsieh
(1962) suggested methods for estimating this soil mass. Barkan (1962)
estimated that the sml mass beneath a vertically vibrating footing does not
exceed 23% of the foundation's mass and may be accounted for if desired.
However, the effect of this additional soil mass if included in the cal-
culatwns will reduce the computed frequencies by about 10% from those
denved when the soil mass has been neglected. Also, the spring constant
may be so defined that the effect of the soil mass is offset. The correction for
the effect. of soil mass on the response of foundations for machines is
neglected m all the analyses being followed at the present time (1988).
3. Lmear Elastic. Behavior of Soil. The stress-strain behavior of soils
under combmed static and dynamic loads has been discussed in Chapter 4
(Sect~ons 4.2 a~d 4.3). The magnitudes of dynamic loads associated with
ma_chme operatton generally do not exceed 10% of the combined static
Weights of the found~tion and machine (Prakash and Puri, 1969). Thus, for
the_ order of dynamtc st~esses associated with machine operation, small
residual settlements occaswned by repetitions of the dynamic load may build
LINEAR ELASTIC WEIGHTLESS SPRING METHOD 259
up only for the first few cycles of loading and unloading, and subsequently
the soil may be considered to behave elastically.
4. Damping. It cannot be assumed that damping can be neglected
because every soil-foundation system that vibrates results in dissipation of
energy into the supporting medium. The actual amount of damping varies
with the vibration parameters, namely, the frequency and amplitude, the
mode of vibration, and the geometry of the foundation, and the nature of
the soil. Methods for determining the amount of damping were discussed
earlier in Chapter 4 (Section 4.8). Damping affects the computed natural
frequency as well as the amplitudes of vibration of a foundation.
If the damping gin a system is known, the damped natural frequency can
be computed from
(6.132)
for g = 10%, wnd = 0.995 wn
and g = 3\)%, wnd = 0.953 wn
The effect of damping on naturaffrequencies is therefore generally small.
It is known from theory of vibrations (Chapter 2) that vibration am-
plitudes are significantly affected by damping. Even a small amount of
damping can considerably reduce the amplitudes of vibration, especially for
systems subjected to forced vibrations near their natural frequency.
The effect of damping on the amplitude of vibration can be taken into
account as discussed earlier in Section 6.4.
5. Embedment of Foundation. A surface footing is only an idealized
concept. All footings are founded at some depth. Embedment affects a
foundation's response as follows:
1. The weight of overlying soil acts as a surcharge and affects the value of
the dynamic soil parameters at the foundation's base.
2. Additional reactive resistance of the soil is mobilized at the sides of a
foundation.
3. When an increased amount of a foundation is in contact, with the
soils, a much greater amount of energy is dissipated into the adjoining
soil and the ove4":all damping in the system is increased. .
4. The effective soil mass participating in the vibrations may also mcrease
and may be more than that for a surface footing.
In general, embedment will increase the natural frequency of a foun-
dation-soil system and decrease the amplitude of vibration compared to
surface footing for a given exciting load. Methods for computing the
response of embedded foundations are described in Chapter 11.

260 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES
6.8 DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR A BLOCK FOUNDATION
So far the methods of analyzing block foundations (Sections 6.4 and 6.7)
and design requirements of foundations for reciprocating machines have
been considered. Two approaches currently being used for the design of
foundations for reciprocating machines are:
l. Elastic half-space approach (Richart et al., 1970).
2. Linear weightless spring approach (Barkan, 1962).
A step-by-step procedure for design with either approach is given below.
It is essential to procure pertinent machine and soil data before a rational
design for a foundation to support a machine can be attempted. The
obtaining of the relevant data is the first and most important step and is
discussed first, followed by guidelines for selecting trial size of foundation
and dynamic soil constants.
1. Machine Data
The following information should be obtained from the manufacturers of the
machine for guidance in designing:
a. Layout of the machine and a detailed loading diagram consisting of a
plan, elevation, and section showing details of connections and the
point of application of all loads on the foundation.
b. Height of the axis of the main shaft of the machine above top of the
foundation.
c. Capacity or rated output of the machine.
d. Operating speed of the machine.
e. Exciting forces of the machine and short-circuit moment of the motor,
if any.
f. Position of cavities, open spaces, and anchor bolt locations.
g. Permissible amplitudes of vibration.
2. Soil Data
The following information about the subsurface soil should be known:
a. Soil profile and data (including soil properties generally for depth
equal to twice the width of the proposed foundation or up to hard
stratum).
b. Soil investigation to ascertain allowable soil pressures and to deter-
mine the dynamic properties of the soil.
c. The relative position of the water table below ground at different
times of the year.
261
DESIGN PROCEDURES FOR A BLOCK FOUNDATION
The minimum distance to any important foundation in the vicinity of the
machine foundation should also be ascertained.
3. Trial Size of the Foundation
A suitable size of the foundation should be selected for preliminary
analysis. The following guidelines wiJI be useful for this purpose and will be
helpful in minimizing the number of trials.
Area of Block. The size of a foundation block (in pla?)should be larger
than the bed plate of the machine it supports, with a m1mmum all-around
clearance of 150 mm.
Depth. In all cases, the foundation should be deep enough to rest on
good bearing stratum and to ensure stability against fmlure. .
Center of Gravity. The combined center of gravity of the machme and
the block should be as far below the top of the foundation as possible, but in
no case shall it be above the top of the foundation.
Eccentricf;Jy. The eccentricit)p,bould not exceed 5 percent of the least
dimension in any horizontal direction. . .
To simplify computations, it is advisable to select a simple shape m plan.
Any grooves, projections, and asymmetry should be avmded except when
these are necessary.
4. Selecting Soil Constant
For a preliminary design, the soil constants can b~ obtained. from. the
procedure given in Chapter 4 (Section 4.7). For all Important JObs, 1t IS
recommended that dynamic soil properties should be determmed. m the
laboratory and in the field for at least three different stram levels: Th1s pomt
should be kept in mind when conducting soil explora~wn. A particular value
may be selected for an anticipated strain level m a g1ven design problem. A
correction for the effective confining pressure and shear stram levels must be
applied before proceeding with the design. .
Often it may be desirable to select a range of sod constants and to work
out limiting values of the natural frequencies and motiOn amphtudes for th1s
range of the values of soil constants selected.
,.~~,
5. Centering the Foundation Area in Contact with Soil and Determining Soil
Pressures
Determine the combined center of gravity for the machine and the foun-
dation in the x, y, and z planes and check to see that the_eccentricit_y alongx
or y axis is not more than 5 percent. This is the up~er hmtt f.or this ty_pe of
analysis. If eccentricity exceeds 5 percent, the add1t10nal rock1~g occasiOned
by vertical eccentric loading must be considered in the analysis.
 263
262 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES

The static soil pressure should be checked. It should be less than 80

[ DESIGN PROCEDURES FOR A BLOCK FOUNDATION

For Torsional Vibrations:

percent of the allowable soil pressure under static conditions. This condition
is met in most machine foundations.
I
f
.
I = Polar moment of inertia of the base contact area about the vertical
.
axis through its center of gravity

r (6.136)
6. Design Values for Unbalanced Exciting Loads and Moments
The values of the exciting forces and resulting moments may now be
determined with respect to the combined center of gravity of the system. If
the vertical unbalanced force acts at some eccentricity, it will give rise to a
moment. Similarly, if the horizontal unbalanced force acts at a certain
l
f
M
m•
=Mass moment of inertia of the foundation about the vertical axis
of rotation
(6.137)
distance above the top of a block foundation, the magnitude of the moment
occasioned by the horizontal force equals the product of the horizontal force
I
and the distance between the center of gravity of the combined system from B. Noncircular Foundations
its point of application. The nature of the unbalanced forces and moments
should give the investigator an idea about the nature of the foundation's f For Rocking Vibrations:
vibrations. I= moment of inertia of the base area about an axis passing through the
centroid of the base contact area and perpendicular to the plane of
I vibrations. It equals ba 3!1?,.-in which 'a' is the dimensio? of the
7. Determining Moments of Inertia and Mass Moments of Inertia
I rectangular area in the plarle of vibration, and b the dimension
The following moments of inertia and mass moments of inertia need to be
determined: i perpendicular to this plane [Eq. (6.79)]. Also

M mo =Mm +mL
2
(6.110a)
A. Circular Foundation
in which L is the height of the combined center of gravity above the
For Rocking Vibrations:
I. = IY = I, moment of inertia of the base area about an axis passing
through centroid of the base contact area and perpendicular to the plane
of vibration
I base.
The value of 1' may then be determined as 1' = Mm/Mmo
For Torsional Vibrations:
Iz = polar moment of inertia of the base area about the vertical axis
7TY
4 through the center of gravity
I x = yI = I =4-0 (6.133) 2 2
(a + b
ro =radius of the base of the foundation.
I I,= J, = ab
12
)
(6.138)

M m = mass moment of inertia the foundation system about an axis M = mass moment of inertia of the machine and the foundation about
passing through its centroid and perpendicular to the plane of m•
the vertical axis
vibration
'H'Ycfo'
1Tro
Mm = (6.134)
4g M m' M mx and M my are obtained as in Appendix 4.
in which 'Yc =unit weight of concrete.
8. Natural Frequencies and Amplitudes of Vibration
Mmo ~Mass moment of inertia of the foundation system about an axis Steps 1 through 7 give the information which will be used for computing the
passing through the centroid of the base and perpendicular to the natural frequencies and amplitudes of vibration. This information _is com-
plane of vibration. mon and subsequently the dynamic response may be calculated either by
M = 1rr:H
mO
(r: + H')
g'Yc4 3 (6.135)
Elastic Half-Space approach or by Linear Weightless Spring approach.
These steps of calculation for both these approaches are given below:
 DESIGN PROCEDURES FOR A BLOCK FOUNDATION 265
264 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES

C. Elastic Half-Space Approach (6.23c)

(i) Equivalent Radius. For noncircular foundations, determine the
equivalent radius ro of the foundation contact area by considering
the direction of the vibrations.
Torsional Vibrations
For translation

(6.58a) (6.41a)

For rocking vibrations and

(6.58b)

For torsional vibrations

r = (ba(a' + b2))114 = (21,)'14 (iv) Coupled modes. The natural frequencies of combi~ed rocking and
(6.58c) sliding are obtained from Eqs. (6.52 and 6.54) w1th "'"x and "'"•
o~ 6w w
obtai!led as follows: 1
, .".
(ii) Determination of Mass Ratio, Spring Constants, and Damping Fac-
tors. The values of mass or inertia ratio, spring constants, and (6.30)
damping factors can be computed from Table 6.2. Damping ratios
can also be determined from Fig. 4.40.
(6.37)
(iii) Natural Frequencies and Amplitudes of Vibration in Uncoupled
Modes. Damped natural frequencies are obtained as the roots of Eq. (6.52)
Vertical Vibrations

(6.20)

Table 6.2. Mass or Inertia Ratio 8, Damping Factor {;, and Spring Constant k for
Rigid Circular Footing on a Semi~lnfinite Elastic Half~Space
Mode of Mass (or Damping Undamped natural frequencies can be obtained by using Eq. (6.54b)
Vibration inertia) ratio factor Spring Constant
(1) (2) (3) (4)'
1 . [(wnx
2 , l
+ wn¢> V< wn¢> + wnx l' -
2 2 , 2 1
4 ywn<P(J)nx
k, = 4Gro
= (1- v) _!'!... g = 0.425 (t)n1,2 = Z'to/ ±
Vertical B, 3
1- v
4 pro ' B, (6.54b)
Sliding
B (7-8v) m g = 0.2875 _ 32(1- v) G
x = 32(1- v) pr! X B, kx- 7-Sv ro
Damped amplitudes for motion occasioned by the applied moment,
3(1- v) Mmo
--, 0.15 k = 8Gr~
Rocking s. 8 pro g.= (1 + s.JVB:; • 3(1- v) can be obtained from Eqs. (6.55a,b).
0.5 16 '
Torsional B,. =M"'" g'1' = 1 +2B k.;, = 3 Gro 2 )2 + (2 < 2 112
pr"' M [( wnx sx«>nx ) ]
• A
x
= _Y
Mm A(w 2 )
(6.55a)
Source: Richart, Hall, and Woods, "Vibrations of Soils and. Foundations," © 1970, p. 382.
Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. "'From analog solution. and
 267
266 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES DESIGN PROCEDURES FOR A BLOCK FOUNDATION

22 2 112
[(w~x- w ) + (2gxw""w) ] (6.81a)
(6.55b)
~(w')

in which ~(w) 2 is given by Eq. (6.56) and

(6.83}
~(w2) = {( w' _ w2( (w~i>: W~x) _ 4gxg¢~"'W"';) + w~x:~• )'
(ii) Combined Rocking and Sliding
+ 4(g w""w (w' - w2) + gq,w,i>w (w2 - w'))'}I/2
Sliding and rocking are coupled modes of vibration. The natural frequencies
x ')' n<b 'Y nx
(6.56) are determined as follows:
Damped amplitudes for motion occasioned by an applied force P
acting at the center of gravity of the foundation may be obtained (6.66a}
from Eqs. (6.57a,b)
_ ~Cq,I-WL (6.74a)
wn<P- M
mo

and

( 6.57a)
The amplitudes of vibration can be computed with the following equations:
and
+ 4"~XW 2)1/2 2
2
Wnx ( wnx (C"AL 2 + C1 I- WL- Mmw )Px + (C"AL)My
(6.57b)
~(w') Ax= ~(w 2 )
(6.129a)

D. Linear Weightless Spring Approach and

2
(C"AL)Px + (C"A- mw )My (6.129b)
Aq, = ~(w')
(i) Uncoupled modes. Vertical oscillations and torsional vibrations occur
independently of any other vibrations. The natural frequencies and in which
corresponding amplitudes can be determined with the help of the
following equations: A = linear horizont<\1. amplitude of the combined center of gravity
Vertical vibrations Ax = the rotational a;;,plitude in radians around the combined center of
• gravity. · 1 f
The amplitude of the block should be determined at the beanng 1eve o
(6.63a)
the foundation as
a (6.130a)
(6.64b} A"= A,+ 2 A,,
Torsional vibrations A,= Ax+ hAq, (6.130b)
 269
268 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES EXAMPLES

in which A h is the horizontal amplitude at bearing level, h is the height of

the bearing above the combined center of gravity of the system, and A" is
the maximum vertical amplitude.

9. Check for Adequate Foundation

r I
_j_
0.15

1.5 m
The natural frequencies and amplitudes of vibration calculated in step 8
should be compared with operating speed and permissible amplitudes, 2
respectively, to check if the foundation size selected is adequate. The
natural frequency of the foundation soil system should be at least 30%
~~~05;
~===~-----4.0
(preferably 50%) away from the operating speed of the machine. The
amplitude of vibration should be smaller than the limiting values of am- m
plitude specified by the manufacturer of the machine. If it has not been Ia)
y
possible to procure this information, the permissible amplitude should be
fixed with due consideration to stability of the machine and also the effects -
of vibrations on machines and structures in the neighborhood. From the 0.5 m
data available so far, it appears that vibrations in neighboring structures will
be negligible if the vibration amplitude of the foundation is less than /:~
0.20mm.
For machines vibrating in different modes, the resultant vibration am- 2.0 m
' I'
+ - 3.0 m
plitude should not exceed the permissible value.

10. Several Machines on a Common Mat

I
A number of similar machines erected on individual pedestals may be
0.5 m ly X
mounted on a common raft. They should be placed symmetrically along the L'
' -L ~

two axes so that there is no rotation in the raft under dynamic forces. 0.5 m 3.0 m 0.5 m
The analyses for these machines should be made as though tbeir foun- (b)
dations were independent of each other by breaking the raft into sections
Figure 6.23. layout of foundation illustrative examples (6.9.1-6.9.6). (a) Section, (b) plan.
corresponding to separate foundations.
The design value for the permissible amplitude of vibrations may be
increased by 30 per cent for such cases. 2
Assume that the dynamic shear modulus G = 500 kg/cm , .v = 0.33, 3 the
In addition to proper design of the machine foundation, its construction
density of the soil y = 1.65 t/m 3 and unit weight of concrete !S 2.4 tim·
aspects need special consideration. The construction aspects of machine
foundations are discussed in Chapter 14. Determine the following:

a. The natural frequ.r.ncy of vertical vibrations and

b. The amplitude of vibration.
6.9 EXAMPLES
Solution
EXAMPLE 6.9.1 1. Machine data
The concrete block shown in Fig. 6.23 is to be used as a foundation for a Weight of engine= 1.1 t
reciprocating engine operating at 600 rpm and mounted symmetrically with Operating speed of the engine= 600 rpm= 62.83 rad/sec
respect to the foundation. The weight of the engine is 1.1 t. The vertical
unbalanced force due to operation of the engine is given hy P, = 0.2 sin wt. Vertical unbalanced force= P, = 0.2 t
270 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES EXAMPLES 271

2. Soil data
5. Natural Frequency and Amplitude
G ~ 500 kg/cm 2 ~ 5000 tim'
Natural Frequency, f.,
v ~ 0.33, x ~ 1.65 t/m 3

3. Foundation data (Fig. 6.23)

W0 ,~ fif (6.20)

Density of concrete -y, ~ 2.4 t1 m 3 ~ ~ 58340 X 9.81

37.1
Weight of foundation~ ( 4 X 3 x 0.5 + 3 x 2 x 1.5)2.4
~ 124.2 rad/sec
~ 36.0 t

Total weight of foundation and engine ~ 37.1 t ~

WIZZ
7r ~ 19.76 Hz
fn,
Area of the foundation's base~ 4 x 3 ~ 12m' 2
Equivalent radius, roz Damped natural frequency can also be determined as follows:

(w,,)d ~ wn;l/1- ;;; ~ 124.2\IJ- 0.598 2

r ~ (A
oz v-; (6.58a) ~ 99.55 rad/sec

!4X3 ~ 1.9544 m (fnJd ~ 15.84 Hz

~ \j---;;-
Amplitude of vibration (d<jmped) (A,)d may be computed from Eq.
6.23c ·
4. Mass Ratio, Spring Constant, and Damping
Mass Ratio, Bz 0.2
(AJd ~ 58340V[I- (62.8/124.2) 2 2
] + (2 X 0.598 X 62.8/124.2) 2
B~1-v.!'!._
z 4 pr! ( 6.17) ~ 3.6 x 10- 6 m~ 0.0036 mm

~ (1- 0.33) X 37.1 EXAMPLE 6.9.2

4 X 1.65 X (1.9544) 3 The foundation block shown in Fig. 6.23 is to be used to support a
~ 0.5045 compressor mounted symmetrically. The weight of the compressor is 2.5 t,
and it generates an exciting moment, M, ~ 0.5 sin wt t m. The operating
speed of the compressor is 450 rpm and its center of gravity is 0.15 m above
Spring Constant, k, the top of the block. By using the elastic half-space approach, determine (a)
k ~ 4Gr0 , the natural frequencies and (b) the amplitude of vibration. Assume that
z 1- v (6.18) G ~ 600 kg/cm 2, -y, ~ 1.65 t/m 3, v ~ 0.33, and the density of the concrete 1',
4 X 5000 X 1.9544 is 2.4 t/m 2•
(1 - 0.33) tim Solution
~ 58340tim 1. Machine Data
Weight of compr.essor ~ 2.5 t
Damping Ratio, !;, Operating speed~ 450 rpm~ 47.12 rad/sec
< ~ 0.425 Exciting moment M, ~ 0.5 t m
,, '-IIi: (6.22)
2. Soil data
0.425 G ~ 600 kg/cm 2 ~ 6000 tim'
~ \10_
5045 ~ 0.598 or59.8% of critical damping
v ~ 0.33, -y, ~ 1.65 tim 3
 EXAMPLES 273
272 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES

3. Foundation data Mass moment of inertia about Y axis through center of gravity of the
base
Density of concrete 1', = 2.4 t/m 3
Weight of the foundation= 36.0 t (as calculated in Example 6.9.1)
Mmo = Mm + mLz (6.110a)
Total weight of foundation and machine= 36.0 + 2.5 = 38.5 t
Area of the foundation= 4.0 x 3.0 = 12.0 m 2 38.5 2 2
=4.7051+ _ (0.9344) =8.1316tmsec
9 81
4. Selection of soil constants Mm
The values of soil constants, i.e., springs and damping will be obtained y = - =0.5786
Mmo
using G = 6000 !1m 2 and v = 0.33
Moment of inertia of the contact area about y axis
5. Centering of the foundation area
The height of combined center of gravity L above the base is given by: 4' 4
I=3 x - =16m
12

Lm; Sliding Vibrations

2.5(2.0 + 0.15) + ( 4 X 3 X 0.5 X 2.4)(0.25) Equivalent radius for sliding, r ox
+ (3 X 2 X 1.5 X 2.4)(1.25)

=0.9344m
38.5
rox:~ (6.58a)

Because of symmetry of the foundation block and the machine about = ~ = 1.9544m
the vertical axis, the eccentricity ex= eY = 0.
Mass ratio, Bx
6. Unbalanced Exciting Loads and Moments
7-8v W
Exciting moment MY = 0.5 t m (6.25)
Bx = 32(1- v) - ,
'Ysr ox
7. Moment of Inertia and Mass Moments of Inertia (7- 8 X 0.33)(38.5) = _
Mass moment of inertia about an axis through the combined center of 3 0 6356
32(1- 0.33) X 1.65 X 1.9544
gravity and parallel to they axis, Mm (see Appendix 4)
By replacing r 0 with rox in Eq. (6.26), we get Spring constant, kx

k = 32(1- v) G
=I[~ (a;+ a;)+ m{(x 1 - X0 )
2
+ (z 1 - zoJ) 2 ] X 7-8V YOX

= 32(l- 0 ·33 ) X 6000 X 1.9544 t/m

= ~:l 2
(2.15- 0.9344) +
3
X ~.;ll~\~ .4
2
(3 2
+ 1.5
2
) 7-8 X 0.33
3X2X1.5X2.4 2 """' 57663 tim
+ 9.81 (1.25- 0.9344)
Damping coefficient, t;x
4 X 3 X 0.5 X 2.4 ( 42 O ,)
+ 9.81 X 12 + .5 t = 0.288 (6.28)
Cx ~
4 X 3 X 0.5 X 2.4 (O 934 _ O )'
+ 9.81 . 4 .25 0 288
2 · = 0.36 or 36%
= 4.7051 t m sec vo.6356
274 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES 275
EXAMPLES

Rocking Vibrations
(6.37)
Equivalent radius, r00 from (Eq. 6.58b),
11
~228990
ro<l = ( b')
3:
'
= ~
(3x4')
= 2.1245m
=
8.1316
Replacing r0 with ro<l in Eq. (6.32) we get Inertia ratio, B 1 = 167.81 radlsec

B = 3(1- v)Mmo Combined Rocking and Sliding

<I
'Y, 5
8 -rot/> 2 2 2 2
g
w'-
n
("'"x +Y "'""')w'n + w,x"'n.P
1'
= 0 (6.54a)
3(1- 0.33) X 8.1316
- 1.65 5
8 X _ X 2.1245
9 81 4
.w,-
2
(121.21 + 167.81
0.5786
2
)w'" + 121.210.5786
x 167.81
2 2
= 0
= 0.2806

Spring constant, k</> or

8Gr! 0 w~ -7.406 X i'Q4i:,! + 7.1505 X 10 8 = 0

kq, = 3(1- v) (6.34a)
8
2 _7.406x10'( +I _4x7.1505x10 )
8 X 6000 X 2.1245 I 3 1 1 42
"'"'·'- 2 - \1 (7.406 X 10 )
3(1- 0.33) t m rad
= 228990 t m I rad 2 =
7 .4° 6 X 104 (1 ± 0 6917)
wn1,2 2 .
Damping constant, {;0
4
0.15 w~ 1 = 6.264 X 10 , w~ 2 = 11414
(1 + s.)~
(6.36)
?;"' =
"'"' = 250.2 radlsec "'"' = 106.8
0.15
(1 + 0.2806)\1'0.2806 [, 1 = 39.82 Hz, [, 2 = 17.0 Hz
= 0.22 or 22% of critical damping

8. Natural Frequencies and Amplitudes

Natural frequency of sliding, "'"x

(6.30)

= ~ 57663 X 9.81
38.5
= 121.21 radlsec
Natural frequency of rocking (6.57)
276 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES

lz
A"ftf
2 2
A(w ) = (47.12) - (47.12) '(167.81 . +121.21
2 {[ 4
0 5786
_ 4 X 0.36 X 0.22 X 167.81 X 121.21)
0.5786
2 2
167.81 X 121.21 ]'
+

+ 4[
0.5786
0.36 X 121.21 X 47.12 (
0.5786
0.22 X 167.81 X 47.12 (
167 .81

,_
, _
47 .12

,)]
,)

2
}
112 2.0m __ J
! oo(ij
k~'· - t"Tw'"'"
/ -t
l
121 .21 . 47 .12
~ 0.9334m
+ 0.5786 1
--- \!I l __ L
= 6.3558 X 108
--- X
0.5 X y/(121.21 2 ) 2 + (2 X 0.36 X 121.21) 2 a. ---J
. . Ax= 4.7051 X 6.3558 X 10 8 2 =2.0m ;rl

= 2.45 x 10- 6 m= 2.45 X 10- 3 mm

MY Y(w~x- w ) + (2gxwnxw)
2 2 2
A =
(6.55b)
• Mm A(w 2 )
0.5y/(121.21 2 - 47.12 2 ) 2 + (2 X 0.36 X 121.21 X 47.12) 2
4.7051 X 3.1813 X 108
= 2.19 X 10- 6 rad
Total horizontal amplitude, A, (Fig. 6.24a)
A,=Ax+hA•
= 2.45 X 10- 3 + (2.15- 0.9344) X 2.19 X 10- 6 X 10 3 mm \
--- /
I
= 5.112 x 10- 3 mm = 0.005112 mm (6.130b) I "'
I '
Vertical amplitude, A,
a 4 -6 3
A=2A•=2X2.19x10 x10 mm
3
= 4.38 x 10- mm = 0.00438 mm
I
I
I
I "'ilg:.
/
/
/
7 I
I
I
I
I
I
I •
EXAMPLE 6.9.3
\
/
/
The block shown in Fig. 6.23 is excited by a horizontal moment, M =
0.5 sin wt m, which acts around the vertical axis through the system's center
of gravity. Determine the amplitude of vibration if the frequency of the
-- (b)
exciting moment is 10Hz. Use the elastic half space approach. Assume E 1 6 9 2 and 6.9.5. (b) Examples
3 Figure 6.24. Illustrations for Problems 6.9.2-6.9.6. (a) xamp es · ·
G = 600 kg/em', v = 0.33, Y, = 1.65 t/m and unit weight of concrete y =
3 ' 6.9.3 and 6.9.6.
2.4t/m.
277
 279
278 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES EXAMPlES

Solution Inertia ratio, B!/J

1. Machine Data. The weight of the machine is not given in the problem Mm, (6.38)
and is therefore negl~cted. B =-
• "Y 5
Operating speed w =10Hz= 62.83 rad/sec -roof!
g
Horizontal unbalanced moment M, = 0.5 sin wt t m
5 434- - = 1.0182
-:-c::-_.4_-
2. Soil Data 65 5
1. X 1.9973
G = 600 kg/cm 2 = 6000 t/m 2 9.81
3
v = 0.33, "Y, = 1.65 t/m . Spring constant, k,,
3. Foundation Data (refer to Example 6.9.1) 16 3 (6.40a)
Weight of the foundation = 36 t k,=3Groo/
Area of the foundation = 12 m 2
= 16 x 6000 x (1.9973) t m/rad
3

3
4. Selecting Soil Constants = 254965 t m/rad
The values of the soil constants, i.e., the soil springs and damping will
be obtained using G = 6000 tlm 2 and v = 0.33. Damping. coefficient, I;•
~''

5. Centering of the Foundation

o's: (6.42)
!;• = 1 + 2B,,
The eccentricity ex = eY = 0
- 0 ·5 =0.165
6. Unbalanced Exciting Loads - 1 + 2 X 1.0182
. M, = 0.5tm
8. Natural Frequency and Amplitude of Vibration
7. Determination of Moment of Inertia and Mass Moment of Inertia Natural frequency, wn•
Moment of inertia of the foundation contact area around the Z _Jk; (6.41a)
axis = 1, from Eq. ( 6.138) Wnl/1- '/Af:
(6.138) ~ ~254965
- 5.4434
Mass moment of inertia around the Z axis= Mm, (see Appendix 4),
= 216.42 rad/sec
Mm, = [ ~ (a;+ a;)+ m[(x,- X0 )
2
+ (y,- yoJ 2]] fn• = 34.44 Hz

= (4 X 3 X 0.5 X 2.4 )< 4, + 3,) + ( 3 X 2 X 15 X 2.9 )< 3 2 + 2,) Amplitude, A"

9.81 X 12 9.81 X 12
(6.41b)
= 5.4434 t m/sec2

Mass (Inertia) Ratio, Spring Constant and Damping

Equivalent radius, ro.p
112

r m/'
= [
2
ab(a + b
67T
2
) J114
(6.58c)
=
254965
[(
1-
( 62 83 )')'
216.42
(
+ 2 X 0.165 X
62.83 )']
216.42
6
(4'+3')]1/4 =2.1 x 10- rad
= [ 4x3 1T =1.9973m f h f f "E" Figure 6 24b is,
6 Horizontal displacement of the edge o t e oo mg ' .
 280 EXAMPLES
FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES 281

A• = rA"' (6.48) EXAMPLE 6.9.5

The foundation block shown in Fig. 6.23 is to be used to support a
= Y(2 2 + 1.5 2 )2.1 X 10- 6 compressor mounted symmetrically. The weight of the compressor is 2.5 t,
= 5.25 x 10- 6 m and it transmits a horizontal unbalanced force of Px = 0.2 sin wt, which acts
at a height of 0.15 m above the top of the block. The operating speed of the
= 0.00525mm compressor is 450 rpm. Determine (a) the natural frequencies and (b) the
Examples 6.9.1-6.9.3 can be conveniently solved using the computer pro- amplitude of vibration. Assume that C" = 6.0 kg/ cm 3, the density of the
gram giVen m Appendix 1. concrete is 2.4 t/m 3, and the center of gravity of the engine to be at 0.15 m
above the top of the block. Use the linear weightless spring approach.
EXAMPLE 6.9.4
Solution
Compute the response of the block foundation in Example 6.9.1 by the
hnear weightless spring approach. Assume that c" =5kg/cm' for !Om' 1. Machine Data
area. Weight of compressor = 2.5 t
Operating speed = 450 rpm = 47.12 rad I sec
Solution
·Horizontal unbalanced force, Px = 0.2 t (along the X axis)
1. Machine Data. Same as in Example 6.9.1. Point of application of the horizontal unbalanced force above top of
2. Soil Data the foundation
.
block= 0.15 m
;::~- ·;~/if"

3 3 3 2
C" = 5 kg/cm = 5 X 10 t/m for 10m area 2. Soil Data
2 2
3. Foundation Data. Same as in Example 6.9.1 C" = 6.0 kg/ cm for 10m area
2
Total weight of the machine and foundation = 37 .I t C, = 1/2 Cu = 3.0 kg/cm , Cq, = 2 Cu = 12 kg/cm 3
Area of the foundation base= 12m 2 3. Foundation Data
Density of concrete y,·= 2.4 t/m 3
4. 2 Soil Constants. Because t~e area of the foundation's base is more than
10m , the value of C" for 10m will be used Weight of the foundation= 36.0 t (As calculated in Example 6.9.1)
Total weight of foundation and machine= 36.0 + 2.5 = 38.5 t
5. Natural Frequency and Amplitude
Area of the foundation= 4.0 x 3.0 = 12.0 m 2
Natural frequency
4. Selecting the Soil Constants
w = ~CuA
m (6.63a)
n< Since the area of the foundation base in contact with the soil is
12m2 > 10m 2, the values of C", C, and C1 as for the 10m2 area will be
= ~5000 12 X 9.81
X
used for calculation.
37.1
= 125.95 rad/sec 5. Centering of the Foundation Area (Refer to Example 6.9.2)
fu, =20Hz L=0.9344m
'if'J:. e=e=O
X y
Amplitude of vertical vibration A
, ' 6. Unbalanced Exciting Loads and Moments
P,
Az = 2 2 (6.64b) Horizontal unbalanced force= Px = 0.2 t
m(wn,- w )
Vertical distance between line of action of Px and the combined center
0.2 of gravity= (2.0 + 0.15- 0.9344)m = 1.2156 m.
37.1 2 Moment MY about the combined center of gravity occasioned by the
9.81 ((125.95) - (62.83)
2
t' horizontal unbalanced force P
= 4.4 x 10- 6 m= 4.4 x 10- 3 mm My = 0.2 X 1.2156 = 0.243 t m
 283
282 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES EXAMPLES

i-
1.!',·.• .·
7. Moment of Inertia and Mass Moment of Inertia (Refer to Example
6.9.2) (6.122)
38 5
= · X 4.7051(49018.98- 47.12')
Mm = 4.7051 t m sec 2 9.81
2
Mmo = 8.1316 t m sec' X (7634.91- 47.12 )

1' = 0.5786 9
= 4.679 X 10
I= 16 m 4
Amplitude A,
8. Natural Frequencies and Amplitudes
Limiting natural frequencies
(C.J- WL + C"AL 2 - Mmw')Px + (C"AL)M, (6.129a)
Ax= . Ll.(w')

(6.66a) 1 [(12 X 10 3 X 16-38.5 X 0.9344

9
4.679 X 10
3 2
+ 3 X 103 X 12 X 0.9344 2 -4.7051 X 47.12 )0.2
= y/3x10 X12x9.81
.
38 5
= 95.775 rad/sec
5
+ (3 X 103 X 12 X 0.9344)(0.243)] = 1.0849 X 10- m
_ /C<I>I WL
Wnq,- "V M (6.74a) Amplitude, Aq, ·:.·''c
mo
3 1
= /12 X 10 X 16-38.5 X 0.9344 A , = --2 [(C"AL)Px+(C"A-mw')M,]
y 8.1316 Ll.(w ) (6.129b)
= 153.646 rad/sec
= 1 [(3 X 103 X 12 X 0.9344)(0.2)
a. Natural frequencies in combined rocking and sliding 4.679 X 109
38 5 2
+ .(3 X 103 X 12- 9.81
· X 47.12 )0.2431

(6.113) = 2.8549 x 10- 6 rad

1 2 2
X 0. [(95.775 + 153.646 ) b. Combined amplitud~s of vibration from Fig. 6.24a.
2 5786
Horizontal
± Y(95.775 2
+ 153.6462 ) 2 - 4 X 0.5786(95.775 2 ) X (153.646) 2 ]
A,= Ax+ hA.;
= 49018.98, 7634.91 sec- 2 6
= 1.0849 X 10- 5 + (2.15- 0.9344) X 2.8549 X 10-
Therefore,
= 1.431 x 10- 5 m
w., 1 = 221.40 rad/sec, w., 2 = 87.37 rad/sec
= 0.01431 ..:
f., 1 = 35.23 Hz, !,,, = 13.9 Hz
Vertical
Check a
A,= :z A 0 (6.130a)

= ~ (2.8549 X 10- 6 ) = 5.7 X 10-

6
87.37 < 95.775 < 153.646 < 221.40

Amplitudes of vibration =0.0057mm

284
FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES
EXAMPLES 285
EXAMPLE 6.9.6

Using the line~r weightless spring approach, compute the dynamic response Amplitude, A.p
of ~e found~l!on flock m Ex~mple 6.9.3 in torsional oscillations. Assume M,
C"- 6.0 x 10 tim for a 10m area. (6.83)
A,1, = M ( , _ ')
mz Wnof! (t)

Solution 05
· = 5.5 x 10- 6 rad
1. Machine Data. (Refer to Figs. 6.23 and 6.24 and to Example 5.4434(143.76 2 - 62.83 2 )
6.9.1). The we1ght of the machine is not given in the problem and is
therefore neglected. Horizontal displacement of the foundation due to torsion Fig. 6.24b
Operating speed = 10Hz A=rA.;.=Y(2 2 +1.5 2 )x5.5x10 6
(6.84)
Horizontal unbalanced moment M, = 0.5 sin wt t m 6
= 13.75 x 10- m
2. Soil Data =0.01375mm
Cu=6X 103 t/m 3
c, = 0.75 C" = 4.5 x 10 3 tim' EXAMPLE 6.9.7

3. Foundation Data (Refer to Example 6.9.1) • Design a foundation for a reciprocating compressor. The following data are
Weight of the foundation = 36 t supplied. .,,. 7
Area of the foundation= 12m' 1. Machine Data
Operating speed of the compressor = 405 rpm
4. Selecting Soil Constants. Since actual foundation is greater than 10 ' Weight of the compressor = 9 t
the values of Cq, as for 10 m'will be used. m'
Height of the center of gravity of compressor above its base= 0.5 m
5. Centering of Foundation Area. Not needed for this problem. Operatiog speed of the motor= 1470 rpm
Weight of the motor = 2.0 t
6. Design Values of Exciting Loads and Moments Height of the center of gravity of the motor= 0.5 m
Exciting moment M, = 0.5 t m Bearing level of the compressor above its base= 0.5 m
Frequency of excitation= 10Hz= 62.83 rad/sec Unbalanced forces and moment occasioned by the operation of the
compressor
7. Determination of Moment of Inertia and Mass Moment of Inertia.
From Example 6.9.3
Horizontal primary force = P; = r; = 0
Horizontal secondary force = P~ = P~ = 0

Mm, = 5.4434 t m sec 2 Vertical primary force= r;

= 165 kg
Vertical secondary force = r;
= 40 kg
J,=25m 4 Horizontal primary moment = M; = 185 kg m
Horizontal secondar~ moment = M; = 0
8. Natural Frequency and Amplitude
Vertical primary moment= M~ = 1750 kg m
Natural frequency of torsional vibration w
no/1 Vertical secondary moment = M; = 450 kg m
Permissible amplitude (peak to peak) = 0.025 mm
(6.81a) 2. Solid Data
Allowable soil pressure= 25 t/m 2
~4.5 X 10
3 Data on dynamic soil properties is the same as in Example 4.9.3.
X 25
= 5.443 4 = 143 rad/sec = 22.88 Hz Design by (1) elastic half-space method and (2) linear elastic weight-
less spring method.
 286
FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES EXAMPLES 287

Solution
1. Machine Data. The machine data is listed in the problem explicitly 3000-----+~----3000-----1-:
and is not repeated here. -·-.--
2. Soil Data. As listed in problem and Example 4.9.3 (Chapter 4).
3. Trial Dimensions. Trial dimensions of the foundation are shown in
Fig. 6.25. In selecting these dimensions, the requirements with regard
to geometrical layout of the machine, as required by the manufacturer
of the machine, were taken into account.
4. Selection of Soil Constants 4000
500 500
0 ~ ~.---r----,,-,- 1----
·~25
l!LI
Amplitude of vibration= = 0.0125 rnrn
h . I 0.0125 _ I
S ear stram eve! r, = x = 2.1 x 10 6
6 1000
Plot C in Fig. 4.47 gives the values of G versus y, at 2.4 rn depth, and 1255~-l+' - - 1 7 4 5 - - - + ! 1

~ -f~
G, corresponding to y0 = 2.1 X 10- 6 is found to be ci. +Motor
the value of2
1080 kg/ crn at a mean effective confining pressure of 1.0 kg/ crn 2• The
T
I'r--t- . 3: . -r--
z 1106
3oo~\oo
375 L__..,L ~ "-'-+----:~ ~
375 3oo f---a5o~t----s5o--j
r----;...x
z
I 4000
y

2894
Compressor
axis r Motor
- - - - . - Motor axis

+
500

400

X
5 Figure 6.25b. Plan for Design Example 6.9.7. All dimensions are in millimeters.
1300
~~:

mean effective confining pressure at a depth of 6/2 =3m below the

foundation is now calculated.
___ (2K 3+ 1)
ao- av
0

5000
0'01 = 300 X 2.05 = 615 g/cm'
Figure 6.2Sa. Section of the foundation for Design Example 6.9.7. All dimensions are in
millimeters.
iiv 2 = 4q/
 288 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES EXAMPLES 289

Here
1.13 X 2 X 8076(1 + 0.33) 1 I 3
q =static stress intensity= 2.948 t/m 2 C, = (1 - 0.33 2 ) v'IO t m
4 3 = 294.8 g/cm 2 (see Step 5) = 8614.5 t/m 3
m= 3 = 1.33, n = 3 = 1
5. Centering of the Foundation Area and Determination of Soil Pressures
From Fig. 4.46, I= 0.190 Total mass of foundation and machine from Table 6.3, (column 5) =

ii, 2 = 4 X 294.8 x 0.190 = 224.0 g/cm 2 I

I
m = 14.4265 t m - l sec 2
Area of the foundation= 8 X 6 = 48.0 m' .4 x .
14 265 9 81
ii, = 615.0 + 224.0 = 839.0 g/cm = 0.839 kg/cm
2 2 I Static soil pressure below the foundation =
48
_ O ( 2 X 0.5 + 1) 2.948 t/m 2
uo = .839 = 0.5593 kg/cm 2
3 Coordinates of the combined center of gravity of the foundation block
and machine
The value of G for design

0.5593) O.S
= 1080 x ( - - = 807.6 kg/cm 2
1 mi = nHiss of element ':'~ i.:,:

= 8076 t/m 2 x,, y,, z, = coordinates of the center of gravity of the element with
reference to the X, Y, Z axis.
c = 1.13£ 1
The details of the computations of the mass of the various elements
" (1- v 2 ) VA
of the machine and foundation and the products m;X;, miyi, and miz;
_ 1.13(2G(I + v)) 1 are shown in Trible 6.3, columns 2-11.
- (1- v 2 ) VA

Because the area of the foundation is larger than 10m2 the value of C
2
for a 10 m area will be used in design "
I
!.
- 43.2718
X= .4
14 265
=2.9994m
-
Z= L=
14.8583
.4
- 58.6326
Y= .4
14 265

= 1.0299 m
= 4.0642 m

14 265
1:
rable 6.3. Computations for Example 6.9.7 ~
-----'----'~=:::c_.::.:.::::_--~~------11.··· -~-------::--::------------
Coordinates of . = Yo;= Zo; m1 ( 2 2 )
~lements m,(y!, + z~;)
Xoi 2 2
Mass Center of Gravity f (i- i,) (Y- y,) (i- z,) 12 a..,,+ aY, m,(xot +Yo;)
1 2
ffsystem (tm- sec ) ofElementm m,.x,. m,y, ,1.
m,z, (m) (m) (m) IT ay, + a",
m,(' ') (tmsec2 ) (tmsec 2 ) (tmsec 2 )

m, x, y, z,
¥~--------=-----------
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
::Ompressor
notor
0.9174 1.93 4.044 3.55 1.7705 3.7099 3.2567 1.0694 0.0202 "
2.5201 5.8266 1.04953
0.2038 3"805 4.369 3.3 0.1512
I 5.8715 3.0 4.0 0.25
0.7754 0.8904 [ 0.6725 0.8056 0.3048 2.2701 1.0692
2 17.6145 23.486 1.4678 0.0006 0.0642 0.7799 31.4370 3.5955 48.9291 0.0242
3
4.4036 3.0 4.0 0.80 13.2108 17.6144 r 3.5228 0.0006 0.0642 0.2299 13.3429 0.2509 22.3849 0.01830
4
0.8372 1.93 4.044 2.075 1.6157 3.3856 ' 1.7371 1.0694 0.0202 1.0451 0.3831 0.9148 0.2450 0.9577
0.1669 2.78 4.044 1.85 0.4639 0.6749 0.3087 0.2194 0.0202 0.8201 0.0558 0.1143 0.0256 0.0082
5 2.0857 3.805 4.369 1.95 7.936 9.1124 4.067 0.8056 0.3048 0.9201 2.0148 1.9594 2.0148 1.9893
6(-) -0.0596 1.93 4.044 2.925 -0.1150 -0.2410 t
K
-0.1743 1.0694 0.0202 1.8951 -0.0087 -0.2140 -0.0111 -0.0682
14.4265 43.2718 I 14.8583 47.2249 13.5167 73.5883 4.1302
58.6326

I•
290 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES
EXAMPLES 291

6. Eccentricity Along the X and Y Axis

passes through its center of gravity of the base and perpendicular to
(~- 2.9994)100 the YZ plane is
3 3
Eccentricity ex = 6/2 =0.02% I = ba = 6(8) = 256 z
x 12 12 m
. . ( 4.0642- 4.0)100 Polar moment of inertia,
E ccentnc1ty eY = _ = 1.605%
40 2 2
<5% J ab(a + b )
=
' 12
Because the eccentricity is less than 5%, it may be neglected in
J, = ~ (8 + 6 ) = 400 m
8 6 2 2 4
calculating the dynamic response of the foundation .. (6.138)

7. Design Values of Unbalanced Forces and Moments. The values of 9. Computation of Natural Frequencies and Amplitudes of Vibration. In
various exciting forces and moments are explicitly listed in statement terms of the given data, the foundation is subjected to an unbalanced
of problem under machine data. vertical exciting force, a moment in the YZ plane (coupled rocking
and sliding) and a horizontal moment (torsion or yawing). The
8. Determination of Moments of Inertia and Mass Moments of Iner-
tia. The mass moment of inertia Mm about an axis that passes through
a common center of gravity of the machine and foundation and is
perpendicular to the YZ plane is (see Appendix 4)
I
f-
dynamic motion characteristics corresponding to these exciting forces
and mollJs:nts will now be analyzed. The operating speed is 405 rpm or
w = 42.41' rad/sec.

A. Elastic Half-Space Approach

,,.c.'

Mm = ~ [ ~~ (a~,+ a;,)+ m,(y;, +z;,)] The design of the foundation will first be evaluated by the elastic half
From Table 6.3 (columns 15 and 16), space approach. Steps 1 to 7 are common with the solution by linear spring
approach as well.
Mm = 47.2249 + 13.5167 = 60.7416 t m sec 2
Mass moment of inertia Mmo Mass Inertia Ratio, Spring Constants and Damping
t
M mo =Mm +mL 2 (6.110a)
i
a. Vertical Vibration
= 60.7416 + 14.4265(1.0299) 2 t
=75.0786 t m sec 2 I Equivalent radius, r"' from Eq. (6.58a),

Mm 60.7416
")' = Mmo = 75.0786 = 0.8090 (6.110b)
I 48)112
= ( -; =3.9088m (6.58a)
Mass moment of inertia m about the Z axis through the common
center of gravity (see Appendix 4) I Mass ratio B,
M mz = [ m,
12 ( a xi+
z 2
a zyi ) + mi ( Xoi + YoJ
z J 1-v m
B=---,-
1- v mg
-4--,- ( 6.17)
z 4 pr oz 'Y_~T oz
From Table 6.3 (columns 17 and 18)
= (1- 0.33)(14.4265) (9.81) = 0.1936
Mm, = 73.5883 + 4.1302 = 77.7185 m sec 2 4 X (3.9088) 3 2.05
Moment of inertia of the base contact area, Ix about the axis that
By replacing r0 with r0 , in Eq. (6.7b) we get spring stiffness, k,
292 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES EXAMPLES 293

3 114
k = 4Gr 0, = (ab )
z l- v ro<P 37T

(6 8')
114
4 X 8076 X 3.9088
-x - =4.249m
1 _ 0 _33 = 188462.5 tim
37T
Damping ratio ~' Spring stiffness k.,
< = 0.425 8Gr!.
,, VB; (6.22) k = ~---"''-:- (6.34a)
• 3(1- v)
0.425
8076 4 2493
~' = \1'0.1936 = 0 "965
8
X X · = 2465757.9 t m/rad
3(1- 0.33)
b. Sliding Vibrations Inertia ratio, B.,
Equivalent radius roy B-
3(1- v) -Mmo
(6.32)
.- 8 5
pr oq,
roy= (A)Iiz = 3.9088 m
7r (6.58a) 3(1- 0.33) (75.0786) = 0.0651
8
Spring stiffness kY (~:~~ )<4.249) 5

32(1- v)Gr Damping ratio, ~.

k = oy
Y 7- 8v (6.26)
0.15
(6.36)
_ 32(1- 0.33)8076 X 3.9088
-
~. = (1+ Bq,)VB;,
7 _ 8 x 0 _33 = 155230.8 tim
0 15
Mass ratio BY = · = 0.551
(1 + o.o651)v'0.0651
B = 7-8v ~ d. Torsional Vibrations
Y 32(1- v) pr oy
3 (6.25)
Equivalent radius, r0 ~,
= (7- 8 X 0.33) _ _.::._14:.:._.4:.::2=65_ _
32(1 - 0.33) = 0 ·235 2 2 114
2.05) 3 = (ab(a + b ) (6.58c)
( 9.81 . (3.9088) rm~ . 61T
'l)I/4
Damping ratio ~Y
=( 8 x 6 ~7T+ 6
2
=3.9947m
~ = 0.2875
Inertia ratio B
YVB; ~:.

0.2875 (6.38)
= \1'0.235 = 0.587
77.7185
_ ___:_cc..:..:...::=.:::..._ = 0.3656
c. Rocking Vibrations

Equivalent radius ro4> by interchanging a and b in Eq. ( 6.58b), we get

G:~~)(3.9947)'
294 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES EXAMPLES 295

By replacing r0 with r0 • in Eq. (6.40a), we get spring stiffness k• b. Natural Frequency in Pure Sliding, w"'

_ !k; = 1155230.8
(6.30)
wny- \j "J:i \j 14.4265
16 = 103.73 rad/sec
= 3 x 8076 x (3.9947) 3 = 2745665 t m/rad
c. Natural Frequency in Pure Rocking, wn<t>
Damping ratio, I;•

0.5
!;• = 1 + 2B ,, (6.42)
= ~2465757.9 = 181.22 rad/sec
0.5 75.0786
= 1 + 2 X 0.3747 = 0 ·2888
d. Coupled Rocking and Sliding. Undamped natural frequencies
9. Natural Frequencies and Amplitudes of Vibration in coupled rocking and sliding are given by

a. Vertical Vibrations (6.54a)

Undamped natural frequency, W0 , 2 2 2 2
4 _ '( 103.73 + 181.22 ) + ( 103.73 181.22
X )) =O
w0 w0 0.8090 0.8090
= ~ = p88462.5
w"' \1-;:; 14.4265
(6.20)
or
= 114.29 rad/sec
f
w:- 5.3894 X 10 4 w~ + 4.3678 X 108 = 0
f 2 _ 5.3894 X 10
4
[ + /1- 4 X 4.3678 X 108 ]
!\' Wol,Z- 2 1 - \j (5.3894 X 10 4 ) 2
Damped amplitude, (A,)d I = 5.3894 X 104 (1 ± 0.6312]

(6.23c) I
'
i.
w~ 1 = 4.3955 X 10 4,
2
W 01 = 209.65 rad/sec
= 99.68 rad/sec,
fo 1 = 33.36 Hz
= 15.86 Hz
w~ 2 = 9938.0, W foz

'
02

((0.165 + 0.04)
2 f
1(
(188462 .3 ) \j 1 - ( 114.29
42.41 )')' (2
+ .
X 0.965 X 42.41)
114.29
lI
= 2.265 x 10- 6 m !
i
= 2.265 X 10- 3 mm < 0.0125 mm I
r: is acting at 2w. However, the final value of amplitude of motion
will not be appreciably affected.
I! (6.56)
I
v
296 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES
EXAMPLES 297

Ll.(w2) = {[<42 .41)' _ (42 .41)2( 181.220.8090

+ 103.73
2 2

(6.41a}
_ 4 X 0.587 0.551 X 103.73
X X 181.22)
0.8090 . /2745665
2 = 'V 77 .7185 = 187.95 rad/sec
+ 103.73 X 181.222] 2
0.8090 . /, = 29.91 Hz
+ 4 [ 0.587 X 103.73 X 42.41 2 2
0.8090 (181.22 - 42.41 )

+ 0.551 181.22 X 42.41 112

X 2 2 ]'} (6.41b}
0.8090 (103.73 -42.41 )
= 4.5049 X 10 8
M [(w2 + (2 < w )']'12 0.185
(A ) = ' "Y 'Y "Y
(6.55a)
Y d MmLI.(w'} 2 112
2 . )')' + ( 2 X 0.2858
2745665 [( 1- ( 42.41 X
42.41
. ) ]
2.2 (103.73 + (2 X 0.587 X 103.73) 2] 112 8
187 95 187 95
60.7416 4.5049 X 10 8 ;,'f" 7.30 X 10- rad ·:;.••r;
= 1.286 x 10- 8 m= 1.286 x 10- 5 mm Maximum horizontal displacement of an edge of the foundation
M [(w2 - w')2 + 4<2 2 2]112 occasioned by yawing, (Ah)d
(A ) = _x ny o:.yWnyW
1
Mm Ll.(w 2 ) (6.55b)
d (Ah}d = r(A•}d ( 6.84}
= (3 2 + 42 ) 112 X 7.300 X 10- 8 X 103 mm
2
2.2 [(103.73 - 42.41 2}2 + 4 X 0.587 2 X 103.73 2 X 42.41 2] 112
= 3.65 x 10- 4 mm
60.7416 4.5049 X 108
= 4.30 x 10- 7 rad <0.0125mm

Combined amplitudes (damped) B. Linear Elastic Weightless Spring Approach

Vertical, A,
The design of the foundation will now be evaluated by the linear
(A,)= (A,)+~ (A 1 ) (6.130a) weightless spring approach. Steps 1-7 are common with the elastic half-
space approach.
= 2.265 X 10- 3 + 4.530 X 10- 7 X 103
= 4.077 x 10- 3 mm < 0.0125 mm Natural Frequencies and Amplitudes

(A h)= (Axl + h(A 1 ) a. Vertical Vibratio'"ris

(6.130b}
5 Undamped natural frequency, "'"'
= 1.286 X 10- + (3.33- 1.0299)4.30 X 10- 7 X 10 3
= 1.548 x 10- 3 mm < 0.0125 mm . = [C"A]t/2 (6.63a)
wnz m
e. Torsional Vibrations
/8614.5 X 8 X 6
= 'V .4
14 265
= 169.2993 rad/sec
Natural frequency (undamped) ' w
m{l
fu, = 26.95 Hz
 299
EXAMPLES
298 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES
4 9
Undamped amplitude, A,
2 - 9.0328 X 10 [1 + I1 - 4 X 1.0406 X 10 ]
wn!,2- 2 - '1 (9.0328 X 10 4 ) 2

4
= 9.0328 X 10 [
1 ± 0. 69981
(6.64b) 2
(0.165 + 0.04) -7
5 29 10
2 2
14.4265((169.2993) - ( 42.41)) = · x m w! 1 = 7.6773 X 10
4
, wn 1 =277.079rad/sec
= 0.000529 mm
fn! = 44.09 Hz
Check
w ~2 = 13558.23 , Wnz = 116.439 rad/sec
w 42.41
0 25 fnz = 18.53 Hz
169.2993 = ·
A,= 0.0000529 mm < 0.0125 mm
Undamped amplitude
b. Limiting natural frequency in sliding along the Y axis, wny
~(w 2 )= mMm(w~ 1 - w )(w! 2
2 2
- w ) (6.122)
tr '~;,~o.:r

wny = ~C;,A (6.66a) = 14.4265 X 60.7416(277.079

2
-
2
42.41 )(116.439
2
- 42.41
2
)

1 8614.5 = 7.7267 10
11
C,= 2 C" = - -
2
=4307.25t/m
3 X

/4307.25 X 8 X 6 Maximum exciting moment= Mx = M~ + M~

wny = Y .4
14 265
= 119.7126 rad/sec
Mx = (1750 + 450) = 2200 kg m = 2.2 t m
c. Limiting Natural Frequency in Rocking about X axis
Replacing Ax and MY with AY and M" respectively, in eq. (6.127),
_ fC.;I- WL we get
wncf> - 'V M ( 6. 74a)
mO
3
Cq, = 2Cn = 2 X 8614.5 = 17299 tlm
_ /177229 X 256 (14.4265 X 9.81) X 1.0299
Wn<l- Y 75.0786 = 4307.25 X 48 X 1.0299 X 2.2 = .
6 062
X
10
_7 m
11
= 242.3732 rad/sec 7.7267 X 10

= 6.062 x 10- 4 mm
d. Coupled Rocking and Sliding. Undamped natural frequencies in cou- iS.:.
pled rocking and sliding are given by 2
_ [C,A- mw ] M (6.128)
2 2 ) 2 2 A.,- ~(w2) Y
w4- w2 (
wny + (J)ncf> + wnywnc/> = 0
'Y
(6.112)
n n '}' 2
(4307.25 X 48- 14.4265( 42.41) ](2.2)
2 2
w' _ w2( 119.7126 + 242.3732 ) + (119.7126 2 X 242.3732 2) = 7.7267 X 10
11

n n 0.8090 0.8090 O
4 9
= 5.147 x 10- 7 rad
w~- w~(9.0328 X 10 ) + 1.0406 X 10 = 0
300 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES
OVERVIEW 301

e. Combined Amplitudes of Vibration

axis of rotation and is given by
Vertical amplitude, A"
Ah = rA., (6.84)

(6.130a) = (3 2 + 42 ) 112 X 7.567 X 10- 8 X 103 mm

= 3.7835 x 10- 4 mm
= 5.29 X 10- 4 + 4 X 5.147 X 10- 7 X 10 3 mm
<0.0125mm
= 25.878 x 10- 4 mm < 0.0125 mm

Horizontal amplitude, Ah (at bearing level of compressor) 6.10 OVERVIEW

Replacing Ax witb AY in Eq. (6.130b) we get,
Two methods for the analysis and design of foundations for reciprocating
Ah = AY + hA" machines have been discussed: the linear elastic weightless spring method
and the elastic half-space method. The effect of the soil mass participating in
= 6.062 X 10- 4 + (3.33 -1.0299)5.147 X 10- 7 X 103 mm the vibrations and the nonlinearity of the soil have not been included. The
effect of embedment is examined in Chapter U; and pile-supported machine
foundations ar~,considered in Chap!er_ 12.
= 17.90 X 10- 4 mm <0.0125 mm Damping has' not been considerea'Jn the discussion of tbe linear elastic
weightless spring method, but in the elastic half-space method it has been
f. Torsional Vibrations seen that radiation damping affects amplitudes, particularly at resonance.
In tbe linear elastic weightless spring method, it has been assumed that
Undamped natural frequency, w""' the soil can be simulated by elastic springs. The assumption is in keeping
with the small amplitudes of motion that are associated with the operation
of a machine supported on a well-designed foundation. In the elastic
(6.81a) half-space method, analogs have been established as spring-dashpot sys-
tems. Both the spring and the damping in the elastic half-space method can
C~, = 0.75C" = 0.75 X 8614.5 = 6460.8 t/m 3 be defined in terms of the elastic constants of the material, the geometry of
tbe problem, and the mode of vibration of the foundation. Fortunately, for
/6460.8 X 400 the practicing engineer, these analogs yield satisfactory answers. Solutions
w,~, = 'I .
77 7185
= 182.353 rad/sec for simultaneous rocking and sliding have been based upon the analogs
fn~· = 29.02 Hz derived from the theory of an elastic half-space; however, if sliding and
rocking response frequencies differ by a factor of three or more, the two
Undamped amplitude, A., motions can be analyzed independently and the amplitudes of motion
~uperimposed (McNeill, 1969).
The response of the soil--'foundation system can also be computed by
A - M, using the concept of comJ?liance-impedance function. This method is dis-
~'-M[2 2 (6.83)
m,wn,~-w)] cussed in Chapter 11 (Sec'ti.on 11.5).
0.185 The mass of the soil spring has not been included in the foregoing
77.7185[182.353 2 - 42.41 2 ] analysis. The mass-spring system in Fig. 2.16 has a spring of weight w per
unit length. With regard to the length of the spring, it is shown in Chapter 2
= 7.567 X 10- 8 rad (section 2.8) that the natural frequency is defined by:

The maximum horizontal displacement occasioned by yawing oc-

curs at the corner of the foundation farthest away from the vertical w- ~ kg (2.70b)
~~- W+~wl

302 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES
That is, one-third of the mass of the spring can be assumed to be con-
centrated at the center of the vibrating mass. Pauw (1953), Balakrishna and
Nagraj (1960), and Balakrishna (1961) and Hsieh (1962) attempted to
compute the effective in-phase soil mass (or mass moments of inertia of the
soil) (Table 6.4). However, Richart et al. (1970) recommended that even tf
the "in-phase mass" could be determined satisfactorily, this information
would not lead directly to an evaluation of the vibration amplitude. Also, in
fixing the quantities of the analog, the in-phase soil mass (or mass moment
of inertia) has not been considered. Therefore, an in-phase soil mass may
not be considered at this stage in the analysis, but the problem may be
realistically analyzed in the future.
The effects of the nonlinearity of a soil on a foundation's response have
been studied by Novak (1970), Funston and Hall (1967), and Ehlerchritof
(1968), but such effects may be insignificant in the design of ordinary
machine foundations, because after the first few cycles of operation, the soil
behavior essentially approaches that of linear elasticity for the small am-
plitudes of motion. However, nonlinear effects may be significant for radar
installations and missile launching facilities.
Table 6.4. Effective Mass and Mass Moment of Inertia for Soil below a Vibrating
Footing
Effective mass or mass moment
of inertia of soil
Mode of vibration v = 1/4 v = 1/2
Vertical translation 0.5pr~ l.Opr~ 2.0pr~
Horizontal translation 0.2pr~ 0.2pr~ O.lpr~
Rocking 0.4pr~ not computed
Torsion (about vertical 0.3pr~ 0.3pr~ 0.3pr~
axis)
Source: Hsieh (1962). Published by Thomas Telford Publications
Data on the performance of machine foundations are scant. The procure-
ment of such data will increase confidence levels in the design. Based upon a
limited number of observations, Barkan (1962) found good agreement
between the computed and the observed natural frequencies of vertically
vibrating foundations designed on the basis of the linear elastic weightless
spring method. His computed amplitudes, however, were not in agreement
with observed amplitudes. Richart and Whitman (1967) compared model
footing test results with solutions based on the elastic half-space method.
Their computed amplitudes for the vertical vibrations ranged from 50%
below to more than 50% above the observed amplitudes. Prakash et al.
REFERENCES 303
(1981) have found, however, that better correlations between computed and
observed values of amplitudes are possible if the values of the sot! parame-
ters are selected to be consistent with the effective confining pressures and
shear strain amplitudes. Based on the results of small-scale field experi-
ments, Novak (1985) pointed out that the elastic half-space theory grossly
overestimates the values of geometrical damping. Further investigations are
therefore needed to be able to arrive at methods for predicting realistic
values of damping. Also the stiffness as well as damping are significantly
influenced by an underlying hard stratum and this fact must be carefully
considered while designing the foundations for the machines and also while
evaluating its observed performance (Dobry and Gazetas, 1986; Novak,
1985).
Based on an evaluation of the performance of a reciprocating compressor
foundation Prakash and Puri (1981b) stressed the importance of conducting
' '. .
suitable in situ dynamic soil investigations and properly mterpretmg the test
data to arrive at the design values of soil parameters. Moore (1971) and
Prakash and Puri (1981b) observed that there is relatively little field
confirmation pf the accuracy of commonly used design methods. Thus, there
is a great need to monitor the pe,fformance of prototype machine foun-
dations. Such efforts will be meaningful if necessary geotechmcal mves-
tigations of the sites are conducted simultaneously.
REFERENCES
Arnold, R.N., Bycroft, G, N., and Warburton, G. B. (1955). Forced vibrations of a body on
an infinite elastic solid. Trans. ASME 77, 391-401.
Balakrishna, R. H. A. (1961). The design of machine foundations related to the bulb of
pressure. Proc. Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., 5th, Paris Vol. 1, 563-568.
Balakrishna, R. H. A., and Nagraj, C. N. (1960). A new method for predicting natural
frequency of foundation-soil systems. Struct. Eng., 310-316.
Barkan, D. D. (1962). Dynamics of Base and Foundations. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Bycroft, G. N. (1956). Forced vibrations of a rigid circular plate on a semi-infinite elastic space
and on an elastic stratum. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 248, 327-368.
Chae, Y. S. (1969). Vibrations of non-circular foundations. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am.
Soc. Civ. Eng. 95 (SM-6), 1411-1430.
Dasgupta, S. P., and Rao, N. S. V. K. (1978). Dynamics of rectangular footings by finite
elements. J. Geotech. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 104 (GT-5), 621-637.
Dobry, R., and Gazetas, G:'~i(1986). Dynamic response of arbitrarily shaped foundations. J.
Geotech. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 112 (GT-2), 109-135.
Dobry, R., Gazetas, G., and Stoke, K. H. (1986). Dynamic response of arbitrarily shaped
footings. J. Geotech. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 112 (GT-2), 136-159.
Ehlerchritof, O.M. (1968). Non-linear parameters of vibrating foundations. J. Soil Mech.
Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 94 (SM-6), 1190-1214.
Elorduy, J., Nieto J. A., and Szekley, E. M. (1967). Dynamic response of bases of arbitrary
shape subjected to periodic vertical loading. Proc. Int. Symp. Wave Propag. Dyn. Prop.
Earth Mater., Albuquerque, NM, 105-121.
 305
jU4 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES REFERENCES

Funston, N. E., and Hall, W. J. (1967). Footing vibrations with non~linear subgrade support. J. · F E J d Wh"tman R. v. (1967). Comparison of footing vibrations tests with
Rtchart, . ., r., an 1 , . ( M 6) 143 168
Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 93 (SM~5), 91-211. theory. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Clv. Eng. 93 S - , - ·
Hall, J. R. (1967). Coupled rocking and sliding oscillations of rigid circular footings. Proc. Int. Richart, F. E., Jr., Hall, J. R., and Wood~, R. D. (1970). "Vibrations of Soils and
Symp. Wave Propag. Dyn. Prop. Earth Mater. Albuquerque, NM, 139-148. Foundations." Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Hayashi, K. (1921). "Theorie des Tragers auf Elastischer Unterlage." SpringerNerlag, Berlin Sung, T. Y. (1953a). Vibrations in semi~infinite solids due to periodic surface loading. ASTM
and New York. Spec. Tech. Pub/. STP !56, 35-63. . . .
Heteyni, M. (1946). "Beams on Elastic Foundations." Univ. of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor. Sung, T. Y. (1953b). Vibrations in semi-infinite solids due to penodtc surface loadmg, S. D.
Hausner, G.W., and Castellani, A. (1969). Discussion on the paper, Comparison of footing Thesis, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
vibration tests with theory by F. E. Richart, Jr. and R. V. Whitman. J. Soil Mech. Found. Terzaghi, K. (1943). "Theoretical Soil Mechanics." Wiley, Ne~ York. .
Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 95 (SM-1), 360-364. erzag . K • (!955) . Evaluation of coefficients of subgrade reaction. Geotechmque, 5, 297-326.
T h 1, .
Hsieh, T. K. (1962). Foundation vibrations. Proc. lnst. Civ. Eng. 22, 211-226. Thomson, w. T., and Kobori, T. (1963). Dynamical compliance of rectangular foundattons on
Kobori, T. (1962). Dynamical response of rectangular foundation on an elastic half space. an elastic half space. Trans. ASME 30 579-584.
Proc. Jpn. Nat!. Symp. Earthquake Eng., 81-86. Warburton, G. B. (1957). Forced vibrations of a body upon an elastic stratum. Trans. ASME
Kuhlemeyer, R. L. (1969). Vertical vibrations of footing embedded in layered media. Ph.D. 24, 55-58.
Dissertation, University of .California, Berkeley. 't R v and Richart F. E. Jr. (1967). Design procedures for dynamically loaded
Wh1 man, · ., ' ' · ( 6) !69 193
Lamb, H. (1904). On the propagation of tremors over the surface of an elastic solid. Philos. foundations. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Clv. Eng. 93 SM- , - ·
Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 203, 1-72.
Lysmer, J., and Richart, F. E., Jr. (1966). Dynamic response of footing to vertical loading. J.
Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 92 (SM~1), 65-91.
McNeill, R. L. (1969). Machine foundations, soil dynamics specialty session. Proc. Int. Conf. !.·
Soil. Mech. Found. Eng., 7th, Mexico City, pp. 67-100.
Moore, P. J. (1971). Calculated and observed vibration amplitudes. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div.,
Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 97 (SM-1), 14!-158.
Novak, M. (1970). Prediction of footing vibrations. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ.
Eng. 96, (SM-3), 837--861.
Novak, M. (1985). Experiments with shallow and deep foundations. Proc. Symp. Vib. Frob.
Geotech. Eng., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., Annu. Conv., Detroit, 1-26.
Pauw, A. (1953). A dynamic analogy for foundation soil systems. ASTM Spec. Tech. Pub[.
STP 156, 90-112.
Prakash S., and Puri, V. K. (1969). Design of a typical machine foundation by different
methods. Bull. Indian Soc. Earthquake Techno!. 6 (3), 109-136.
Prakash, S., and Puri, V. K. (1980). "Design of a Compressor Foundation-Observations and
Predictions," Mach. Found. Des. Anal. Lect. Notes. University of Missouri-Rolla, Rolla.
Prakash, S., and Puri, V. K. (1981a). Dynamic properties of soils from in-situ tests. J. Geotech.
Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 107 (GT-7), 943-963. .
Prakash, S., and Puri, V. K. (1981b). Observed and predicted response of a machine
foundation. Proc. Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., lOth, Stockholm, Vol. 3, 269-272.
Prakash, S., Puri, V. K., and Horst, W. D. (1981). Some aspects of machine foundation design.
Proc. Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., 10th, Stockholm, Vol. 4, 868-871.
Quinlan, P. M. (1953). The elastic theory of soil dynamics. ASTM Spec. Tech. Pub!. STP 156,
3-34.
Reissner, E. (1936). Stationare Axialymmeterische durch line Schuttelnde Masse Erregte
Schwingungen lines Homogenen Elastichen Halbraumes. 'lng. Arch. 7 (6), 381-396.
Reissner, E. (1937). Freie und Erzawungene Torsionschwingungen des Elastichen Halbraumes.
Ing.-Arch. 8(4), 229-245.
Reissner, E., and Sagoci, H. F. (1944). Forced torsional oscillations of an elastic half space. J.
App/. Phys. 15, 652-662.
Richart, F. E., Jr. (1962). Foundation vibrations. Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 127, Part I,
863-898.
 7 METHODS OF ANALYSIS
Foundations for Impact
Machines
There are several types of machines that produce transient dynamic loads of
short duratiOn that may be characterized as impacts, shocks, or pulses.
Examples of shock producing machines are the hammers, presses, crushers,
and mills. Ha'?mers are most typical of impact machines and are of many
types. Accordmg to their functiOns, they may be classified into forging
hammers (proper) and drop hamm~rs. Drop hammers are used for a variety
of purposes such as forgmg, stampmg, and ore breaking.
The hammer-foundation system consists of a frame, a falling weight
known as "tup," the anvil and the foundation block as shown in Fig. 7.1.
The. fra'?e may be mounted on the foundation block (Fig. 7.1a) or on the
anvil (F1g. 7.lb).
The anvil is a massive steel block on which material is forged into desired
shape or br?ken by the illlpact of repeated blows of the tup. The anvil may
be fixed or 1! rna~ move m a manner similar to the tup. An impact machine
Ill WhiCh the anvil also moves is known as a counter-blow hammer.
Impact machines are rated according to the nominal weight of the tup or
the droppmg parts and the height of the drop. The tup's movement is
me.asured by the number of blows or impacts it makes per minute. The
weight of the tup may vary from 0.25 to 10 tons. The height of the drop may
range from 0.3 to 2.0 m or more. Steam or air pressure may be used to lift
the tup, which 1s then allowed to fall freely. This class of hammers is known
as drop hammers. The forging P?wer of the hammer may be enhanced by
~ncrea_smg the velocity of drop wtth compressed air-·or steam. The hammers
m which steam or air pressure acts on the tup, both during the process of
hemg lifted or dropped, are known as double-acting hammers. A part of the
Impact energy IS used up in causing plastic deformation of the material being
forged and conversiOn mto heat, and the remaining energy is transmitted to
the foundation and the soil. A proper design of the foundation for the
hammer IS therefore essential to avoid any harmful effects due to hammer
306
307
(a) (b)
Figure 7.1. Typical arrangement of a hammer foundation resting on soil. (a) Frame mounted
on foundation blo_fJ<; (b) frame mounted on;~,tl:!,e anvil.
operation on the foundation itself, and also on the adjacent structures and
machines and people in the vicinity.
The foundation for a hammer generally consists of a reinforced concrete
block. In case of small hammers, the anvil may be mounted directly on the
foundation block (Fig. 7.2a). To reduce the transmission of impact stresses
to the concrete block and the frame, an elastic pad consisting of rubber, felt,
cork, or timber is generally provided between the anvil and the foundation
block (Fig. 7.2b). In case of high capacity hammers, special elements such as
coil springs and dampers may be used in place of elastic pads (Fig. 7.2c).
The foundation block is mostly designed to rest directly on soil (Figs. 7.2a,
b, c). When the soil conditions are poor, the foundation block may be
l supported on piles. The foundation block may have to be supp?rted on
elastic pads or spring absorbers, if necessary, to reduce transmission of
· vibrations to adjoining facilities (Figs. 7.2d, e).
7.1 METHODS OF ANXLYSlS
The dynamic response of hammer foundations is computed by modelling
them as lumped-mass systems. The number of degreess of freedom that
must be considered in the analysis depend on the foundation type and also
on whether the tup moves along the centerline of the system or at an
eccentricity. When the anvil is rigidly mounted on the foundation block
without an absorber pad (Fig. 7.2a) and the impact is central, the system
 Anvil and
/ foundation block
Foundation

~1
block
resting I
on soil
Elastic
pad
below Anvil and
-tr- 1

anvil foundation
block
(a) (b)

Air gap (a)

Spring
absorbers

~jt:[}i];'11r'"r.;.nrnr~t~ ~Tup

llft0Jf~J~€6~f,ht
Foundation block
resting on soil
~Tup
Damping
in pad
Anvil
I
I
Spring k3 of pad
below anvil

(d) (c)
Anvil
Damping in I Foundation
absorber block
Foundation Spring k2 of
block
/ elastic pad
L"""'----,,---r:-oii'amping in
the pad

Trough
~1
Foundaf1on
block

Spring absorber
below foundation
block

Damping in soil (d)

(e) (c)
. h -foundation-soil systems: (a) single~degree·
Figure 7.2. Schematic diagram showing different arrangements for supporting anvil and Figure 7.3. Some models f?r repre_sentm~re:~~e:ee~oMreedom model (eccentric impact); (c)
foundation block: (a) anvil resting directly on the foundation block; (b) anvil on the elastic pad; of~freedom model (central •mpact), (b)l '. I)~ (d) three~degree~of-freedom system (central
(c) anvil on spring absorbers; (d) foundation block on elastic pad; (e) foundation block on two-degree-of-freedom system (centra lmpac ,
springs. impact).
309
308
 311
310 FOUNDATIONS FOR IMPACT MACHINES METHODS OF ANAlYSIS

will undergo only vertical vibrations and rna y be modeled as a single-degree-

of-freedom system, as shown in Fig. 7.3a.
When the impact is at an eccentricity, the same system of Fig. 7.2a will
undergo not only vertical vibrations, but also rocking (rotation) in a vertical
plane and sliding (horizontal translation) and may thus be modeled as shown
in Fig. 7.3b. For cases when the anvil rests on an elastic pad and the
foundation block rests directly on soil (Fig. 7.2b, c), the foundation soil
system may be modelled as shown in Fig. 7.3c. If the impact is central, the
system of Fig. 7 .3c can be analyzed as a two degree freedom system
undergoing vertical translation. If the impact is at an eccentricity, each of
the masses" m 1 and m 2 (Fig. 7.3c) will have three degrees of freedom
consisting of vertical translation and coupled rocking and sliding resulting in
an overall system with six degrees of freedom. When the foundation block
rests on absorber (Fig: 7.2d), the system can be modeled as shown in Fig. Foundation
7.3d and will have three degrees of freedom for central impact and, overall, block
nine degrees of freedom when the impact is at an eccentricity. As the I
stiffness of trough (Fig. 7.2d) is usually very high compared to tbat of the
pad below the foundation block, the trough may be assumed to be rigidly L-!:===t====~?ss~o·,ll spr"m-it'~f
supported on the soil (Novak, 1983) and a two-mass model will be sufficient I

:::wk//ffff~//////,/,1,/I///,?/
for all practical purposes. The eccentricity of impact is generally avoided by
suitably controlling the geometrical layout of the foundation, and proper
alignment of the tup and frequent maintenance, and most practical cases can
thus be analyzed by using a two-degree-of-freedom model (shown in Fig.
7.3c). The computations can be further simplified by making the following
assumptions:
1. The anvil, foundation block, frame, and tup are rigid bodies.
2. The pad and the soil can be simulated by equivalent weightless, elastic
springs.
3. The damping of the elastic pad and soil is neglected.
4. The time of impact is short compared to the period of natural
vibrations of the system.
5. Embedment effects are neglected.
Figure 7 .4. Simplified twowdegree-of-free-
dom model.
· ·ated w1'th this mode of vibration (Section 6.4). Similarly,
d ampmg are assoc1 · f h d
the elastic pad has a finite damping depending upon the matenal o t e/-a ·
The duration of the impact (assumption 4) is generally very sma11 an l(s a
conservative assumptiOn · (N ovak , 1983) · The embedment . effects as- .
sumption 5) can be neglected if an air gap or a trench filled w1th sawdust IS
constructed around the foundation block, otherwise the embedment may
significantly modify the frequencies and amphtudes (Novak, 1970). 'b .
These assumptions simplify the process of computatmn o~ VI ratton
characteristics of the hammer foundation, which can be ldeahzed as an
undamped two-degree-of-freedom system, as shown Ill F1g. 7 .4.

Validity of the Assumptions Equations of Motion ,.

The s stem shown in Fig': 7.4 is similar to the two-degree-of-freedom system
Assumption 1 about the rigidity of the anvil, foundation block, tup and
. F' y 2 22 and the equations of motion for free vibrations may therefore be
frame is practically correct. The pad material and·' soil cari be considered to m 1g . .
behave elastically (assumption 2) for small amplitudes of vibration. As the written as
pad between the anvil and the foundation block becomes older, it may start m1 z
1
+ k 1z 1 + k,(z 1 - z 2 )=0 (2.95c)
losing its elasticity and should be replaced after regular intervals of ope-
ration. Assumption 3 about neglecting the damping in the pad and the soil is m 2i + k 2 (z 2 - z 1) =0 (2.95b)
2
not correct. The foundation block supporting the anvil undergoes vertical
vibrations and a significant amount of geometrical as well as material in which
 312
FOUNDATIONS FOR IMPACT MACHINES METHODS OF ANALYSIS 313

m 1 =mass of the foundation and includes the mass of the backfill and the
frame (if mounted on the foundation block as in Fig. 7.1a)
m, =mass of the anvil (and includes the mass of the frame if it is
mounted on the anvil as in Fig. 7.1b)
k 1 = equivalent soil spring below the foundation block for vertical vibra-
tions
k 2 = equivalent spring of the pad below the anvil
z 1 = displacement of the foundation
z 2 =displacement of the anvil
w = the limiting natural frequency of the anvil and foundation resting
nl, on soil (assuming the anvil is rigidly attached to the foundation
block)
w,,, = the limiting natural frequency of the anvil vibrating on the elastic
pad or springs, and
The values of wn 11 and wn 12 may be calculated as

The value of the equivalent soil spring k 1 may be ~htained either by using
the elastic half-space method (Richart and Whitman, 1967; Richart et al., wnll = ~ m: m
1 2
(2.99a)
1970) or from the linear spring approach (Barkan, 1962). The value of k
1 and
from the elastic half-space method is obtained as
(2.99b)
k = k = 4Gr0 (6.18)
1 ' (1- v)
~' ''- ,;,.'f'

Similarly the value of k, from linear spring approach may be obtained
from Eq. ( 4.27):
( 4.27)
in which A 1 = area of the foundation block in contact with the soil.
The value of k 2 may be obtained from Eq. (7.1):
(7.1)
in which
E = Young's modulus for the material of the pad
b = thickness of the pad
A, =area of the anvil base in contact with the pad
In case the anvil is supported on spring absorbers, k 2 should be calculated
as the combmed stiffness of all the springs.
Natural Frequencies
The two natural frequencies w, 1 and w, 2 of free vibration of the system of
Fig. 7.4 may be determmed from the frequency equation given below:
Amplitudes of Anvil and Foundation Motion
The amplitudes of anvil and foundation vibration may be computed by
considering the free vibrations of the anvil-foundation soil system as being
triggered by an initial velocity imparted to the anvil by the impact of the ram
on the metal piece being forged.
The particular solutions for amplitudes of vibration may be obtained by
expressing z 1 and z 2 as follows:
(7.2a)
(7.2b)
The initial conditions of vibration may be expressed by using Eq. (7.3). At
timet= 0
(7.3a)
(7.3b)
""+:.
in which Va is the initial velocity of anvil motion. By substituting z 1 and z 2
from Eqs. (7.2) into Eqs. (2.95b and c) and using the initial conditions given
by Eq. (7.3), the expressions for z 1 and z 2 are obtained Eq. (7.4):

(2.98) (7.4a)
in which
and
 315
METHODS OF ANALYSIS
314 FOUNDATIONS FOR IMPACT MACHINES

Initial Velocity of Anvil Motion V,

The contribution of the higher of the two natural frequencies ' wnl and w n2'
towards the amplitude of motion is small (Barkan, 1962) and may be
neglected for all practical purposes. By neglecting the terms of sin wn 1t (in
which wn 1 > w" 2 ) in Eqs. (7.4a and b), the maximum displacements
(sin w" 2 t = 1) of the foundation and anvil become
(7.5a)
and
The initial velocity of the anvil just after the tup's impact can be determined
by using the law of conservation of momentum. The impact of the tup on
the anvil may be central or eccentric (Fig. 7.5). In cases of centrallffipact,
the initial velocity V" may be computed by assuming that the impact takes
place in a vertical plane through the centroid ~f th~ foundal!on. The
centered impact will result only in translatiOnal vtbrauons m the verl!cal
direction and only linear momentum need be considered. The momentum ?f
the tup before impact is (W)g)VT,. The anvil is initially at rest, and tts
mo1Uentum before impact is zero. The momentum of the tup and anvtl after
impact is given by
w
-"v+--'V
w
g 1 g a

(7.5b) in which V is the velocity of the anvil after impact, W2 the weight of the
anvil (including the frame if it is mounted on the anvil), and V, the v~locity
The values of amplitude of anvil and foundation can thus be determined of the rebol!Ild of the tup after im,pf!Cl. Accordmg to the pnnctpal of tmpact
for rigid bodies, the momentum' before and after the impact in a conser-
from Eq. (7.5a, b) by substituting the values of wnl, wnl• Wnz• and V,. The
initial velocity of anvil motion can be determined by considering the impact vative system is constant. Therefore,
of the tup on the anvil and the velocity of the tup at the time of impact. w w w
_ov.=-"V +-'V (7.8)
gTI gt ga
Initial Velocity of Tup at the Time of Impact
Equation (7.8) has two unknowns, V1 and V,. A second equation may be
For a single-acting drop hammer, the initial velocity of the tup VT, at the
time of impact after the !up's free fall is

(7 .6)

in which h is the drop of the tup in meters, g the acceleration occasioned by

gravity, and 17 the efficiency of the drop. For efficiency of drop TJ, one must
consider the energy lost in overcoming the friction to the !up's movement
l' I
~

I Tup
and the resistance of the counter pressure of air or steam. For well-adjusted
hammers TJ will be close to 1 and a value of 0.65 may generally be used. For
I
:
double-acting hammers, operated by pneumatic or steam pressure, VT, is
given by: Anvil

Ch r
•(
e.G.\
(7.7) Elastic pa d

I
in which I
Foundation
block
Wa =the gross weight of the dropping parts, including upper half of the
die
p = steam or air pressure
A P = the net piston area
i
I
Figure 7.5. Model for calculating initial velocity
of anvil for the case of eccentric impact.
 317
316 FOUNDATIONS FOR IMPACT MACHINES METHODS OF ANALYSIS

obtained from Newton's law, according to which the coefficient of elastic after eccentric impact, it is V, + r¢,- V1 • By applying Eq. (7.9), we obtain
restitution "e", is defined by
(7.13)
relative velocity after impact
(7.9)
e = relative velocity before impact
From Eqs. (7.8), (7.12), and (7.13), the values of V, and¢, are obtained as
The coefficient of elastic restitution depends upon the material of the follows:
bodies involved in impact. For impact between two perfectly rigid bodies, e
is equal to 1. When a rigid body impacts a plastic body, e is zero. The value (7.14a)
of e thus lies within the range of 0 and 1 for forge hammers. The value of e
depends on factors such as the temperature of the forged piece, the
and
dimensions and form of the grooves in the stamping hammers, and the
. _ s(1 + e)r V: . (7.14b)
elastic properties of the tup, die, and anvil. The coefficient of restitution 2 2
increases with the number of blows as the piece being forged cools. To "'"- (1 + s)(r +e)- r n
account for the most unfavorable conditions of operation, a value of e = 0.5 in which k' is equal to Mm 2 g/W0 • When r is zero, i.e., for central impact,
may be adopted for design purposes.
Eqs. (7.14a) and (7.14b) yield
Equation (7.9) is the second equation used to solve for V1 and V, and
may be rewritten as

(7.10)
This expression for V, is the same as in Eq. (7.1la).

From Eqs. (7.8), and (7.10), the value of V, is

Stress in the Pad
1+e Maximum compressive stress in the elastic pad below the anvil depends
va = 1+ s VTi
(7.1la)
upon the relative displacements of anvil and the foundation block. The
in which worst case of compression in the pad develops when the anvil moves
downward, and at the same instant of time, the foundatiOn block moves
upward. The maximum compressive stress in the pad IS thus expressed by
(7.1lb)

u p = k,
z, A+ z, (7.15)
m, =mass of the dropping parts. 2

If the impact of the tup on the anvil is not central, then in addition to the
linear motion in the vertical direction, the anvil will rotate around the axis Dynamic Force Transmitted by the Foundation
that passes through the center of gravity of the anvil and is perpendicular to
the plane of the impact. In addition to the linear momentum angular The dynamic force Fdyn transmitted to the soil is given by
momentum also needs to be considered in the case of eccentric impact. The (7.16)
moment of momentum of the tup and anvil is given by (Fig. 7.5). Fdyn = k,Z,

Stresses in the Soil

(7.12)
Stresses transmitted to the soil u through the combined static and dynamic
loads are expressed by
in which r is the eccentricity, Mm 2 the mass moment of inertia of the anvil
and tup around the axis of rotation, and ¢,the initial velocity of rotation of (7.17)
the anvil. The relative velocity of the system before impact is CVn - 0), and
 318
FOUNDATIONS FOR IMPACT MACHINES DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR HAMMER FOUNDATIONS 319

7.2 DESIGN CRITERIA

of a foundation. Sometimes, the amplitudes of vibration of a foundation
block may be within the specified limits from consideration of the operation
A hammer foundation mu~t be . designed to ensure long-term efficient of the tup but not acceptable for adjacent machines and structures. In such
operatwn ~f the hammer With m1mmum disturbance to the environment cases, it may become necessary to design a foundation that is supported on
This obJective can be achieved if the foundation for the hammer is designed springs or vibration absorbers. Restrictions on available area for the mach-
to possess the characteristics given below: ine's foundation may also necessitate the use of absorbers. The design of
foundations on absorbers is discussed in Chapter 10.
1. Its natural frequency should be either 30 percent smaller or 21 time
2
the frequency of the impacts. s
2 .. Natural frequency of the foundation should not be a whole number 7.3 DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR HAMMER FOUNDATIONS
multiple of the operating frequency of the tup .
. 3 .. The amplitudes of vibration of the anvil and the foundation should be Having studied the analyses of a foundation for an impact machine, a step
With~n the permiSSible values specified by the manufacturer. If these speci- by step design procedure can now be outlined for this type of foundation.
ficatiOns from ~he manufacturer are not available, the values of maximum
allowable amplitudes may be obtained from Table 7.1.
Design Data
4. The maximum stresses in the elastic pad below the anvil should not
exceed the permissible values. The allowable stresses in the elastic pad Obtain all the necessary information pertaining to the machine, soil condi-
depe_nd upon the material ofthe pad. The stresses for timber pads may be tions, and layout of the floor pla~; ..9f the shop.
obtamed from codes of practiCe. For material, such as rubber or neoprene
the values of the permissible stresses are generally specified by the supplier: Machine Data. All data pertaining to the size and the weight of various
components of the drop hammer, method of supporting the frame, height of
h.5.h The
· 0 stresses
· in the soil should not exceed the permtsst· "ble values,
movement of the tup, and weight of the upper and lower parts of the die
w IC IS .8 times the value for purely static loads.
should be obtained. Information on the permissible amplitudes of the anvil
6. The design of the entire foundation system should be such that the motion and the foundation block should also be obtained. If this infor-
centers of grav.Ity of the anvil, the foundation block, frame, and the centroid
mation is not available, the amplitudes of motion given in Table 7.1 may be
of t,he foundatiOn contact area lie on a vertical line defined by center of th
tup s descent. e considered as limiting values.

The criteria mentioned above should ensure the satisfactory performance
Soil Data. For drop hammers of up to 1-ton capacity, soil data should
generally be collected to a depth of 6 m. For heavier impact machines, it is
preferable to investigate soil conditions to a depth of 12m or to a hard
stratum. If piles are to be used, the investigation should be conducted to a
suitable depth.

Table 7.1. Maximum Allowable Amplitudes for Layout Plan. The layout plan of the shop in which the drop hammer is
Hammer Foundations to be installed should be obtained, and the position of any precision
machines in the vicinity and adjoining structures that may be adversely
Weight of the Tup Maximum Amplitude, mm
affected by the hamm~'s operation should be ascertained so that vibration
(ton) Anvil Foundation Block isolation measures may be incorporated at the design stage, if necessary.
(!) (2) (3)
<1 1.0 1.2 2 Soil Constants
2 2.0 1.2
>3 The values of the dynamic soil constants should be determined following the
4 1.2
procedure suggested in Chapter 4 in a manner that is consistent with
Source: N~vak (1983). Reproduced with the permission of conditions of confining pressure and anticipated strain levels likely to be
the Canadwn Geotechnical Journal.
induced in the soil by the prototype foundation.
 321
320 FOUNDATIONS FOR IMPACT MACHINES DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR HAMMER FOUNDATIONS

4Gr" (6.18)
The allowable soil pressure below the foundation should he determined k, = 1- v
from appropriate field tests.
EA 2 (7.1)
k,= -b-
3 Trial Dimensions of the Foundation Components
in which
Select the trial dimensions of the anvil, foundation block, and size and
thickness of the pad below the anvil. The guidelines given below may be G = dynamic shear modulus of the soil
followed in determining the trial dimensions.
r o = equivalent radius of the foundation

Area. The area at the base of the foundation block should be such that v =Poisson's ratio
the safe loading intensity of the soil is never exceeded while the drop E =Young's modulus of pad material
hammer is operating. A = area of the anvil
2 '1
b = thickness of pad below the anv1 ·
Depth. The depth of the foundation block should be designed so that
the block is safe in punching shear and in bending. The inertial forces that Equivalent radius r" is given by:
develop should also be included in the calculations. The minimum thickness
of the foundation block should be 1.0 m for light hammers and 2.5 m for (6.58a)
hammers of medium weight.

The weight of the anvil may generally be kept at 20 times the

Weight. in which A is the area of the foundation block. .
The nat~ral frequencies of combined system are computed as follows.
weight of the tup. The weight of the foundation block, Wu generally varies
from 60 to 120 times the weight of the tup (Barkan, 1962; Major, 1980). (2.98)

Thickness of the Elastic Pad. The thickness of the elastic pad below the
anvil and the foundation block (if necessary) depends on the material of the
pad and should be ascertained by analysis.
5 Velocity of Tup and Anvil
4 Natural Freqencies of the Hammer- Foundation System Compute the velocity Vn of the tup before impact as follows:
Compute the limiting natural frequencies W 01 and W 01 as
[ ' 11Y2g(W" + pAP)h (7.7)
Vn= W
0
(2.99a)
in which

(2.99b) W = the weight of the tup

p" = the steam of ai~. pressure
in which A = the area of the piston (net)
h = the vertical distance of the !up's movement
k 1 =equivalent soil spring =the efficiency of the fall, which is usually taken as 0.65
11
k 2 = equivalent stiffness of elastic pad below the anvil
m 1 =mass of the foundation block Compute the velocity of the anvil V, after impact as follows:
m 2 =mass of the anvil (including mass of the frame if attached to it)
_l+ev (7.lla)
V,- l+s Ti
Values of k 1 and k 2 are given by
 323
322 FOUNDATIONS FOR IMPACT MACHINES DESIGN EXAMPlE

in which e is the coefficient of elastic restitution (the value of e may be taken 7.4 EXAMPLE
as 0.5) and s is equal to W,fW0 •
It is proposed to install a 2.0 t forging hammer in an industrial complex. The
data pertaining to the hammer is given below:
6 Motion Amplitudes of the Foundation and Anvil
Compute the maximum foundation and anvil amplitudes as follows: Weight of tup without die = 1550 kg
Maximum tup stroke h = 750 mm
For the foundation, Weight of the upper half of the die = 450 kg
Area of the piston A= 0.14 m'
2
(7.5a) Supply steam pressure p = 70 t1 m
Weight of anvil block = 32.5 t
Total weight of hammer
For the anvil,
= 45.5 t (anvil+ frame)
. 2
Bearing area of anvil= 2.0 X 2.0 = 4.0 m
(7.5b) Permissible vibration amplitude for anvil = 1.5 mm
Permissible amplitude for foundation= 1.0 mm
';'y- ~., __ .,~

in which wn 2 is the smaller natural frequency. Material of pad below the anvil'" ·Pine wood
, I 2
Modulus of elasticity of the pad= 5 x 10 t m
Allowable compressive stress in pad
7 Dynamic Stress in the Pad
= 400 t1 m 2 perpendicular to grain
Compute the dynamic stress in the pad with Thickness of timber pad= 0.60 m
Efficiency of drop '1 = 0.65
k 2 (z 1 - (-z 2 ))
uP= A (7.15) Coefficient of elastic restitution e = 0.5
2
The details of the suggested foundation are shown in Fig. 7 .6. The depth
The computed values of the natural frequencies and motion amplitudes of the foundation is 2.4 m below the natural ground level. The allowabJe soil
should satisfy the criteria for safe operation. Also, the stresses in the pad pressure at the base of the foundation was determmed to be 25 t1 m . The
should be smaller than the permissible values for the pad material. data on dynamic soil properties is as giVen m Example 4.9.3, (Chapter 4).
Assume unit weight of reinforced concrete equal to 2.4 tim and the umt
weight of soil equal 2.050 tim'. Check and comment on the adequacy of the
8 Stresses in the Soil foundation shown in Fig. 7 .6.
Compute the stress in the soil with
Solution
(7.17) Design Data
Machine Data. The data on the hammer is listed in the problem.
in which u represents the stress in the soil, and A 1 the contact area of the 2
foundation block with soil. The stress in the soil should be less than 0.8 Sm·z oata. The allowable soil pressure is given as 25 t/m· FThe 4data
47
times the allowable stress in soil when static loads alone are supported. on dynamic soil properties is given in Example 4.9.3. Plot C m 1g. · ·
A computer program for calculating the dynamic response of a hammer ·
g~ves
G vs. )' at 2 • 4-m depth at a mean effective confimng pressure of
0
2
foundation using the above listed design procedure is given in Appendix 2. l.Okg/cm
 325
324 FOUNDATIONS FOR IMPACT MACHINES DESIGN EXAMPLE

4 Selection of Dynamic Soil Constants

Floor
I
Anvil Width of the foundation = 6 m
Amplitude of vibration= 1.0 mill
}oo . . l.O 1 66 10- 4
Shear stram level= x 1000 = . x
Foundation block f--- 2000 ----+-\ 6
4
From Plot C in Fig. 4.47 the value of G corresponding to 'Yo= 1.66 x 10-
2
and U = 1.0 kg/cm 2 is found to be 535 kg/cm •
The0 mean effective pressure below the foundation is now calculated
~-----------8000--------~..1

(a)

uvl = iiv1 + uv2

2 2
Anvil ii, = yZ = 3 x 2.05 = 6.15 t/m = 0.615 kg/cm
1

T
2400
in which
fc-(J"v2 = 4q[

1 1--------oOOO------~
I= influence factor (from Fig. 4.46)
4
m=3=1.33,n=3=1
3
2
q =static stress intensity= 6.50 t/m = 0.65 kg/m
2

(b)
I= 0.190
Figure 7.6. Layout of the foundation (Example 7.4.1). (a) Longitudinal section and (b) cross 2
section. ii, 2 = 4 x 0.650 x 0.19 = 0.494 kg/cm
ii, = 0.615 + 0.494 = 1.109
2 Weight of the Foundation and Contact Area
From the dimensions shown in Figs. 7.6a and b, we get:
2
I Assume Ko = 0.5

(j = 1.109 (2 X 0j5 + l) = 0.738 kg/em'

Foundation area in contact with soil = 8 x 6 = 48m 0

Weight of the foundation block W1 = [8 x 6 x 2.4- 2 x 2 x 1.0] x 2.4 t

The value of G for design
= 266.88 t
Weight of the anvil and frame= W2 = 45.5 t 0.(738) 0.5 2 2
266 88 = 535 ( -'-··- = 460.0 kg/cm = 4600 t/m
Mass of foundation block m 1 = · = 27.2 t sec'im 1.0
. 45.5 9.81
Mass of anvd m 2 = . = 4.62 t sec 2 /m 5 Natural Frequencies of Soil-Foundation System
9 81
Limiting natural frequency of the anvil on the pad w.,,
3 Check on Soil-Bearing Capacity
.
Soil pressure=
266.88 + 45.5
x = 6.50 tim'< 25 tim'
w.,,=~ (2.99b)
8 6
 326
FOUNDATIONS FOR IMPACT MACHINES 327
DESIGN EXAMPLE
5 X10 4
w~ 1 = 8.471
4 2
_ X 4 = 33.3 X 10 4 t/m X 10 /sec
0 60
4 wn1 = 291.36/sec
2 33.3 X 10 4 2
wnlz = _ = 7.186 X 10 /sec 2
4 62 w! 2 = 0.3346 X 10 4/sec
Limiting natural frequency of the whole system resting on soil wn 1, wnz = 57.84/sec

I k,
wnll = 'Y m I + m 2 (2.99a)
6 Velocity of Dropping Parts
k 1 =equivalent soil spring.
_ / (Wo + pAP)h (7.7)
VTi- '1\j2g w
k = 4Gro 0

I 1- V
'1 = 0.65, W0 = 2.0 t, p = 70 tim'
r" =
148 =3.908m
V-:;; AP=0.14m 2
and h=0.75m

Assume v = 0.33 Vnc;= 0.65~2 x 9.81 (

2
:?~2x 0 · 14 ) x 0.75 = 6.056 m/sec
4 X 4600 X 3.908
kl = ( 1 0 _33 ) = 107324 · 17 tim Velocity of anvil motion v.
2 107324.17 2
1+e
wnl, = 27 _2 + _ = 3370.74/sec (7.11)
4 62 v. = 1 + s Vn
Ratio of the masses 1 05
= + · (6.056) = 0.382 m/sec
m 45.5
1-' = ----'- = 0.1705 1+-2-
ml

The two natural frequencies of the system are given by:

7 Amplitudes of Vibration
w~- (1 + J.<)(w! 12 + w!, I )w! + (1+ J.<)wn 12 wn 1l = 0 2 2
Amplitude of vibration of foundation
(2.98) 2 2 )( 2 2 )
(wnl2- Wnz Wnlz- Wnl V
w~- (1 + 0.1705)(7.186 X 10 + 0.337074 X 104 )w!
4
Z1 = z z z ) "
(7.5a)
Wnlz(wnl ~ Wnz Wnz
+ (1 + 0.1705)(7.186 X 10 4)(0.337074 X 10 4 ) = 0
Z 1 = 0.00099 m = 0.99 mm < 1.0 mm
4 ~~:
w~- 8.8056 X 10 w~ + 2.8345 X 10 8 = 0 2 2
- wn/2-wnl V (7.5b)
Z
2
wnl.z-
_ [ 8.8056 ± Y(8.8056) 2
- 4 X 2.8345]
X 10 4/sec 2
2 - 2 2)
(wnl- Wnz Wnz
"

2 Z 2 = 0.00104 m = 1.04 mm < 2.0 mm

2
w 111
_
-
[ 8.8056 ± 8.1363 J X
10/sec
4 -2
The motion amplitudes of the foundation block and the anvil are smaller
2
than the permissible values. The foundation is therefore adequate.
 328
FOUNDATIONS FOR IMPACT MACHINES
8 Stress in the Pad
_ k (2 1 - (-22 ))
(J"P- 2 A (7.15)
2
= 33.3 x w• (0.99 + 1.04) _ , , anvil may be too small to eliminate tension in the anvil pad. The occurrence
( 1000)( 4 ) -169.16t/m <400t!m
9 Stress in the soil
The stress in the soil is computed by Eq. (7 .17) and is less than
(0.8 x 25 t/m 2 ).
The above ex~mple was also solved using the computer program given in
Appendtx 2. A hstmg of the input data and the results is shown in Appendix
2.
7.5 OVERVIEW
A simple two-degree-of-freedom model for predicting undamped vertical
~espouse of an anvil-foundation soil system has been discussed. This model
ts an approximate representation of a rather complex system and has been
com~only used (Barkan, 1962; Major, 1980; Prakash, 1981). The vibration
~mphtudes have been computed by treating the impact as a pulse of
mfimtely ~hort du~ation that dies out before the system starts moving, thus
resultmg m free v1bratwns triggered by initial velocity. The duration of the
pu.lse m case of hammers varies from 0.01 to 0.02 second and as the piece
bemg forged becomes cold, the pulse duration gets reduced to 0.001 to
0.002 sec (Novak, 1982, 1985b; Novak and El Hifnawy, 1983). The as-
sumptiOn of a sho~t duration pulse is thus reasonable. The amplitude
response can be esllmated by usmg Fourier analysis. Lysmer and Richart
(1966) presented a complicated analysis for predicting response of a footing
subjected to transtent loadmg u~mg an assumed time history of the pulse.
Unfortunately, the exact l!me h1story of the pulse is generally unknown at
the time of design.
. The effects of embedment and damping have not been considered in the
Slmphfied a~alysis. Embedment of the foundation into the .soil results in
mcre~sed sllffness and damping. The methods of estimating stiffness and
dampmg for embedded footing will be discussed in Chapter 11. Damping for
s~rface footing can be estimated by the elastic half-space method, as already
d1scussed Chapter 6 (SectiOn 6.4). If the soil conditions are poor, hammer
foundal!on may be supported on piles. The stiffness and damping for
p1le-supported foundatiOns 1s d1scussed in Chapter 12. Modal analysis may
be used for predicting damped response of hammer foundations when
329
REFERENCES
models with two or more degrees of freedom are to be used (Novak, 1982,
1983, 1985a; Novak and El Hifnawy, 1983).
The uplift of the anvil may be a serious problem in many hammer
installations. Uplift takes place because in most systems the mass of the
of the phenomenon of uplift was confirmed in a full-scale experiment
conducted on a large hammer installation (Novak, 1985b; Harwood and
Novak, 1986). The inclusion of the uplift phenomenon in design will
necessitate a very involved analysis. The uplift of the anvil adversely affects
the performance of the hammer. The uplift of the foundation block is less
common.
REFERENCES
Barkan, D. D. (1962). "Dynamics of Bases and Foundations." McGraw-Hill, New York.
Harwood, M., and Novak, M. (1986). Uplift in hammer foundations·. Soil Dyn. Earthquake
Eng. 5(2), \1)2-117.
Lysmer, J., and Richart, F. E. (1966). Dynatllic response of footings to vertical loading. J. Soil
Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 92(SM-1), 65-91.
Major, A. (1980). "Dynamics in Civil Engineering. Analysis and Design," Vol. 2. Akademiai
Kiad6, Budapest.
Novak, M. (1970). Prediction of footing vibrations. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ.
Eng. 96(SM-3), 837-861.
Novak, M. (1982). Response of hammer foundations. Int. Conf. Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng.,
1st, Southhampton, Vol. 2, 783-797.
Novak, M. (1983). Foundations for shock producing machines. Can. Geotech. J. 20(1),
141-158.
Novak, M. (1985a). Analysis of hammer foundations. Int. Conf Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng.,
2nd, Southampton, 4-61 to 4-71.
Novak, M. (1985b). Experiments with shallow and deep foundations. Proc. Symp. Vib. Probl.
Geotech. Eng., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., Annu. Conv., Detroit, 1-26.
Novak, M., and El Hifnawy, L. (1983). Vibrations of hammer foundations. Int. J. Soil Dyn.
Earthquake Eng., 2(1), 43-53.
Prakash, S. (1981). "Soil Dynamics." McGraw-Hill, New York.
Richart, F. E., Jr. and Whitman, R. V. (1967). "Design" procedures for dynamically loaded
foundation. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., 93(SM-6), 169-193.
Richart, F. E., Jr. Hall, J. R., and Woods, R. D. (1970). "Vibrations of Soils and
Foundations." Prentice-M1JJJ, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
8
Foundations for High-Speed
Rotary. Machines
Machines such as gas and steam turbines, generators, rotary compressors,
and turboblowers fall in the category of high-speed rotary machines. The
operating speeds of these machines are generally 3000 rpm or 3600 rpm and
may range up to 10000 rpm. Turbine units operating at 1500 and 1800 rpm
are also sometimes used. Turbogenerator (T.G.) units are available in
different capacities or power rating ranging from 2 MW to 2000 MW. The
capacity of T.G. units in nuclear power plants generally varies from 200 to
1100 MW. Units of 2000 MW capacity are used in superthermal fossil power
stations.
The turbogenerator unit is one of the most expensive and critical pieces
of equipment in a power plant both in terms of its initial cost and the
performance of the plant. The cost of a turbogenerator ranges from $25 to
50 million and the cost of lost production due to unscheduled shutdown
resulting from malfunctioning of the unit may be as high as $250,000 per
day. The long-term satisfactory performance of a T. G. unit requires precise
alignment that necessitates stringent limits on permissible motion amplitudes
under operating conditions.
Auxiliary equipment such as condensers, heat exchangers, pipe lines
carrying superheated steam, air vents and ducts for electric wiring are
essential features of a turbogenerator installation. Also, the entire unit
including the machine foundation and auxiliary equipment should be readily
accessible for inspection. To meet these requirements, frame foundations
are commonly used for turbogenerator units. An isOmetric view of a frame
foundation is shown in Fig. 8.1. A frame foundation is also known as a T.G.
pedestal and consists of (1) rigid base slab (or mat), (2) set of columns fixed
into the base slab at their lower ends and supporting longitudinal beams at
their upper ends, (3) transverse beams and (4) a top slab (or deck) with
number of opening, depending upon specific machine requirements (see Fig.
8.1). Beams at intermediate levels may be provided to increase rigidity.
330
LAYOUT OF A TYPICAL TURBOGENERATOR UNIT 331
Top or deck slab
/'i.
/
/
LD' L171. P. turbine
Top deck
level
Figure 8.1. Isometric view of a typical turbo-generator frame foundation.
Cross walls adjacent to condenser shells are also sometimes required.
The frame foundations offer a better choice for turbogenerators com-
pared to massive block-type foundations, both from consideration of per-
formance and economy. Framed foundations may be constructed with
reinforced concrete or steel. Reinforced concrete foundations are more
commonly used.
8.1 LAYOUT OF A TYPICAL TURBOGENERATOR UNIT
The layout of a turbogenerator unit complete with all accessories is rather
complex. The prime mover is the turbine unit, which may be single stage or
multistage. Multistage turbine units may consist of high-pressure (H.P.)
I intermediate-pressure (I.f.) and low-pressure (L.P.) turbine stages coupled
to a common shaft with the generator at one end (Fig. 8.1). The speed of
r operation of generator and turbine may be the same, permitting a direct
coupling. In cases where operational speed of turbine and generator is not
same, a gear box is used to couple the turbine and generator shafts. An
exciter is installed at the generator end. The turbine-generator unit is
supported on the top or deck slab with shaft aligned parallel to the
longitudinal beams (Fig. 8.1). The condenser is mounted on pedestals in the
space between the deck and the base slab below the turbine (the low-
 LOADS ON A TURBOGENERATOR FOUNDATION 333
332 FOUNDATIONS FOR HIGH-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES

pressure stage in case of a multistage turbine). The isometric view in Fig. 8.1
shows the layout for a typical 110-MW T.G. unit supported on reinforced
concrete frame foundation.
8.2 LOADS ON A TURBOGENERATOR FOUNDATION
During the service life of the power plant, a T.G. foundation is subjected to
a variety of loads. The design of the turbogenerator and the plant layout
determine the nature of the loads imposed on the foundation. In general,
the loads acting on a T.G. foundation may be divided into two main
categories:
1. Loads due to normal operation of the plant.
2. Loads due to emergency conditions.
A brief discussion about the magnitude and characteristics of these loads
is given below.
1000 kg/m 2 to 3000 kg/m 2 (200 psf to 600 psf) are accounted for in design
depending upon the size of the T.G. unit.
Condenser Loads
Condenser loads are transmitted to the foundation due to (a) weight of the
condenser and (b) vacuum in the condenser.
Load Due to Weight of the Condenser. The condenser loads acting on
the foundation are influenced significantly by the method used for sup-
porting them and the type of connection between the exhaust casing of the
turbine and the condenser. One of the following schemes is generally
adopted for supporting condensers:
1. The condenser mounted directly on rigid supports on the base mat and
a flexible (expansion) joint provided between the condenser and the
turbine exhaust (Fig. 8.2a).
2. Condenser supported on spr}~gs (Fig. 8.2b).

8.2.1 Loads Due to Normal Operation of Plant

Loads associated with operation of the plant include the following:

1. Dead load.
2. Live load.
3. Condenser loads.
4. Thermal load.
5. Pipe load.
6. Unbalanced loads due to machine.
7. Torque load.

Dead Load
The self weight of the foundation components, weight of turbine and
generator, bed plate and equipment such as control valve, interceptor valve,
and boiler feed pump comprise the dead load. The self weight of foundation
components is estimated from section details and unit weight of the ma-
terial. Information on dead weight of machine and equipment, as well as
their point of application, is furnished by the machine manufacturer.

Live Load
The live loads act on the foundation during installation and repairs neces- (a)

sitated by maintenance operations. Codes of practice generally lay down the Figure 8.2. Schematic arrangement of supporting condensers: (a) condenser on rigid supports;
values of live loads from floor slabs and galleries and usually live loads of (b) condenser on spring supports.
334 FOUNDATIONS FOR HIGH-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES
When the condenser rests directly on the rigid supports, the entire dead
weight of the condenser unit is transferred to the foundation mat. When the
springs are provided between the condenser and the base mat, the load is
transferred partly to the base mat and partly to the deck slab. The spring
stiffness determines the proportion in which the load is shared between the
base slab and the deck. The stiffness of the springs may be specified by the
manufacturer of the turbine or condenser.
Loads Due to Vacuum in Condenser. The pressure on the turbine casing
is atmospheric and the pressure in tbe condenser is below the atmospheric
pressure. The differential pressure between the turbine casing and the
condenser results in a suction or a vacuum load transferred to the deck slab
through turbine base plates. The magnitude of the vacuum load is sig-
nificantly large and may be several times the weight of the condenser and is
considered as a distributed load along edges of supporting members. This
results in localized stress concentration and torsion. The area over which
this vacuum load acts is the area of the opening (joint) that connects the
condenser to the turbine outlet. The condenser vacuum load may be
calculated using Eq. (8.1):
(8.1)
in which
Pu =condenser vacuum load
A = area of joint opening between the turbine and condenser
p" = atmospheric pressure
p c = vacuum pressure
The pressure in the condenser is below the atmospheric pressure by an
amount ( p" - p,), which represents depression in the condenser.
The information on condenser vacuum load is furnished by the manufac-
turer of the turbine.
Thermal Loads
Tbe heat emitted by pipes carrying superheated steam, circulation of steam
or hot gases through the turbines and operation of the machine itself give
rise to temperature changes that result in temperature gradients between
foundation components causing additional stresses on them. As the machine
heats up, the shaft expands. The shaft is supported on a single thrust bearing
permitting its free sliding in the longitudinal direction and as such no loads
are induced due to ~xpansion of the shaft. The thermal conductivity of
concrete is low compared to that of steel and therefore the change in
temperatures of turbine and generator result in local distortion and high
LOADS ON A TURBOGENERATOR FOUNDATION 33S
stresses in concrete. Heat buildup in turbine casing and bed plates induces
thermal loading on the foundation. The expansion of the casing and bed
plate of the machine relative to the concrete deck results in frictional loads
on the slab that are internally balanced (resulting in local effects but no net
resultant load).
It is difficult to estimate precisely the magnitude and direction of thermal
loads since they depend on a number of factors, such as the distance
between the points where bed plates are held down with anchor bolts,
friction between the bed plates and concrete, and the load on the bed plate.
An approximate estimate of the thermal load may be made by using Eq.
(8.2):
(8.2)
where
F r = thermal load
p. = coefficient of friction between material of bed plate and material of
deck' •.,..•...
P =sum of loads due to machine, condenser, pipes, and normal torque
Loads due to temperature changes are generally taken into account by
assuming differential temperatures between the upper and the lower slabs
and between the inner and the outer faces of the deck slab as specified by
the manufacturer. The deck slab is considered as a horizontal frame and
induced moments due to differential temperature are accounted for. Con-
sideration should also be given to change in direction of thermal loads
during start and shut down.
Pipe Loads
The term pipe load includes self weight of pipe, dynamic effect of fluids in
pipe, and thermal effects. The magnitude of pipe load and its distribution on
the foundation depend upon pipe material, size, insulation, and layout
details. The magnitude of pipe load is specified by the manufacturer.
Unbalanced Loads DtJ'i;. to Machine
The turbine and generator rotors are well-balanced equipment. The unbal-
ance in rotors is checked and corrected or minimized during test runs by
mounting the prototype on specially designed test or balancing beds. The
residual unbalance is ascertained by monitoring the vibration amplitudes at
bearing levels. The unbalance is specified as the distance between the axis of
the shaft and mass center of gravity of the rotor, and is known as effective
eccentricity. The operation of the machine causes unbalanced forces that
336 FOUNDATIONS FOR HIGH-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES LOADS ON A TURBOGENERATOR FOUNDATION 337

depend upon speed of rotation. The magnitude of unbalanced forces and
moments can be calculated using Eqs. (5.38) and (5.39). The unbalanced
pulsating loads are transferred to the foundation through the shaft bearings.
The T.G. manufacturers provide information about unbalanced loads that
should be used in the design of the foundation under normal operating
conditions. In designing a T.G. foundation, most unfavorable combination
of unbalanced dynamic loads should be used.
in which
TA =torque due to high-pressure (H.P.) turbine (t m)
T 8 =torque due to intermediate-pressure (I.P.) turbine (tm)
Tc =torque due to low-pressure (L.P.) turbine (t m)
Tg =torque due to generator (t m)

PA, P 8 and Pc=power transferred by couplings A, B, C (Fig. 8.3),

respectively in kW and N = operation speed in rpm. The points of actual
Torque Loads transfer of the torque will depend upon mounting details of turbine stages
The torque considered here is different from that due to unbalanced loads and generator.
(moments due to machine operation). Forces due to steam in each turbine
section impose a torque on the stationary turbine casing in a direction
8.2.2 Loads Due to Emergency Conditions
opposite to the direction of rotation of the rotor. The normal torque on the
generator stator acts in the direction of rotor rotation. The magnitude of the These loads are not associated with the normal operation of the turbo-
torque depends upon the operational speed and power output capacity of generator unit, but are imposed on the foundation under extraordinary
the turbines. The turbine manufacturers provide the information about the conditions apd include the followi11g:
'" -~.~-4

magnitude of this torque. This torque is applied to the foundation as a

couple acting through the machine bed plates. 1. Seismic or earthquake load.
For a T.G. unit having a multistage turbine Fig. 8.3, the torque may be 2. Loads due to system malfunction.
calculated as follows:
The nature and magnitude of loads due to earthquake and malfunction of
10.48PA the system will now be briefly discussed.
TA= N tm (8.3a)

Seismic Load
(8.3b)
The loads due to earthquake depend upon the seismicity of the area in
which the plant is located. The magnitude of the lateral force due to
earthquake may be determined from codal provisions (Uniform Building
(8.3c)
Code, 1985). The lateral force may be calculated [see Eq. (8.4)] (Uniform
Building Code, 1985, ASCE 1987):

(8.3d) (8.4)

where
'if,J~
F = lateral force on the floor (deck slab)
ah = seismic zon~ coefficient

---B- I = importance factor

Generator
Figure 8.3. Torque due to normal operation of a multistage
{3 = soil foundation factor
C = numerical base shear coefficient
S = numerical site structure response coefficient
turbine~generator unit. W = vertical load due to weight of all permanent components
 338
FOUNDATIONS FOR HIGH-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES
DESIGN CRITERIA 339

. Ho_rizontal seismic force is considered both in longitudinal and transverse

duecttons.
Loads Due to System Malfunction
This includes loads due to abnormal conditions, which may sometimes
develop dunng the operatiOn of the T.G. unit, and includes following cases:
The nature and magnitude of loads due to normal operation of the
machine and emergency conditions have been discussed above. The manu-
facturer of the turbogenerator furnishes a loading diagram detailing the
magnitude, direction, and point of application of different loads for design
of the foundation.

L Loads due to bending of the rotor.

2. Loads to missing turbine bucket.
3, Short-circuit loads.
. Loads Due to Bending of the Rotor. Bending of the rotor results in
mcreased ecc~ntricity and larger unbalanced loads than those arising from
normal operatwn of the T.G. unit. Bending of the rotor may take place due
to differential temper~tures, rotor fixed too tightly at both end bearings
preve~ltmg Its free shdmg, mductwn of water and improper operation of the
machme. The magmtude of unbalanced loads can be determined from
anticipated rotor eccentricity, which is generally supplied by the manufac-
turer, and using Eqs. (5.38) and (5.39).
Loads Due to Missing Turbine Bucket. One of the buckets or blades of
the turbme rotor may break during operation of the unit, resulting in an
!~creased unbalance in the rotary system. Such a condition resulf; in a
s1gmficant Increase in unbalance force on the foundation depending upon
the weight of the bucket, the distance of its centre of gravity from axis of
rotation and operational speed.
8.3 DESIGN CRITERIA
Long-term satisfactory performance of a T.G. unit can be ensured only by
maintaining proper shaft alignment and permitting very small deflections
under operating loads. The tolerable limits of vibration amplitudes for these
machines are rather small compared to reciprocating or impact-type ma-
chines. Permissible vibration amplitudes for normal operating conditions
depend upon the speed of the machine. Some typical values of permissible
- vibration amplitudes under normal operating conditions are given in Table
8.1.
The values ~f permissible amplitudes given in Table 8.1 should be
considered as representative only. Values of permissible amplitudes as per
manufacturer's specifications should be adopted. The necessity to limit the
amplitudes and deflection to such small values arises due to many reasons
such as to avoid (a) excessive stresses iu the shaft due to differential
deflection between the adjacent bearings (b) overloading and uneven wear
and tear of the bearings and (c) excessive deflection of the turbine founda-
tion, which may increase unbalance in the rotor. Each of the above factors
leads to alignment problems and excessive stresses in machine and founda-
tion components. For smooth running of the machine, differential deflection
of the various structural components of the T.G. foundation should be
minimized by limiting the total deflection.

Short: Circuit Loads. Short circuit induces a severe loading condition on

the turbme generator foundation. A fault of this type occurs when any two
of three generator phase terminals are shorted. The short-circuit moment
results due to magnetic induction between the stator and the rotor. Short Table 8.1. Typical Values of Permissible Vibration Am-
circuit results in oscillating torque components, the value of which is plitudes for H~h-Speed Rotary Machines
gene:ally supplied by the manufacturer. Approximate value of the short Permissible Vibration
cirCuit moment may be determined from Eq. (8.5) (Major, 1980): Amplitude, microns
Speed of
Machine, rpm Vertical Horizontal
M" = rW, t m (8.5)
3000 20-30 40-50
1500 40-60 70-90
where M" is the short-circuit moment, W, is the capacity of T.G. unit in
megawatts and r is radius of the rotor in m. Source: Barkan (1962). © 1962 and reproduced with per-
mission of McGraw-Hill.
340 FOUNDATIONS FOR HIGH-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES
The criteria given below should be followed in designing a T.G. foun-
dation.
1. Natural frequencies of the foundation should deviate from the normal
operating speed of the machine by at least 30 percent.
2. Vibration amplitudes at bearing level should not exceed the values
specified by the manufacturer. Permissible amplitudes may be adopted from
Table 8.1 if the limiting values have not been furnished by the manufac-
turer.
3. The stresses due to normal operating load in structural components
and sod should not exceed their specified values under the worst combi-
nation of loads.
4. For emergency loads, appropriate increase in permissible stresses may
be allowed as per codal provisions (Uniform Building Code, 1985).
8.4 DESIGN CONCEPTS
Turbogenerator foundations are generally designed as low-tuned or under-
tuned foundations of concrete or steel. Low tuning implies that the fun-
damental natural frequency of the foundation is lower than the operating
speed of the machine (Fig. 1.2). When foundations are designed on the
low-tuned concept for turbines operating at 1800 rpm, as is the case in some
nuclear power plants, it may become necessary to support the machine on
springs.
T. G. foundations have also been conventionally designed using large
supporting columns with cross beams to provide a rigid frame. The low-
tuned concept is generally preferred because of additional volume of space
below the deck which becomes available when slender columns are used and
cross beams are omitted. The additional space results in easier access for
maintenance and more flexibility in layout of accessories. In any case, the
design is made to ensure favorable vibration characteristics under normal
operating conditions. For the case of emergency loads, it is ensured that the
foundation will not suffer any permanent damage during the short period of
ti':'e . for which the machine operates under abnormal loads by installing
tnppmg relays so that the machine is automatically shut off as soon as the
emergency conditions, such as a strong-motion earthquake or short circuit,
develop.
The methods for analysis used in designing frame' foundations will now be
described.
8.5 METHODS OF ANALYSIS
The different kinds of loads to which a turbogenerator foundation is
subjected during its service span have been described in Section 8.2. The
341
METHODS OF ANAlYSIS
methods of analysis for computing the response of T.G. foundation are
discussed in this article. The objective of the analysis is to determine if the
proposed foundation will perform satisfactorily under the action of various
loads acting according to the design criteria laid down in Section 8.3.
It may be mentioned here that the design of a frame foundation is
different from the design of massive-block-type foundation in several ways.
In case of a block foundation, it is adequate to check the natural frequencies
and amplitudes of vibration. A structural design of the foundation block is
generally not needed. In the case of a frame foundation, it is necessary to
check the frequencies and amplitudes of vibration and also to des1gn the
members of frame from structural considerations. The stresses induced in
the members of the frame due to the adverse combination of various static
and dynamic loads should not exceed their permissible values. The aspects
of structural design of the frame fouodation are beyond the scope of this
text and only the methods of dynamic analysis for computing the natural
frequencies and amplitudes of vibration are considered here. The methods
for dynamic analysis of the frame foundations may be d1v1ded mto two
categories:
1. Simplified methods.
2. Rigorous methods.
In the simplified methods, a number of assumptions are made and the
analysis is carried out on frame-by-frame basis. A single-degree-of-freedom
or a two-degree-of-freedom model is adopted for computing the natural
frequencies and amplitudes. The role of the soil below the base is generally
neglected.
In rigorous methods, the frame fouodation is modeled as a three-
dimensional space frame and analyzed as a multidegree freedom system.
Rigorous solutions accounting for the three-dimensional nature of the
problem are, however, complicated and simplified analysis may be used to
obtain practical solutions. Both the simplified and the rigorous methods are
described below.
8.5.1 Simplified Methods
In simplified methods of,~~;nalysis, the frame foundation is idealized either as
a single-degree-of-freedom system or as a two-degrees-of-freedom system.
A description of the underlying assumption and the procedure for compu-
tation of response for each of these cases is given below.
Single-Degree-of-Freedom System
The natural frequencies and amplitudes of vibration in vertical and horizon-
tal direction are computed by using a single spring-mass system. A single-
degree-of-freedom model has been used earlier (Rausch, 1959) to compute
 343
342 FOUNDATIONS FOR HIGH-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES METHODS OF ANALYSIS

the natural frequencies by the method known as the resonance method. In Pz sin wt
the resonance method, consideration was given only to the natural frequen-
cy of the system in relation to the operating speed of the machine, and the
amplitudes of vibration were not computed. Vibration characteristics in t
vertical and horizontal directions by this method are calculated as follows.

Vertical Vibration. For analysis of vertical vibrations, each transverse

frame that consists of two columns and a beam perpendicular to main shaft
~--2a
-l
of the machine, is considered separately. The stiffness of the equivalent
spring is calculated as the combined stiffness of the beam and the columns lo
I

11 ~
0!

.u
acting together and the mass is determined by the mass of total loads acting ~k
on this cross frame. This analysis is based on the assumptions given below: I l! a'
~

,- l /~~m"'7
1. Frame columns are fixed at their lower ends into the rigid base slab. gj
2. The difference between vertical deformations of individual frame 7//7]/////,
-;.;-
columns is negligible.
3. The torsional resistance of longitudinal beam is insignificant compared
to the deformation resistance of transverse beams. Therefore, the
Column
ends
assumed
V Baseslab
L_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.: ___ _j
:
(b)

effect of longitudinal beam on vertical vibrations of transverse frames fixed

(a)
can be neglected. Figure 8.4. (a) Typical transverse frame; (b) singleMdegree~of-freedom model for vertical
4. The natural frequencies of individual cross frames are practically of vibrations~
the same order.
5. The effect of elasticity of the soil is neglected.
6. The connection of transverse beam with columns is rigid. · which w is the total load on the frame and !J.z is the total vertical
Ill .
deflection at the center of the beam due to bending actwn of bearn and ax!'al
Assumptions 1 and 2 restrict the vibrations to the vertical direction only. compression in column.
Assumption 3 makes it possible to neglect the effect of the longitudinal The total load W is given by
beam on vertical vibrations of the transverse frame. Assumption 6 implies
(8.7)
that the transverse beam and the column vibrate as one· system in the
vertical direction. Assumptions 1, 2, 5, and 6, taken together, justify
adoption of a single-degree system for analysis. With assumption 4, the in which l is the effective span.
natural frequency of the entire frame in vertical vibrations can be taken as The value of effective span [ depends upon the rigidity of the corner
the average of the natural frequency of individual frames. sections of the frame and whether the haunches have beeen provided at the
A typical transverse frame is shown in Fig. 8.4a. Different types of loads corners (Fig. 8.5). The effective span can be defined in terms of the lengths
acting on this frame are also shown. The loads consist of 1 and [ as shown in Fig. 8.4a, in which /0 ~center-to-center distance
1
between the columns and /1 ~clear distance between the columns.
a. Uniformly distributed load due to self weight of cross beam equal to q
per unit length. """·
b. Dead load due to machine and bearing equaf to Wm.
c. Load transferred to the columns by the longitudinal beams W L. ,---r--+-----"
d. Unbalanced vertical force due to machine operation P, sin wt 1

I
The spring stiffness of the frame kz for vertical vibrations is given by I _j
I
(8.6)
b-4
figure 8.5. Values of a and b for a frame with haunches
 345
344 FOUNDATIONS FOR HIGH-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES METHODS OF ANALYSIS

For perfectly flexible connection between the beam and columns at their 1959) as follows:
ends, the effective span length I will be the same as the center-to-center
(8.10)
distance between the columns 10 . For perfectly rigid end connections, the
effective span will be equal to the clear span 11 . For other cases, the effective
length is determined depending upon rigidity of corner sections. The rigidity
in which
of corner section of a frame can be defined by the ratios b/10 and h 0 /l 0 in
which h 0 is the height of the column from the top of the base slab to the Ll.z = vertical deflection of beam due to the concentrated load W m
center of the frame beam (Fig. 8.4a) and b is one-half of the column width 1
Ll.z = vertical deflection of beam due to the distributed load q
for a frame without haunches (Fig. 8.4a) or the distance as shown in Fig. 8.5 2
for a frame with haunches. Ll.z = vertical deflection of beam due to shear
3
The effective span is calculated as Az 4 = axial compression in the column

(8.8) The magnitude of Ll.z 1 is given by

3
Wm/ 2K + 1 (8.11)
The values of a are given in Fig. 8.6.
Ll.z, = 96I,E K + 2
The effective height is given by

in which
(8.9)
I = moment of inertia of the beam about the axis of bending
b
in which a is one-half of the depth of the beam for a frame without haunches E =Young's modulus for concrete
(Fig. 8.4a) and the distance shown in Fig. 8.5 for frames with haunches.
K = relative stiffness factor
The values of effective span and height are used to calculate deflections in
the frames due to applied loads.
The magnitude of deflection Ll.z in Eq. (8.6) may be calculated from the The value of K is given by
available solutions for rigid frames (Kleinlogel, 1949, 1964; Leontovich, I,, h
K=-- (8.12)
I" I

in which I is moment of inertia of the column.

The magnitude of Ll.z 2 , Ll.z 3 , and Ll.z, is given by

ql 4
5K + 2 (8.13)
Ll.z, = 384EI, K + 2

(8.14)

(8.15)

0~---J----~-----L-----L----~~
0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 in which

bllo A, = cross-sectional area of the beam

Figure 8.6. Graphical determination of coefficient a. (After Major, 1980.) A c = cross-sectional area of the column
 346
FOUNDATIONS FOR HIGH-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES
METHODS OF ANALYSIS 347
The model for computation of the natural frequency of the frame is shown
m Ftg. 8.4b. Horizontal Vibration. The vibration characteristics in horizontal vibra-
The natural frequency of vertical vibrations of the frame may then be tions can also be calculated by an equivalent single degree of freedom
obtained as in Eq. (2.11) as follows: model. Such an analysis is based upon the following assumptions:

w = rr;g
\JW
L Columns are fixed into the rigid base slab at their lower ends.
nz
2. The deck slab is rigid in its own (horizontal) plane.
Average natural frequency of vertical vibrations w is given by 3. Resistance offered by the columns in axial compression is large
"" compared to their resistance in bending.
4. Torsional vibrations of the deck slab are neglected.
n (8.16) 5. Elastic resistance of the soil at the base can be neglected.
~n ~J:ich Wnz~, wnzz are the natural frequencies of vertical vibrations of the Assumptions 1 and 2 are realized in practice. The thickness of the deck
md!Vldual frames.
slab and the width and depth the beams in longitudinal and transverse
The average value of the amplitude of vertical vibration may be com-
puted as directions are large compared to their spans and deck slab may be assumed
to be perfectly rigid in its own plane. Assumption 3 is not fully realized.
When columns are of large cross-sectional area, this assumption holds. But
(8.17a) wben slendeL,columns are used, tl)is.ilssumption is not realized. Assumption
4 is not strictly valid and is hard to. tealize. Torsional vibrations are excited
by the nature of the dynamic loads acting on the foundation and also
in which because the mass center of the deck slab and line of action of superimposed
dynamic loads and the resultant horizontal reaction due to bending of the
columns do not act along the same straight line.
A, = amplitude of vertical vibration of the foundation
These assumptions make it possible to analyze the frame for horizontal
Pv =total vertical unbalance force vibrations using a single-degree-of-freedom model, as shown in Fig. 8.7. The
!; = damping expressed as percent of critical damping

Total spring stiffness k, is given by

Wr = Total weight of
deck slab and
machine
(8.18)
in which k,t> k, 2 are the stiffness of the individual frames.
To account for possible buildup of amplitudes during starting and shut
down, the absolute maximum amplitude (AJ'""' of vertical vibrations may
1 Wr
\- Px sin wt
Deck slab

/4M --,1---
1
be obtamed by takmg w"" = w in Eq. (8.17a) above i I
I I
I I
(8.17b) !.,; I Kht is combined
(.Deflected J- lateral stiffness
of all frames
In case the difference between the natural frequen~y of vertical vibration
f shape of I
I column I
and operatmg frequency is smaller than 30%, Eq. (8.17b) should be used to Colum n....- I
I
compute A,. The amplitude of vertical vibrations of any individual frame I I
can be calculated by usmg Eq. (8.17) with values of vertical spring stiffness I I
natu~al fr~quency, and vertical unbalanced force for the frame unde; ///. 1'/// /r /

cons1derat10n. Figure 8.7. Horizontal vibrations of a deck slab on columns in a single-degree-of-freedom

model

348 FOUNDATIONS FOR HIGH-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES
deck slab undergoes horizontal translation along a direction perpendicular
to the mam shaft of the ~achme. The spring stiffness is provided by the
columns due to their bendmg action (Fig. 8.7).
Natural frequency of horizontal vibratz"ons . The natural frequency of
horizontal vibrations w"h is given by
349
METHODS OF ANALYSIS
been referred to as amplitude method (Barkan, 1962) and combined method
(Major, 1980). In the amplitude method, the vibration characteristics are
evaluated in terms of the amplitudes only, whereas in the combined method,
both the frequencies and amplitudes are calculated. Some simplifying as-
sumptions are made. These assumptions and the methods of analysis are
described below for the case of vertical and horizontal vibrations.

Vertical Vibrations. The natural frequencies and amplitudes of vibration

(8.19)
in the vertical direction are calculated based on the following assumptions:
in which
1- Columns are fixed at their lower ends into the rigid base slab.
k• =combined stiffness of all the transverse frames in bending 2- The effect of longitudinal beams on vertical vibrations of the trans-
kx1, kx2' · · · , =lateral stiffness of individual transverse frames verse frames can be neglected.
Wr =total weight of deck slab and machine. 3. The difference between vertical deformations of individual frame
columns is negligible.
The lateral stiffness kx of any frame is given by 4. The role of soil below the base slab can be neglected.

k = 12£1" (6K + 1) These assumptions have been gi.:;cussed already for the case of vertical
(8.20)
X h3 3K+2 vibrations using a single-degree-of-freedom system. They enable a frame-by-
frame analysis to be carried out for the case of vertical vibrations. No
Amplitude of horizontal vibrations. Amplitude of horizontal vibration A assumption has been made about the rigidity of the end connection between
may be calculated as follows: • the transverse beam and the columns. The vibrations of beams and columns
of a transverse frame can therefore be represented by a two-degrees-of-
A·=~k~.V7~(1~~(w=l~w=".~~~~]~2 =+~(~2=fw=l=w=",~,)2 (8.21a) freedom system, as shown in Fig. 8.8. In Fig. 8.8a, tbe beam undergoes

in which P• is the total horizontal dynamic force.

The maximum horizontal amplitude that may build up during starting or tp, sin wt
,,
~
shut down of the machine is given by
m)
mz
2
"
(8.21b) ----
\
\
5.~kz
The single-degree-of-fre~dom method used for computation of vertical m]
I mz \ 0!
2 1!'!.

l
and honzontal VIbratiOns IS an oversimplification of a complex problem. I I 2
\ Direction of
Only the fundamental f~equency in vertical or horizontal mode is computed. .!'!.....\ I
2 rvibmtion
columnsof
Because of the s1mphfymg assumptions on which this method is based the \ I
\ I
results are highly approximate. A better estimate of vibration characteristics \ '~!;~
can be ma?e by using a two-degrees-of-freedom model which is a refinement ~kj

~
over the smgle-degree:of-freedom model. The two:degrees-of-freedom sys-
tem will now be descnbed.
/
(b)
(o)
Two-Degrees-of-Freedom System
system. (a)
Figure 8.8. Vertical vibrations of a cross frame as a two-degree-of-freedom
The pr_oblem of vertical and horizontal vibrations is analysed in each case by deflected shape; (b) mathematical model.
Ideahzmg the system as a two-degrees-of-freedom system. The method has
 351
350 FOUNDATIONS FOR HIGH-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES METHODS OF ANALYSIS

forced vertical vibrations due to flexural bending, and columns vibrate along _ 13 (1 + 2K)W + 31W (8.25)
their axial direction. The equivalent spring mass model for this system is ~z- 96Elb(2 + K) 8GAb
shown in Fig. 8.8b. The forces in the columns are developed due to their
axial deformation and spring k 1 in Fig. 8.8b, represents the stiffness of the in which
column in loading along the axial direction. The spring stiffness k 2 repre-
sents stiffness of the transverse beam in bending. G = shear modulus of the beam material
Vertical natural frequency. The vertical natural frequency of the system 1= effective span of the beam
shown in Fig. 8.8b may be obtained as follows:
A = cross-sectional area of the beam
b
Mass m 1 acting on the column is given by (Barkan, 1962) 1 = moment of inertia of the beam
b

WL + 0.33W, + 0.25WB K is defined by Eqs. (8.12); k 2 is then given by

mI =
g (8.22)
w (8.26)
k, = ~z
in which
The equations of motion for the spring-mass system shown in Fig. 8.8b are
WL =load transferred by the longitudinal beams to the columns including
self weight of the longitudinal beams (8.27a)
W, =weight of the two columns constituting the transverse frame
m,z, + k,(z,- z = P, sin wt (8.27b)
W8 = weight of the transverse beam 1)

Mass m 2 acting at the center of the cross beam is given by (Barkan, 1962) Equations (8.27a, b) are similar to Eq. (2.95a, b). The tw? natura~ frequen-
cies of the system may therefore be obtained by solvmg the requency
(8.23) equation given below:
(2.98)
in which W m is the weight of the machine.
The stiffness of each column for axial deformation (Fig. 8.8a) is given by
in which
k1 EA,
(8.24a) (2.99a)
2 h
in which
(2.99b)
E =Young's modulus of the material of the columns
A c = cross-sectional area of a column m,
p,=-
h =effective height of the column m,

Total vertical stiffness of both columns is given by Amplitudes of Ve~ical Vibrations. The amplitudes of verti~~ ;ibration
are obtained from Eqs. (2.108) and (2.109) by replacmg F, wit '
(8.24b)
(8.27c)
Stiffness of spring k 2 • The deflection of the beam (Fig. 8.8a) for a load W
at the center is given by
and
 352
FOUNDATIONS FOR HIGH-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES METHODS OF ANALYSIS 353

A - z - (l + p,)w~l1 + p,w~r2- W 2
''- '- m,LI.(w')
2 the resisting forces are not the same. As a result, a horizontal couple is
Ll.(w ) is calculated using Eq. (2.104).
d Horizontal
· Vibrations. The horizontal vibrations of the frame foun-
atiOn. are also analyzed by a two-degrees-of-freedom system based on the
followmg assumptiOns.
l. The columns are fixed at their lower ends into the rigid base slab.
2. Effect of elasticity of the soil below the base can be neglected.
3. Deck slab ts rigid in its own (horizontal) plane.
4. Elastic resistance of the columns to axial deformations is relatively
much larger co~pared to thetr elasttc reststance in bending in the
transverse duectwn.
Assumpti~ns 1 and 2 imply that vibrations due to horizontal unbalanced
forces occu~ '? the part of the foundation above the base slab. Assumption 3
about. the ngtdtty of the deck slabs implies that the deck slab will undergo
only ngtd body motton and that flexural vibrations are insignificant. Because
of tts ngtdtty, the deck slab can be replaced by a beam with its centerline
along the centerline of the mainshaft of the machine. Assumption 4 implies
that the rotatiOn . of the deck slab about a horizontal axis is restrained
because of htgh sttffness of the column to axial deformations. The deck slab
thus undergoes honzontal translation under the effect of horizontal unbal-
anced forces, as shown in Fig. 8.9. This motion of the deck slab induces
bending in the frame columns, which thus offers a lateral resistance to the
P, (8.27d)
horizontal motion of the deck slab. The lines of action of the exciting and
generated which induces torsional vibrations in the deck slab, as shown in
Fig. 8.9. Torsional vibrations are also excited due to unsymmetrical distribu-
tion of unbalanced loads on the deck, the resultant of which may not be
passing through the mass center. The deck slab thus undergoes combined
horizontal and torsional vibrations under the effect of horizontal exciting
loads. The overall motion of the deck slab may be represented by a line
diagram shown in Fig. 8.10 in which the deck slab has been replaced by its
center-line A 1B 1 in the initial position. This sketch depicts a typical two-bay
frame. The load carried by each transverse frame including its self weight,
dead loads, weight of machine, and the load transferred by the longitudinal
beams may be represented by a point load; 33 percent of the weight of the
columns is also added. Thus the mass m 1 is the equivalent mass representing
the load shared by this particular transverse frame including 33 percent of
the weight of columns of this frame. Similarly the masses m 2 and m 3
represent th({masses for the otherJ~ansverse frames. Dis the mass center of
m 1 , m 2 , m 3 (Fig. 8.10). The lateral stiffness of each transverse frame has
been replaced by an equivalent spring. The spring stiffness k, 2 thus repre-
sents the lateral stiffness of one transverse frame. The value of lateral
stiffness for any of the frames may be calculated by using Eq. (8.20). Point
C in Fig. 8.10 represents the stiffness center, that is, the centroid of spring
stiffness k, 1 , k, 2 , and kx 3 • It is shown in Fig. 8.10 that the deck undergoes
horizontal displacement parallel to itself (from A 1 B 1 to A 2 B 2 ) and also
rotates about the vertical axis through the mass center (of gravity) D. The

Initial position of deck slab

Centerline ofdec~
slab (initial) ... ~ ,_ _
Final position
(after coupled 2 ~kx3
translation and
rotation) C D B
A1 ._-----'--i-f=---,+--L-----_. 1

L_7 ___ _ T
1 m1
A3.__ _ _ _ _
m2 m3

Displacement due to
t
t
A•,---~r-~~--~~~~----~,,---eB 2
horizontal translation Due to horizontal Due to tra~tion -- -e 83
displacement and rotation
F•b'gure 8.9 .. Vibrations of the deck slab due to combined translation along X-axis and rotation
a out Z ax1s. f Figure 8.1 0. Spring-mass model for combined horizontal and rotational vibrations of the deck
slab.
r
!
 355
METHODS OF ANAlYSIS
354 FOUNDATIONS FOR HIGH-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES
(8.30c)
final displaced position of the centerline of the deck slab is sbown by line
A 3 B 3 (Fig. 8.10). The distances of the different masses from the mass center Total value of R.I for all the masses is given by
D are shown as a 1 , a2 , and a3 and the distances of the stiffness center Care
shown as b 1 , b 2 , and b 3 , respectively. The procedure for computing the
natural frequencies and amplitudes of horizontal vibrations is now de- 2:" Rj = kh(x + elj;) (8.30d)
j=l
scribed.
in which
Natural Frequency of Horizontal Vibrations. The equations of motion
for the system shown in Fig. 8.10 may be written as follows [see also Eq. k = sum of lateral stiffness of all the frames = E k xj
(2.126)]: . ; =distance of the stiffness center C from the mass center D (Fig. 8.10).
m
m.X + L Rj = Px sin wt (8.28a) The moment M about the mass center due to a force on the mass mj is
I
j=l
given by
"
Mm,~ + L Mj = M, sin wt (8.28h) (8.31a)
j=I

in which (8.3lb)

m =total mass and is equal to (m 1 + m 2 + · · ·)

Mm, =polar mass moment of inertia of all the masses about the vertical in which
axis through the mass center of gravity (point D in Fig. 8.10) (8.32)
Rj =spring force on any mass mj due to its displacement by xj
Mj =Moment of the forces Rj about the vertical axis of rotation, i.e. k is the equivalent torsional spring for the frame columns.
passing through the mass center • Substituting for ER and EM from Eqs. (8.30d) and (8.31b) respectively
I I
P, =Horizontal unbalanced force and, in Eq. (8.28), one obtains,
M, = horizontal unbalanced moment
(8.33)
1' = angular displacement due to torsion
The mass moment of inertia M mx is given by (8.34)

" The set of Eqs. (8.33) and (8.34) are similar to the equations o~ motion
Mmz 2: mia~
= j=l (8.29)
discussed in Chapter 6 (Section 6.7) for coupled rockmg and shdmg. The
frequency equation in this case may be written as Barkan (1962)
For a given frame at a distance ai from the mass center, the elastic spring
• 2 2) , , , _ (8.35)
force R j is given by Wn- (awnx + Wno/ Wn + Wnx{t)n~'­ 0
-il-o:
(8.30a) in which
The value of k,j may he obtained from Eq. (8.20). The displacement xj is (8.36a)
due to horizontal movement plus rotation and is given by

(8.30b)
(8.36b)
in which xis the displacement of the mass center. Therefore, Rj is given by
356 FOUNDATIONS FOR HIGH-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES 357
METHODS OF ANALYSIS

w"x represents limiting natural frequency of horizontal translation when the on the basis that significant response of the system takes place in the
center of rigidity C coincides with mass center D, that is, e = 0 and M, = 0. fundamental mode. The higher modes of the system are neglected. In the
There will be no torsional vibrations in this case. The system becomes a case of under-tuned foundations, some of the higher-modes may be near the
single degree of freedom system. Similarly w"'' represents the limiting operating speed and cause instability in the system and may c~use excessive
natural frequency of rotational vibrations about the vertical axis when e = 0 vibrations. The effect of longitudinal beam on vertiCal v1bratwns of trans-
and Px = 0. Equation (8.35) can be solved to obtain two natural frequencies verse frames and the role of soil below the base slab has been neglected.
of the system wn 1 and wnz· These considerations make the computed vibration response ap-
proximate. In a realistic analysis, the structural fr~me should be analyzed as
Amplitudes of Horizontal Vibrations. The amplitudes of vibration are a three-dimensional space frame and the mteracllon of s~1l belo': the base
given by should also be taken iuto consideration. Methods of analys1s for th1s purpose
are now discussed.
2
e z
[ zwnx+wn"'-w
z z] ~-wnxM
Px z Mz
r m mz
AX = (8.37) 8.5.2 Rigorous Methods
~(w')
It is possible to improve upon the simplified methods to incorporate the
and interaction effects of soil below the base slab. For example, the case of
2
vertical vibrations may be analyzed by the model shown in Fig. 8.11. The
Px
e z --(w
-w M,-
z -w z) - mathematical model in Fig. 8.l;l.J1as been obtained by assuming the ba~e
rz nx m nx Mmz slab to be rigid and lower ends tif columns fixed into the base slab. Th1s
A"'= ~(w2) (8.38) model is a modification of the single-degree-of-freedom model shown m Flg.
8.4b. For vertical vibrations the effect of vertical stiffness of soil at the base
in which Ax is the amplitude of horizontal translation, A"' is the amplitude in has been replaced by an equivalent soil spring k 1. The damping in soil and in
rotation, and the structure can also be included. This model can be analyzed as a
two-degrees-of-freedom system.
A( W 2) = w4 ( 2 2 ) 2 2 2
- awnx+wn 1, W +wnxwnl/1=0 (8.39)

where Pz sin wt

e2
a=l+r 2 (8.40) ,,
in which r is the radius of gyration defined by Eq. (8.41):

r= ~M,;;, (8.41) ~
01: ....--
kz = Vertical stiffness
of frames

~
The resulant horizontal amplitude A, is given by ~
(8.42)

in which a is the distance of the point at which the amplitude is being

calculated from the center of gravity of the system. 01.
~ ki = Vertical soil
The methods of computing the natural frequencies and amplitudes of 0!~ spring
vibration by treating the frame foundation as a single-degree or a two- 01. Figure 8.11. Mathematical model for vertical vibra~
degrees-of-freedom system have been discussed above. These methods work w.ifbmh tions incorporating soil interaction effects.
 358 METHODS OF ANAlYSIS 359
FOUNDATIONS FOR HIGH-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES

Px sin wt be modeled as a space frame resting on a continuum. Modal analysis

technique may be used for analysis of the system. The principle of model
Deck analysis has been explained in Chapter 2 (Section 2.14). A lumped mass
slab model may be made by two methods:

1. The frame columns are considered fixed at their lower ends. The
kh = Horizontal stiffness
response of the superstructure is calculated and role of the soil is
of frames neglected.
2. The superstructure and the foundation slab are incorporated into a
single model and the interaction with the soil is accounted for.

The plan and sections of a typical frame are shown in Fig. 8.13a, b, and c.
Considering the frame as fixed into the base slab and neglecting the
Base slab
m)
interaction effects of soil below the base, the lumped-mass model can be

r~/~~1~------r-----~
made, as shown in Fig. 8.13d. A rigorous model that accounts for the
interaction effects of soil can be made, as shown in Fig. 8.13e. The effect of
~
kx = Equivalent
k¢ = Equivalent soil
spring in rocking
soil has been simulated by providing equivalent soil spring. The stiffness of
soil spring
the equivale~t soil springs may b~gbtained by using the concepts of elastic
/
in sliding half-space theory (Section 6.4) odinear spring method (Section 6.7). The
damping in the structure and the soil can also be accounted for. The
Figure 8.12. Mathematical model for horizontal vibrations incorporating soil interaction
effects. damping values for soil may be calculated by following the procedure of
Section 4.8. The equations of motion for the models shown in Fig. 8.13d and
e can be written in the form given by Eq. (8.43):
The interaction effects of soil on horizontal vibrations can be accounted
for by modeling the system as shown in Fig. 8.12. The springs kx and k
represent the soil stiffness in sliding and rocking respectively. The model i~
Fig. 8.12 is a modification of single-degree-of-freedom model shown in Fig.
8. 7 to mcorporate effects of soil. The interaction model in Fig. 8.12 is a
three-degrees-of-freedom system and can be analyzed following the proce-
dure in Chapter 2 for multidegrees-of-freedom systems. Damping in soil in
sliding and rocking modes and also in the structure can be included. Models
in Figs. 8.11 and 8.12 can be combined to represent the complete system.
I
2500'-~t<---- 3600,--~+---2500

.t--+-·t -- 2000

The two-degrees-of-freedom models can similarly be modified to include

4800 Hollow 2800
elasticity of the soil. A better estimate of the dynamic reponse of the
foundation can be made by including the elasticity and damping effects of
the soil. The value of equivalent soil springs may be calculated using either
the elastic half-space or linear spring approach as detailed in Sections 6.4
and 6. 7 for block-type foundations. When the degrees of freedom are more
than two and damping is included, it becomes ne'Cessary to obtain numerical 2000
solutions using modal-analysis techniques. 1000 1200 1200 3100

Three- Dimensional Analysis
The frame foundation resting on the soil represents a multidegree
freedom system and should be analyzed as such. The frame foundation may
(e)
Figure 8.13. A typical frame foundation: (a) plan of the deck slab; (b) longitudinal section; (c)
cross section; (d) lumped-mass model with columns assumed fixed into the base slab; (e)
lumpedwmass model including interaction effects of soil.
 600
400
miO

400
Line memb
spr~~s
represent
mg

1000
900'r----- 4800---- 9 DO 1000
5400

1000

8600 (d)
(b)

m,,

Hollow 600
400
I
400 I

1000 1000
3600 5400

Columns

~============~~~============-IJJOOO
6800
(c)

Figure 8.13. (continued).

360 361
362 FOUNDATIONS FOR HIGH-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES
e can be written in the form given by Eq. (8.43):
[M]{Z) + [C]{Z} + [K]{Z) ~ {F(t)) (8.43)
in which
[M] ~ mass matrix
[ K] ~ stiffness matrix
[ C] ~ damping matrix
{ Z} ~displacement vector
{ Z} ~ velocity vector
{ Z} ~ acceleration vector
{ F(t)) ~applied load vector
The equations of motion [Eq. (8.43)] may be solved by direct integration
to obtain the response of the system. Alternatively, they may be uncoupled
into a set of linear equations and the solution obtained by the normal mode
method. The normal mode method is generally preferred, since it offers the
facility to obain the natural frequencies and mode shapes. The total
response can be obtained by modal superposition (Section 2.14), in which
case the maximum response at any frequency can be calculated from the
displacements resulting from each mode. This makes it possible to calculate
the amplitude of vibration not only at the normal operating speed of the
machine, but also at all speeds through which the turbine passes during
starting and shutdown. Amplitude frequency plot showing the vibration
amplitude for different speeds of the turbine can thus be obtained. A typical
amplitude-,frequency plot is shown in Fig. 8.14. From the values of tbe
Operating frequency (rpm)
Figure 8.14. A typical amplitude-frequency plot.
DESIGN PROCEDURES 363
displacements induced at different points on the frame, the magnitude of the
load for structural design of the frame members can be calculated using the
principles of structural mechanics (Hurty and Rubinstein, 1964).
The frame foundation can also be modeled using a finite element
approach. The superstructure frame is modeled as a three-dimensional
frame by using beam elements. Shear walls within the superstructure are
modeled by a finite-element mesh. The base slab and the soil are also
modeled by a finite-element mesh. The effects of nonhomogeneity of soil
mass and nonlinearity of its stress strain behavior can thus be included.
Nonlinearity effects are especially important when emergency loads such as
due to earthquake are being considered for critical structures such as turbine
foundations in a nuclear power plant. The details of formulating three-
dimensional models have been given by Arya and Drweyer (1977), Arya et
al. (1979), ASCE (1987), and Shen and Stone (1975).
When the frame foundation is modeled as a multidegree freedom system,
the response calculations can be made using commercially available compu-
.. ter codes such as STRUDL, which can be used for both linear or nonlinear
analysis. Thf, effect of soil resi~tance can be simulated in the form of
equivalent springs. When the franie-foundation-soil system is to be ana-
lyzed by making a finite element model and nonlinearity effects are to be
included, the solution can be obtained by using computer programs such as
ADINA. For detailed instruction for using these programs, reference should
be made to the respective user's manuals (ADINA System, 1981; ICES
STRUDL II, 1979a, b).
Since tbe permissible vibration amplitudes for a turbo-generator founda-
tion under normal operating conditions are extremely small, the behavior of
the soil foundation system can be safely assumed to be in the elastic range,
and linear elastic analysis will be sufficient in most practical problems.
problems.
A brief description of the capabilities of STRUDL and ADINA is given
in Appendix 3.
8.6 DESIGN PROCEDURE
The methods for analysis of frame foundations have been discussed in the
previous section. A stef;cby-step design procedure will now be given. The
design will consist of two stages:
1. Preliminary design.
2. Detailed design.
Before attempting the design, the machine, soil and seismic data and
foundation details listed below should be procured.
364 FOUNDATIONS FOR HIGH-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES DESIGN PROCEDURES 365

8.6.1 Design Data Seismic Data

Machine Data
All data pertaining to the machine should be procured from the manufac-
turer of the machine. These data should consist of the following:
Seismic studies of the area should be conducted to select the design
earthquake. Alternatively, the seismic coefficients may be adopted based on
the seismic zone in which the proposed installation is located.

1. Layout of the machine and auxiliary equipment, including their fixing

details. Proportioning the Frame Foundation

2. Information on openings, depressions, and projections, including any Proportioning of the foundation includes deciding the layout of the foun-
other requirement for the machine. dation and selection of sizes of the different components for preliminary
3. Weight of machine. analysis. In deciding the layout of the foundation, the following points
should be considered.
4. Capacity and rated output of the machine.
5. Operating speed of the machine. 1. The layout of the foundation should as far as possible be symmetric
6. Weight of rotor and eccentricity. with respect to a vertical plane through the longitudinal axis of the machine.
7. A complete loading diagram showing the magnitude and point of 2. The machine bearing should be located directly on the transverse
application "of all loads that are to be accounted for in design. The frames. The columns and transverse frames should be exactly in planes
information on various loads should include: perpendicul&'J: to the longitudinaL,a]<is of the machine.
3. The foundation should be so "dimensioned that the resultant force due
Dead loads
to weight of machine, top deck and columns (including intermediate slabs if
Live loads any) and the base slab, together pass through the center of gravity of the
Construction loads base contact area. The eccentricity should in no case exceed 3 percent.
Thermal loads 4. Overhanging cantilevered sections should be avoided. If they are
Load due to condenser weight and due to vacuum (depression) in unavoidable, they should be designed to ensure rigidity with the main
condenser frame.
Pipe loads
Unbalanced loads due to machine operation Depth of the Deck Slab and Longitudinal and Transverse Beams. The
Torque loads depth of the transverse and longitudinal beams should be one-third to
one-quarter of the clear span. The depth of deck slab usually ranges from
Loads due to short-circuit current 0.60 m to 1.5 m. The deck slab should be rigid in its own plane.
Loads due to bending of rotor
Loads due to missing bucket Column Size. The columns commonly used are sized so that the ratio of
8. Permissible vibration amplitudes. height to width generally varies from 2 to 10. Adequate haunches should be
provided at intersection of beams and columns to avoid concentration of
Soil Data stress and to ensure rigidity of the connection.

1. Adequate subsoil exploration should be done to obtain subsoil data
including allowable soil pressures up to a depth of. three times the width of
the foundation or till hard stratum.
2. Dynamic soil properties should be obtained by field or laboratory
investigation.
3. Position of ground water level and fluctuations in its level (if any
should be ascertained).
Base Slab. The b'ri~e slab should be sufficiently thick and rigid to
achieve a uniform soil reaction so as to maintain the deck slab in a plane and
keep the shaft alignment intact. Also the slab thickness should be enough to
satisfy the condition of fixity of columns at their lower ends. The thickness
of the base slab may be taken as 0.07 L 413, where L is the average of
adjacent clear spans in m. A minimum thickness of 1m is generally
preferred for the base slab.
 367
366 FOUNDATIONS FOR HIGH-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES DESIGN PROCEDURES

Dynamic Soil Constants. Dynamic soil constants corresponding to the 1'(1 + 2K)W 3/W
(8.25)
shear strain amplitudes induced by operation of tbe machine should be ~' = 96Eib(2 + K) + 8GAb
selected following the procedure of Section 4.7.
in which
Check for Soil-Bearing Capacity. The pressure transferred to the soil
due to the combined weight of the machine, foundation, and other superim- W = any load acting at the center of the beam
posed static and dynamic loads should be less than 80 percent of the A b = cross-sectional area of the beam
3
allowable soil pressures for the case of static loads alone. I b =moment of inertia of the beam given by bd 112 in which b is the
width of the beam and d is the depth
8.6.2 Dynamic Analysis l = effective length
K =relative stiffness factor (Eq. 8.12).
The preliminary analysis may be carried out by using a two-degrees-of-
freedom model for the case of horizontal and vertical vibrations, by The value of l is given by
following the steps given below:
l = 10 - 2ab (8.8)
Vertical Vibrations
in which l is the. center-to-center distance between the frame columns and b
Spring Stiffness k 1 and k 2 • The spring stiffness k 1 (Fig. 8.8) is given by is one-half the width of the column''{fir a frame without haunches and the
distance as shown in Fig. 8.5 for a frame with haunches.
k = 2EA, (8.24b) The values of a are given in Fig. 8.6. The value of k is given by
J h
Ib h (8.12)
in which K=--
( l
E =Young's modulus for concrete in which I is the moment of inertia of the column.
A, = cross-sectional area of the columns '
h =effective height of the column given by Eq. (8.9) Natural Frequencies of Vertical Vibrations. The natural frequencies of
vertical vibration are given by
h=h 0 -2aa (8.9).
(2.98)
in which

a =coefficient given in Fig. 8.6 (2.99a)

a = one-half of the depth of the beams for frames without haunches and
the distance shown in Fig. 8.5 for frames with haunches (2.99b)
h 0 = height of the column from top of the base slab up to the center of
the beam
and
The spring stiffness k 2 (Fig. 8.8) is given by

k, = aw (8.26) Mass m 1 is given by

' WL + 0.33W, + 0.25WB (8.22)
mJ = g
in which ~' is the deflection in the beam. ~' is given by
368 FOUNDATIONS FOR HIGH-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES DESIGN PROCEDURES 369

in which Mass Center of Gravity (Point D in Fig. 8.10). The distance X of mass
center from A 1 is given by
WL ~load transferred by the longitudinal beams on one column
W, ~ weight of the two columns constituting the transverse frame L:wx
x~ I I (8.44)
WB ~ weight of the transverse beam · L:Hj
Mass m 2 is given by
in which Xi is the distance of center of gravity of load on any frame j from
m ~ Wm + 0.45WB end A 1 •
2 g (8.23)
Polar Mass Moment of Inertia of All Masses about a Vertical Axis through
in which Wm is the weight of machine and bearing. the Mass Center, M mz

Amplitudes of Vertical Vibration. The vertical amplitude A , 1 and A , 2 (8.29)

are given by

(8.27c) in which aj is the distance between center of mass mj and the mass center.
·['' :•, - .-~·'

and Stiffness of a Frame in Transverse Direction Kxi

A
,z
= z =
z
(1 + JL)w!fl + f.LW~/2-
m,b.(w')
w2
P, (8.27d)
k . ~ 12EI, ( 6K +
X] h3 3K + 2
1) (8.20)

2
b.(w ) is calculated from Eq. (2.104). Total Lateral Stiffness kh

Horizontal Vibrations
Load Carried by Each Frame WI

(8.7) Distance of the Stiffness Center (Point C in Fig. 8.10) from End A 1

in which

Wm ~ weight of machine and bearing transferred to a transverse beam (8.45)

q ~ uniformly distributed load on the transverse beam including its own
weight
in which
WL ~ load transferred by longitudinal beam on one column "%:.
and X, ~ distance of point C from A 1 (not shown in the figure)
l ~ effective length X,i ~ distance of center line of transverse frame j from the end A 1 (not
shown in the figure)
Total Mass
Distance e between the Mass Center and the Stiffness Center
L:Hj
m~--
g e ~x-x, (8.46)
 370
FOUNDATIONS FOR HIGH-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES
EXAMPLES 371
Equivalent Spring k• for Torsional Vibrations
The resultant horizontal amplitude A h is
(8.32)
(8.42)
in which b1 is the distance of lateral stiffness kxf (frame j) from the stiffness
center. in which a is the distance of the point at which the horizontal amplitude is to
be calculated from the mass center.
Limiting Natural Frequencies of Horizontal Vibration. The limiting
frequency of horizontal translation is Check on Dynamic Response
The natural frequencies in vertical and horizontal modes of vibration as
(8.36a) calculated above should be compared with the operating speed. The natural
frequency in any mode of vibration should be at least 30 percent away from
The limiting natural frequency of torsional vibrations w
11~1
is the operating speed. Similarly, the computed amplitudes of vibration should
be compared with their permissible values. Amplitudes of vibration should
in no case exceed the limiting values of amplitudes.
(8.36b) The amplitude buildup during starting or shutdown should be checked by
assuming resonance to take place and the maximum amplitude so calculated
Natural Frequencies in Coupled Horizontal Translation and Torsion should not exc!'ced the permissible Y,a!ues.
If the results of preliminary analysis indicate a satisfactory behavior it
(8.35) means that the trial sizes are adequate and more precise values should be
ascertained by a detailed dynamic analysis. The detailed dynamic analysis
in which a is given by should be performed to ascertain that resonance does not develop under
normal operating conditions and the vibration amplitudes both under nor-
e' mal operating conditions and during starting and shut off stages are within
a=l+--, (8.40)
r the permissible limits. The stresses in frame members under normal operat-
ing conditions, as well as under the action of anticipated emergency loads,
r = radius of gyration = ~ M,;;, (8.41) are calculated. The details of the input parameters depend on the computer
package selected and can be decided based upon the computer code used for
Amplitude of Horizontal Vibration. The amplitude of horizontal transla- the design. A reference should be made to the user's manual for this
tion Ax is purpose.

8.7 EXAMPLES
(8.37)
EXAMPLE 8.7.1
in which A reinforced concrete frame is shown in Fig. 8.13 (a, b, c) and carries
vertical loads at points s~own
I,
in Fig. 8.13a. The details of these loads are:
(8.39)
Points #1 and 2 = 5 t each
The amplitude of rotational vibrations A is Points #3, 4, 5, and 6 = 2 t each
"'
Assuming unit weight of concrete as 2.240 t/m 3 and Young's modulus for
concrete as 3 X 106 t/m 2, calculate the natural frequencies of horizontal
(8.38) vibrations in the longitudinal direction (a) by hand solution treating the
frame as a single-degree-of-freedom system. (b) by treating the frame as a
 372 FOUNDATIONS FOR HIGH-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES EXAMPLES 373

multidegr~e heedom system without considering the effect of soil and also
by mcludmg mteractwn effect of soil. Assume the value dynamic shear
I,=
06
· ~2°· 9 ' = 0.03645 m
4

3
modulus G = 9000 tim and v = 0.33. Neglect the effect of haunches.
Relative stiffness factor K:

Solution K = I, lz_
The dimensions of the frame and the various loads acting on it are shown in I, l
F1g. 8.13 (a, b, c). K = 0.036 X 5.5335 = O 9786
0.03645 5.589 .
Unit weight of concrete= 2.24 tim 3
Young's modulus of concrete E = 3 x 106 tim' Horizontal stiffness kx
Total weight of the deck slab W
W= 8.6 X 6.8 X 0.6 X 2.24- 3.6 X 2.8 X 0.6 X 2.24 = 65.04 t
k,
= 12EI,
h3
(6K + 1)
3K+2
Applied load= 5 + 5 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 18 t (8.20)
Total load WT = 65.04 + 18 = 83.04 t 6
k = 12 X 3 X 10 X 0.03645 ( 6 X 0.9786 + 1)
Effective span of beam and height of column:
x (5.5335) 3 3 X 0.9786 + 2

(8.8) ''k, = 10780.3 tim ····'

/2 X 10780.3 X 9.81
(8.9) wn, = \j _ = 50.46 radisec
83 04
From Fig. 8.13b 50.46
fnx = z:;;:- = 8.03 Hz
10 =5.7m
Multi-degrees-of-Freedom System Neglecting Effect of Soil
h 0 =5.7m
a= 0.30. Assnme the columns to be fixed in the base slab and consider one longi-
tudinal frame. The lumped-mass model is made for plane frame analysis
b 0.45 following the specific program manuals. i"
/;, = 5.7 =0.0789
The natural frequencies were obtained by using a computer program. The
h 5.7 values of the first eight natural frequencies obtained are shown in Table 8.2.
-0= - = 1
10 5.7

From Fig. 8.6, a= 0.185 Multi-degrees-of-Freedom System Considering Effect of Soil

f = 5. 7- 2 X 0.185 X 0.3 = 5.589 m The values of the soil springs k"' kx and k were obtained by using the
procedure in Section 6. 7•Ior the base area of the foundation. The values of
h = 5.7-2 X 0.185 X 0.45 = 5.5335 these springs are for the base area of the foundation are:
Moment of inertia of the beam I 6 : k, = 103044.7 tim k, = 84874.8 tim k., = 1569928.4 timirad

I = 2 X (0.6)' = 0 036 '

h 12 . m t There are several computer codes currently available in the market. The choice among these
commercially available codes should be based on the 'specific requirements of the problem (see
Moment of inertia of the column I '.· Appendix 3).
 375
374 FOUNDATIONS FOR HIGH-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES REFERENCES

Table 8.2. Computer Output: Plane Frame Analysis, Soil Interaction Neglected (l b) "En ineering User's Manual. Vol. 2. Additional Design and
1 979
ICES STR~DL .rl. . , S h. I of Civil Engineering Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
AnalysiS Fac1 1ttes. c oo '
Mode Eigenvalue Frequency Hz Period sec
Cambridge Massachusetts.
1 3 .464487D 03 9 .367850D 00 !.067481D-C1 ~~einlogel (1.94~). "Rahmenformeln." Springer~Verlag, Berlin and New York.
2 1.981161D 05 7.084030D 01 1.411626D-02 Kleinlogel (1964). "Rigid Frame Formulae." Frederick U~gar Publ. Co., New York.
3 2. 779605D 05 8.390967D 01 1.191758D-02 L t . h V (1959) "Frames and Arches." McGraw-Hill, New York. . ,
4 1.202309D 06 1.745133D 02 5. 730223D-03 eon ovJc ' · · . _ . A · nd Design " Akademiai Ktado,
Major, A. (1980). "Dynamics in Civil Engmeenng: na1ysts a .
5 3. 747028D 06 3.080803D 02 3.245907D-03 Budapest. Vol. 3. B k
6 5.200198D 06 3.629363D 02 2.755304D-03 Rausch, E. (1. 959 ). "Maschinen Fundamente und Andere Dynamisch Beanspruchte au on-
7 1.074382D 07 5.216747D 02 1.916904D-03 structionen." VDI Verlag, DUsseldorf. . _.
8 1.631767D 07 6.429091D 02 1.555430D-03 N E (1975) Natural frequencies of a turbme foundat1on. Proc.
ShenSt~~t~De~~~~:~n;~we~ Pian-ts Fa~ilities Conf., New Orleans, Il-~02 to 11-.311. . .
nternational Conference of Buildmg Officmls, Whittier,
Uniform Building Code (1985). I
California.
Table 8.3. Computer Output: Plane Frame Analysis, Soil Interaction Included
Mode Eigenvalue Frequency Hz Period sec
1 5.455556D 03 1.175547D 01 8.506678D-02
2 6. 768874D 03 1.309419D 01 7.636974D-02 -?--•
·:"· ..
3 1.594582D 04 2.009759D 01 4 .975722D-02
4 8.922416D 04 4. 754028D 01 2.103480D-02
5 1.357772D 05 5.864538D 01 1.705164D-02
6 4.283156D 05 1.041603D 02 9.600583D-03
7 1.387527D 06 1.874740D 02 5 .334072D-03
8 1. 728597D 06 2.092509D 02 4. 778952D-03

The computed natural frequencies using a computer program are shown in

Table 8.3.

REFERENCES

ADINA System (1981). "ADINA User's Manual." ADINA Engineering Inc., Watertown,
Massachusetts.
American Society of Civil Engineers (1987). "Design of large steam turbine-generator foun-
datiOns." ASCE task committee on turbine foundations.
Arya, S. D., O'Neill, M., and Pincus, G. (1979). "Design of Structures and Foundations for
Vibrating Machines." Gulf Publ. Co., Houston, Texas.
Arya, S.D., and Drweyer, R. (1977). Mathematical modelling and computer simulation of
elevated foundations suppbrting vibrating machinery. Trans. -fMACS 19, No. 4.
Barkan, D. D. (1962). "Dynamics of Bases and Foundations." McGraw-Hill, New York.
Hurty, W. C., and Rubinstein, M. F. (1964). "Dynamics of Structures." Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
ICES STRUDL II (1979a). "Engineering User's Manual. Vol. 1. Frame Analysis." School of
Civil Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
 9 FOUNDATIONS FOR lOW-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES

1. The speed of operation of motor-generator units is much lower (below

1500 rpm) than that for turbogenerators (usually 3000 or 3600 rpm).
377

2. Motor generators have a larger unbalance compared to turbo-

generators, whicb are well-balanced machines. Even at low speeds of
operation, the motor generators produce large unbalanced forces and
Foundations for moments.
3. Permissible motion amplitudes for motor generators are higber than
Miscellaneous Types of for turbogenerators. Tolerance vibration limits are rather stringent (Section
8.3) for turbogenerators. Permissible vibration amplitudes for motor
Machines generators operating at low speeds of 300 to 400 rpm are in the range of 0.1
to 0.3mm.

For motor generators operating at low speeds (less than 300 to 450 rpm),
it is advisable to design a high-tuned foundation in the form of a rigid
concrete block. For motor generators operating at 1200 to 1500 rpm, both
massive concrete or frame-type foundations may be provided depending
This ~hapter deals with the design of foundations for the following types f
machmes: o upon soil conditions and the space required for equipment and other
accessories. t,: >. ,.rr
1. Low-speed rotary machines. To ensure long-term satisfactory p"erformance of motor generator units,
2. Machine tools. the design criteria given below must be satisfied both for static and dynamic
3. Stamping, forging and punch presses. loads.

The problem of machines supported directly on building floors has also

been mcluded. Design Criteria
Static Loads. The stability criteria in respect of static load are
9.1 FOUNDATIONS FOR LOW-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES
1. No shear failure in soil.
This class includes rotary machines operating at Jess than 1500 rpm M t 2. No excessive settlement.
generators, centrifugal pumps, fans and blowers, crushing mills, and ro~i~~
mills are some examples of low-speed rotary machines For these machines Dynamic Loads. The design criteria in respect of dynamic loads are
both the massive-block-type and frame-type foundatio~s are used. Principle~
gover~mg the design of foundations for this category of machines are 1. Natural frequencies of the foundation-soil system should be at least 30
essentially the same as discussed in Chapter 6 for block -type foundations percent away from the operating speed of the machine.
(for reciprocatmg machines) and in Chapter 8 for frame foundations 2. Amplitudes of vibration should be within the permissible limits
Appropnate design procedure should be followed depending upon type of specified by machine manufacturer. In case specifications by manufacturers
foundation selected. In some cases, it may be necessary to use a pile- are not available, limiting values of design amplitudes may be adopted as
supported foundation. Concepts developed in Chapter 12 may b d · follows: "<:
such F d · . e use m
_cases. oun atton destgn for some of these thachines wil1 0 b
descnbed. . ow e
Operating Speed Permissible Amplitude (mm)
750 rpm or less 0.06 to 0.12
Motor Generators 750 rpm to 1500 rpm 0.06 to 0.04

The design of foundations for motor generator units is considered separately Data Required. Information listed below should be obtained for the
from turbogenerator units for the following reasons: design of a foundation for the motor generator unit.
376
 378
FOUNDATIONS FOR MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF MACHINES
FOUNDATIONS FOR LOW-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES 379
Machine Data
f frequency of pressure waves in water flowing through the pump
=
1. Weight of motor and generator. N = speed of the pump in rpm
2. Weight of rotor for (a) motor and (b) generator and the effective n = number of vanes in the impeller
eccentricity for each. If information on unbalanced forces and mo-
ments is available, data on eccentricity is not needed.
3. Weight of flywheel. Design Criteria
4. Operating speed. From considerations of dynamic stability of the pumping installation, the
5. Short-circuit moment. criteria to be satisfied are:
6. Geometric layout of the machine units, anchoring details, and open-
ings required for accessories and inspection. 1. Natural frequency of the soil foundation system should be at lea;\~0
i
percent away from the operating frequency and the frequency o e
pressure surges.

I
Soil Data
2. Amplitudes must be within permissible limits.
1. Soil profile and data on soil characteristics up to three times the
foundation width or hard stratum. Machine Data. The following machine data is needed for design of its
foundation:
2. Realistic dynamic soil properties consistent with confining pressures
and strain amplitude as discussed in Chapter 4 (Section 4.7). 1. Weighf'of the pump. ..,. '
3. Position of water table.
2. Operating speed of the pump.
Design Procedure. The choice of the foundation among massive block 3. Number of impeller vanes.
type or frame type depends upon operating floor level, layout of the 4. Frequency of pressure surges.
accessory equipment, operating speed of the machine, and subsoil charac- 5. Unbalanced forces due to pump operation.
teristics. Vibration characteristics of the block-type foundations may be
computed following the procedure recommended in Section 6.8. For frame- Soil data should be procured as discussed for motor generator sets. .
type foundations, the procedure suggested in Section 8.6 should be adopted. Block-type foundations are used for pumping installations. The v1bral!on
characteristics are ascertained following the procedure suggested m Section
Foundations for Centrifugal Pumps 6.8 for block foundations.

These pumps operate at low speeds. The foundation size provided from
considerations of geometry of the pumping installation is large enough and
vibration problems usually will not arise. There are two main sources of
vibration for which the foundation response must be checked:
1. The forces due to unbalance in the rotating unit known as impeller.
2. If the clearance between the impeller and the casing is inadequate, the
pressure surges increase and the ensuing waves propagate through the
water to the casing and to the foundation. The frequency of such
waves is given by (Judd, 1955)
Nn
t= 60 (9.1)
in which
Foundations for Fans and Blowers
A fan consists of a set of blades attached to a rotor. The angle of blades is
set so that the rotation of the fan causes a flow of air in the ax1al duectiOn.
In blowers, the air flows both axially and radially. Speed of operatiOn of fa.ns
and blowers varies over a wide range from 150 to. 750 rpm. High-capacity
units usually have 4J;.ver speed of operation. VIbratiOns result due to
unbalance in the rotor; drive mechamsm, and the motor. .
Fans and blowers are supported on block foundatiOn. Layout of a typical
block foundation for a primary fan is. shown in Fig. 9.1. Because ofthe1rlow
speed of operation, the vibrations transmitted to the smlby the foundatiOns
of the fan may have a detrimental effect on the ad]ommg structures. A
trench is generally provided around the foundatl~m. . .
Soil and machine data necessary for foundatiOn design IS the same as
discussed earlier for motor generators.
 380
FOUNDATIONS FOR MISCEllANEOUS TYPES OF MACHINES FOUNDATIONS FOR lOW-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES 381

<l of discharge of primary Foundation Jaw crushers may have different geometrical configurations and may be
air fan unit ""' block
with or without counterweights. Some typical configurations of these
crushers are shown in Table 9 .I, column 2. The unbalanced inertia forces
for each case may be calculated by equations summarized in column 3,
Table 9.1.
In the case of gyratory or cone crushers, the ore is pulverized between
the crushing head of the main shaft, which undergoes a rocking motion
along a circular path, and the armored jacket of the upper stationary part.
Magnitude of the inertia force F 1 , due to angular rotation of the main
shaft with the attached crushing cone is given by Eq. (9.2a):
<tof primary air
fan foundation
(9.2a)

Retaining wall in which

(a) Plan

~Grout~
m 1 =mass of the main shaft including mass of crushing cone
Covered~ch
r 1 = distance between center of gravity of the main shaft and crusher
16
t _1J T
cone .from the axis of the.,s~.usher
Lr.= rb w = angular velocity of shaft rotation.
~· :P ,,, J
ur~
The camshaft, gears, and accessories, e.g., counterweights attached to it,
give rise to a force F2 in a direction opposite to that generated due to
rotation of the main shaft. The magnitude of this force is given by Eq.
(9.2b):

~. v / (9.2b)

+ Reinforcement
bars as per design

(b) Section XX
(concrete not shown)
t in which

m 2 = mass of camshaft, gears, and counterweights that are rigidly fixed to

it
Figure 9.1. Typical foundation for a primary air fan. r2 =distance between crusher axis and center of gravity of camshaft with
accessories attached to it.
Foundations for Crushing Mills
The resultant exciting force F may therefore be obtained from Equation
Crushers are used for pulverizing ore. Crushers may be classified in three (9.2c):
categories:

1. Jaw crushers.
2. Gyratory crushers. or
3. Rotary hammer crushers.
(9.2c)
The operation of the crusher results in unbalanced inertia forces that This force Facts in the plane of rotation of the crushing cone, which is a
induce forced vibrations of the foundation.
horizontal plane and may be resolved into two mutually perpendicular
 FOUNDATIONS FOR LOW-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES 383

components Px and PY (referring to the horizontal plane of rotation of the

cone as XY) given by Equation (9.3).

Px = Fsin wt (9.3a)

PY= Fcos wt (9.3b)

The forces Px and PY will also give rise to exciting moments Pxh and PYh
in which h is the height of point of action of Px and PY above the top of the
foundation. These moments act in vertical planes and induce rocking of the
foundation.
The nature of the unbalanced forces associated with jaw crushers (Table
II II 9.1, column 3) and gyratory crushers [Equation (9.2c)] is similar to those
associated with operation of reciprocating machines.

Rotary Hammer Crusher

Rotary hamnter crushers are commonly used for crushing limestone in
cement factories. Auto shredders ar~ another example. A hammer crusher
has a rotor on which a number of hammers are attached radially (Fig. 9.2).
A series of such hammers form different rows. The rotor and the hammer
are housed in a steel casing with an inlet at the top and outlet opening at the
bottom. The stones that fall inside the crusher (Fig. 9.2) are hit by the
rotating hammers. As a result of impact by the hammers, the stones strike
the crusher casing, rebound, and again hit the rotating hammers. The
process of rebounding and hitting continues till the stones are crushed to the
required size and come out of the crusher. Crushers may be used in series to
get crushed stone of the required size. The crusher that gives coarser
crushed stone is called a primary crusher. The next lower crushed size of
stones is obtained in the secondary crusher.
The process of crushing of stones is a continuous one. Unbalanced loads
are generated due to hitting of the stones by the hammer and due to
rotation of the material inside the crusher. The distribution of material
inside the crusher is not uniform. Thus the magnitude and direction of the
unbalanced forces and moments is difficult to calculate. The data on
unbalanced forces should therefore be obtained from the supplier.
The usual speed of if; rotary crusher ranges from 300 to 750 rpm. The
capacity of the crusher for a cement plant producing 600 tons of cement per
day will be about 200 tons per day. The typical weight of the crusher for
such a unit will range from 40 to 50 tons, and the weight of the rotating part
will be 10 to 20 tons. If the data on dynamic loads is not furnished by the
supplier, a dynamic force equal to twice the weight of rotating parts acting
at the center of gravity of the crusher should be used for design of the
foundation.
382 Foundations for crushers are usually designed as massive concrete blocks.
 384 FOUNDATIONS FOR MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF MACHINES FOUNDATIONS FOR LOW-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES 385

Centerline <t
I
I

Crusher Inlet

([ of oil
drain
Radial hammer
Pocket for
anchor bolt

([of pulverizer
unit
Circular binders
,c.Jop of structural
,·- steel Radial bar

Outlet

'. Reinforcement
bars

~~oc:=:==fi=s=,:~:"':~d:~:~c:"u"'sh"',"',""""""""J;;;;;;;: Outlet
I Top of

I
Centerline
Sand filling
vLL'--~
concrete
raft

Figure 9.2. Hammer crusher for a cement factory.

Section XX
(concrete not shown)
Figure 9.3. Typical foundation for a crushing mill.
A typical foundation for a crusher pulverizer is shown in Fig. 9.3. Frame-
type foundal!ons can also be provided for crushers. Data required for design
IS as follows.

Soil Data. Information on subsoil data is as discussed in Sections 6.8

Machine Data and 8.6. -,..:.
1. Layout of crusher and motor.
Design Criteria
2. Weight of crusher and motor.
3. Operating speed of the main shaft. The criteria for static and dynamic stability should be satisfied as for any
4. Unbalanced forces or machine data for their calculation.
machine foundation. The limiting vibration amplitudes should not be ex-
ceeded. If information on limiting amplitudes is not available, an upper
5. Anchoring details.
limiting value of 0.3 mm may be assumed.
6. Permissible vibration amplitudes. The design should be carried out following the procedure suggested in
386 FOUNDATIONS FOR lOW-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES 387
FOUNDATIONS FOR MISCEllANEOUS TYPES OF MACHINES

Section 6.8 if a block foundation is adopted and of Section 8.6 if a frame C,----(D
foundation is to be designed.

Foundations for Rolling Mills

c
The process of rolling is used to convert molten ingots of steel into structural w
E
sections by passing them through a set of rollers. During the rolling 0
:< A B
operation, variable loads are transmitted to the foundation, resulting in
K
foundation vibrations and transfer of dynamic stresses to both soil and H Time (sec)
foundation.
A rolling mill consists of following components:
(a) I J

I. Driving motor.
2. Motor generator (power) unit.
3. Rollers and drive-gear stands. A typical roller unit is shown in Fig.
9.4.

Driving Motor. This is a reversible direct current motor which controls

the speed of the rollers and is supported on an independent foundation. The
speed of operation of these motors is low, approximately 60 rpm. Torque on
the shaft of the rotor varies depending upon the stage of rolling.
Different stages in rolling during one pass of the ingot and the corres-
ponding torsional moment on the shaft are described below.
~ rn1~ +-Rolling-~:tl~'"';'\>jl Time
Time

I. Speeding up the rollers at no load. The torsional moment during this (b)
Ingot exit
lcl
stage is constant and is shown by AB in Fig. 9.5a. Figure 9.5. MomenHime history of pulse du~ing r~lling operation. ~a) S~~ematic. diag~am for
2. The ingot is gripped by the rollers and forced through them and one passage of ingot, (b) idealized momenH1me d1agram, and (c) s•mphf1ed des1gn d•agram.
simultaneously the rollers accelerate. The torsional moment increases
as indicated on Fig. 9.5a by line BC.
4. Towards the end of one rolling pass, the rollers slow down resulting in
3. Rolling then proceeds at constant speed. The torque stays constant as
shown by line CD. diminishing torque as shown by D EFG.
5. The ingot then exits, torque diminishes along line GH.
Adjusting screw Adjusting screw
6. The exit of the ingot is marked by sudden unloading of the system as
shown by lines HIJ.
7. One pass of the ingot is completed and torque gradually falls to zero
along line JK. ,.,
Roll stand

An ingot passes through the rollers several times before the finished
section is obtained. The shape of "torsional moment" vs. "time" diagram
for each roller pass is similar. The maximum torsional moment on the shaft
and consequently the maximum exciting moment on the foundation are
developed at the end of the acceleration stage as shown by C, and this
Roller moment varies slightly during the rolling process. It may reasonably be
Figure 9.4. A typical roll stand unit. (After Major, 1980.) assumed that the absolute change (decrease) in torsional moment during exit
388 FOUNDATIONS FOR MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF MACHINES
FOUNDATIONS FOR LOW-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES 389

of the ingot is of the same order as the change in moment (increase) when
the ingot is gripped by the rollers. The design diagram for torsional moment
variation for one pass of rolling may be simplified to that shown in Fig. 9.5b.
Further, the exit of the ingot is followed by a decrease in torsional moment
and the stresses in the foundation can exceed those during the process of
steady rolling when the torsional moment is maximum. The loading diagram
may therefore be further simplified to that shown in Fig. 9 .5c.
The torsional moment will induce rocking vibrations of the foundation.
The stress induced in the soil will be the sum of the stress due to static load
and rotation of the foundation and may be obtained as follows [Eq. (9.4)]:
(9.4)
Operating and Drive Gear Stands
The roller stand provides support to the bearing and transmits the forces
arising during rolling process to the foundation.
The gearbox houses the gears that drive the rollers. A torque equal to the
torque on the shaft of the drive motor acts on the gearbox. The foundations
for the gearbox should therefore be designed in the same manner as for the
driving motor.
When the drive-gear and working stands are mounted on a separate
foundation, not tied to that under the driving roll motor, the dynamic effects
of external loads on the foundations are evaluated separately but similarly.
Drive-gear stand, working stand, and driving roll motor may be mounted

in which
qmax =maximum value of stress induced to soil
W = weight of foundation and equipment thereon
A = foundation area in contact with soil
C.; =coefficient of elastic nonuniform compression of soil
a = foundation width in plane of rotation
<l>m"' = maximum angular rotation of the foundation
The value of <l>m" may be obtained by dynamic analysis as for a
foundation excited by a moment (Sections 6.4 and 6.7). Alternatively, the
value of <l>m"' may be taken as the value of angle of rotation of the
foundation if the given torsional moment were applied statically and multip-
lied by a dynamic loading factor. A dynamic load factor of 2 has been
suggested by Barkan (1962).
Motor Generator (Power Unit). The power unit supplies power
roll motor and consists of one or more direct current generators
flywheel mounted on the same shaft. The generators are operated
electric motor. The value of torque Mi due to operation of the power
given by
in which
I
I
on a common foundation, the drive-gear stand is then subjected to the
action of a torsional moment whose sign is opposite to that of the moment
acting on the stator of the driving roll motor. The sum of all the external
dynamic loads transmitted to the foundation and soil in this case equals
zero, and the foundation will be under the action of internal torsional
moments whqse magnitude equal~ t:!Je moment of the shaft of the motor, as
well as under the action of the (;quipment weight. These loads should be
considered in the stress analysis of the foundation and its components.
For designing foundations for a rolling mill, the data as given below
should be obtained:
Machine Data
1. Layout of the complete unit.
2. Weight of the rolling-mill equipment.
3. Weight of the driving roll motor.
4. Maximum moment at the motor shaft.
5. Horizontal force transmitted to the footings.
to the
6. Erection loads.
and a
by an
unit is Soil Data. As for other foundations (Sections 6.8 and 8.6). The drive
roll motor is usually supported on a separate block foundation.
The motor generator may be supported on massive-blocks or a frame-
~-q'
(9.5) type foundation. ·
Operating and drive gear stands are usually mounted on a common
foundation. Static computations of the foundation are limited to

I= mass moment of inertia of all rotating masses of the power unit
N = speed of operation
dNI d.t =rate ,of change of speed, which varies from 3 to 10 cycles (per
sec.) (Barkan, 1962). The value of the design moment should
be taken as 2Mi to account for the most unfavorable conditions.
1. Stress analysis of separate units of the foundation, such as units
weakened by openings, cantilevers, and others.
2. Computation of local stresses under supporting slabs.
3. Analysis of stresses within the foundation.
4. Computation of pressures transmitted to the soil.
 390 FOUNDATIONS FOR MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF MACHINES FOUNDATIONS FOR MACHINE TOOLS 391

The foundation is assumed to be a girder of varying rigidity resting on an
elastic base.
A dynamic factor of 2 is used in respect to the computations 1 and 2
above. Calculations 3 and 4 are based on actual weights.
. A typical f~undation for the roller unit and driving gear for a light steel
millis shown m Fig. 9.6.
Foundations for Grinding Mills
Grinding mills are of two types: (a) drum mills and (b) tube mills.
The tube mill has a narrow diameter and larger length. The diameter and
length or height of a drum mill are comparable .
A tube mill has an outer shell that is rotated by a motor. The tube
contains a charge of steel balls that impinges upon the material being
ground. Drum mills work on the same principle as the tube mills. The
grinding mills may be used both for dry and wet grinding.
For design of foundation for grinding mills, the following data should be
procured (Major, 1980):

1. Layout details of the mill equipment.

2. Weight of the mill casing, ball charge, and material to be ground.
3. Characteristics of the driving motor and drive.
4. Direction of rotation of the mill.
5. Distance of the axis of the drumshaft and the top of the foundation.

Dynamic analysis is generally 'n'cit needed for the design of mill foun-
dations. Soil stresses must, however, be checked and ensured to be below
the permissible values for the loading conditions given below:

1. Weight of machine.
2. Weight of foundation.
3. The horizontal component of the centrifugal force in the direction of
motion of the bottom generator of the tube. The magnitude of the
horizontal component should be taken as 10 percent of the weight of
the mill (W) for mills with short drums and 20 percent of W for tube
mills. Weight W is the weight of the mill without ball charge and
material to be ground. Permissible values of the soil stresses are
generally reduced to 80 percent of those under static loads. Weight W
is considered to be uniform over the two supports of the drum.
±0.00 When the soil conditions are good (permissible soil stresses 3.5 kg/ cm 2 or
more), separate foundations may be provided for intake and discharge ends
of the mill and also for driving motor and the reduction gear. When soil
2
conditions are not favol\(lble (allowable soil stress <1.5 kg/cm ), the entire
mill should be placed on a common foundation.

9.2 FOUNDATIONS FOR MACHINE TOOLS

(b)
Machines such as lathes, milling, drilling, and boring machines are known as
Fig~re 9.6. Foundation for a light steel rolling mill. (a) Roller stand, and (b) driving gear. (After
MaJor, 1980.) machine tools. A dynamic analysis for foundations for machine tools may be
392 FOUNDATIONS FOR MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF MACHINES FOUNDATIONS FOR STAMPING, FORGING, AND PUNCH PRESSES 393

needed only in exceptional cases. A static design is generally adequate. In The crosshead may be actuated through hydraulic or pneumatic pressure,
the case of precision machines, it may be necessary to protect the machine or an eccentric or a friction drive may be used. Accordingly, the type of
against vibrations from other machines such as hammers, crushing mills, press is: (1) hydraulic press, (2) eccentric press, and (3) friction press.
compressors, and railroad and traffic vibrations. In such situations, the A press unit complete with the material being pressed represents an
foundation may be mounted on suitably designed vibration absorbers (Sec- internally balanced system, and no net load is transferred to the foundatmn.
tion 10.3). Vibration isolation can also be achieved by providing a trench Dynamic analysis, therefore, is not needed. A dynamic overload factor of 2
around the machine tool (Section 10.5). and inclusion of twice the weight of the material being forged is sometimes
considered in design. Dynamic overload in stamping presses is caused by the
drop of an upper ram on forge piece. In eccentric presses, there is a dynamic
9o3 FOUNDATIONS FOR STAMPING, FORGING, AND PUNCH PRESSES torque in the horizontal plane of the foundation. In the case of a large
eccentric press, impact moments are also caused.
Presses are commonly used in practice for stamping, forging, and punching Dynamic effects for hydraulic presses (Fig. 9. 7) can be accounted for by
purposes. A press is assigned a name depending upon the specific operation consideration of deformations in the system (Rausch, 1959). Let hand A be
for which it has been designed. A press consists of a crosshead, a bed plate the height and cross-sectional area of the anchor columns of the hydraulic
and columns. The bed plate rests on a base that is anchored to the press (Fig. 9. 7).
foundation. A schematic sketch of a press is shown in Fig. 9.7. The bed The elastic deformation As of the columns is given by
plate can also be directly anchored to the foundation depending upon the
type of the press. The crosshead moves up and down and has a fixed travel "•·•' Wh
us-=- (9.6)
known as stroke. The base plate can be adjusted and fixed at any desired · EA
elevation. The desired process of forging, stamping, or punching may be
performed by attaching the appropriate tool to the crosshead. For stamping in which
purposes, the stamping dye is attached. Likewise for forging operations a
forging tool of the required size and shape is attached. The punching W= weight of machine minus the moving crosshead
operation is performed by fixing a suitable cutting tool to the crosshead. It A = cross-sectional area of all columns
should be noted that the forging operation in a press is performed by h= height of the columns
applying a compressive force through a suitable tool to the red hot metal E= Youngs' modulus of column material
piece and differs from the forging under impact done with the forging
hammers. The dynamic factor F is given by

Columns I
II I v
F=-- (9.7)
~
I I I
I I
I I
r Crosshead
where V is the velocity of impact.
I I I I
I I I II The dynamic force is given by

I : I /
(9.8)

:: ! : : Adjustable
--bed plate
"'%~

in which a is the fatigue factor, which may be adopted as 1 ° 1 to 1 ° 3.

ii
I I
I i i
II I
For pun~h presses, no method for analyzing the forces transmitted to the
foundation is available. In the opinion of the authors, the load transferred to
: the foundation may be obtained from consideration of energy stored in the
h metal piece being punched before the yield condition develops. The energy
~///~/:;~~;>/ _L Figure 9.7. Schematic sketch of a hydraulic
stored in the metal piece will be released suddenly as the punch cuts through
the metal subsequently. This release of energy may result in vibrations of
Base/ press. the system.
 ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 395
394 FOUNDATIONS FOR MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF MACHINES

The data required for designing foundations for presses will now be
discussed.

Design Data. The data giVen below should be obtained for designing
Foundation
foundations for a press. block

1. Layout of machine installation.

2. Maximum force exerted by the press.
3. Stroke of-the press.
4. Weight of the press.
5. Weight of material to be forged or pressed.
6. Load-time characteristics of the pulse or the dynamic loading effects
due to stamping or forging, including dynamic torque for friction
presses. r Figure 9.8. Setting a machine directly on floor.
7. Data on soil profile and its static and dynamic characteristics.

The design of the foundation may then be attempted as usual.

I.
9.4 MACHINES SUPPORTED ON FLOORS
Washer
Smooth-running machines such as small electric motors and machine tools
may sometimes be installed on building floors. It is essential to ascertain that
such an installation should not result in excessive vibrations of the floor or
the building structure. While installing machines on the building floor, the
following points should be considered (Major, 1980):

1. It must be established by analysis that the natural frequency of the

floor and the building structure is far from the operating speed of the
machine. This will ensure that the building is not exposed to undesirable
vibrations. If it becomes necessary to install a machine at an upper floor Figure 9.9. Fixing machine leg on floor.
level, the buildup of amplitudes should be checked by rigorous analysis.
2. Vibration isolation should be provided by inserting vibration absorber
pads between the machine and the floor. An arrangement for providing an is felt that the performance of some existing machines resting on floors and
absorber pad between the machine and the pad is shown schematically in vibration response of floors and adjoining structural elements needs to be
Fig. 9.8. The use of a rubber sleeve is illustrated in Fig. 9.9. monitored so that thf~ topic may be given a sound design basis.
3. For a vibration-sensitive environment, the machine ·must be supported
on soft springs of steel or rubber.
4. Concrete floors should be protected against chemical attack due to 9.5 EXAMPLES
leakage of oil from the machine.
Design of foundation for a grinding (tube) mill
No design procedures have been developed to date for machines suppor-
A grinding (tube) mill is to be installed as a part of the cement plant. The
ted directly on floors. A modal analysis of the building frame may be following data on the size and capacity of the mill is given.
performed to ascertain its vibration response and to ensure a safe design. It
396 FOUNDATIONS FOR MISCElLANEOUS TYPES OF MACHINES ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 397

l. Diameter of the tube= 3.0 m. 2. Weight of motor and equipment= 35 t.

2. Length of the tube= 12.0 m. 3. Weight of foundation block at inlet end W,
3. Weight of the tube W, = 95 t. W, = (6 X 6 X 2.5 + 3.6 X 1.8 X 0.5]2.4 t
4. Weight of steel balls Wb = 45 t. = 223.78 t
5. Weight of the material to be pulverized (capacity) W, = 10 t.
4. Weight of foundation block at discharge end is Wd.
6. Weight of accessories at discharge end= 5.0 t.
7. Weight of motor and gear Wm = 35 t. Wd = 2.5(8.8 X 6 X 2.5 + 2(1.8 X 3.6 X 0.5)- 3 X 6 X 0.7]
= 294.91 t
A sketch of the proposed foundation is shown in Fig. 9.10. The soil 2
investigations at the site of the mill indicated that the safe allowable soil 5. Allowable soil pressure= 2.0 kg/cm
2
pressure may be taken as 2.0 kg/ cm 2• Check the suitability of the proposed = 20 t/m
foundation. Assume that the unit weigbt of concrete is 2400 kg/m3. Check of foundation design at the inlet end
Solution Static
150
It is proposed to provide separate foundations for the inlet and discharge Weight of machine+ foundation= 2 + 223.78
ends. The motor and other machinery will be supported on the same = 298.78 t
foundation as for the discharge end. Base area'= 6 x 6 =36m 2 .•, .••.•
,· 298.7
Soil pressure due to static load = ~
l. Weight of machine, balls, and material being pulverized 2
=8.29 t/m
= w, + wb + w, = 95 + 45 + 10 = 150 t
Dynamic
Horizontal centrifugal force P for tube mills= 0.2 x W,
95
z
X

=0.2X =9.5t
Moment about the base Md = 9.5 x 3.7 = 35.15 t m
2 2
Dynamic stress at base due to moment= 35.15/(k x 6 x 6 ) = 0.97 t/m
Stresses on the soil due to combined static and dynamic load
2 2
=8.29 ± 0.97 tim 2 = 9.26 t/m and 7.32 tim
The stresses induced are less than the allowable soil pressure.
Check of foundation design at discharge end
I Static

1T 1
1800 Plan
150
~ Weight of machine and foundation=- + 35 + 294.91 = 404.91 t
t- 2

l
2
I Base area= 8.6 X 6 = 51.6 m
. 404.91
6000 3600 I 36 6000 Stress due to static load = 51:"6

1 ]+--- I

l
I =7.84 tim 2 •~:

1 l----3000 . '
l•l
30004
1000 1800
i
3000

(b)
~ I E
1800
• I1000
• •I
Dynamic
Moment due to horizontal centrifugal force = 35.15 t m
35.15 2
All dimensions Stress due to moment= 1 2 = 0.81 t/m
'm mm 6 X 8.6 X (5.5)
2 2
Figure 9.10. Foundation for a grinding mill: (a) inlet end and (b) discharge end. (See Example). Total stress= 7.84 ± 0.81 t/m 2 = 8.65 t/m and 7.03 tim
 10
398 FOUNDATIONS FOR MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF MACHINES

The stresses induced in the soil due to combined action of static and
dynamic loads are smaller than the allowable pressure both at the inlet and
discharge ends. So the foundation proposed is adequate.

REFERENCES Vibration Absorption and

Barkan, D. D. (1962). "Dynamics of Bases and Foundations." McGraw-Hill, New York.
Judd, S. (1955). Vibration in hydroelectric power plants. Proc. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 81. Isolation
Major, A. (1980). "Dynamics in Civil Engineering: Analysis and Design," Vol. 2.
Akademiai Kiad6, Budapest.
Rausch, E. (1959). "Maschinen Fundamente und Andere Dynamisch Beanspruchte Baukon-
structionen." VDI Verlag, DUsseldorf.

Many times the designer is faced with the problem of designing the machine
foundations. for which the permissible amplitudes of motion are much
smaller thai( those considered n6fmally acceptable for uninterrupted ma-
chine operation. It may often be difficult to design the foundation for such
limiting amplitudes by proper selection of the mass or the foundation
contact area or by increasing the rigidity of the base. A foundation on
absorbers may provide an answer to the design problem in such a case. The
absorbers used for this purpose may be rubber, cork, felt or neoprene pads,
or steel springs. Pneumatic absorbers are also used for this purpose. A
foundation supported on spring absorbers is shown in Fig. lO.la.
There may be situations when amplitudes of vibration of the machine
may be within the acceptable limits so far as the performance of the machine
itself is concerned but the resulting vibrations may adversely affect the
performance of other machines in the vicinity or may he harmful to adjacent
structures. A vibrating footing becomes a source of wave generation in the
soil mass (Fig. 3.14). The energy transmitted by the waves may cause
vibrations of the structures in the intervening medium. The harmful effects
of these waves depend on the operating speed of the machine, the amplitude
of motion of the footing, and the nature of the intervening medium. The
adverse effects of machine vibrations on surroundings may be avoided either
by limiting the amplitudes of vibrations of foundation using absorbers or by
providing trench or pit!\' barriers. The trench barriers for screening of waves
may be provided either around the source of vibrations (active isolation) or
around the precision machine or structure sought to be protected against
vibrations (passive isolation). Sensitive eqnipment such as seismographs are
usually isolated against vibration due to traffic or machine operation by
providing trench barriers around them. In some situations, the depth of the
trenches for achieving effective isolation may be very large and may pose
construction and maintenance problems. Pile barriers may be effectively
used for vibration isolation in such cases.
399
400 VIBRATION ABSORPTION AND ISOLATION PRINCIPLE OF VIBRATION ABSORPTION 401

uneven bearing, improper design or construction, and changes in soil

conditions such as fluctuations of the water table subsequent to construction
of the foundation. Inadequate soil investigation of the site may also lead to
such a situation. Depending upon the cause of excessive vibration, certain
remedial measures will then be required before the machine can be operated
safely.
In this chapter the design of machine foundation on absorbers, vibration
Foundation block isolation using trenches and piles, and remedial measures against excessive
vibrations of existing machine foundations are described.

10.1 PRINCIPLE OF VIBRATION ABSORPTION

A foundation on absorbers is usually made of two parts: a lower slab or a

sole plate on which the absorbers are placed and an upper foundation block
resting on the absorbers. The machine is anchored to the upper foundation
(a)
block. For light machines, the base plate of the machine may be anchored
directly to the absorbers and an upper foundation block may not be needed.
A schematic ~ketch of a machine forlndation on absorbers is shown in Figure
10.1a, and the commonly used model for analyzing this system is shown in
Foundation block Fig. 10.1b. Each of the rigid masses (1) m, due to the foundation and (2) m 2
+ machine
for the concrete slabs will have six degrees of freedom. The total number of
degrees of freedom for the whole system are thus 12. Vibration absorbers
Equivalent are generally used for machines undergoing vertical vibrations and having

[f:7~~,~'""'
vertical unbalanced forces. As mentioned in Section 6.2, the vertical vibra-
tions are independent of vibrations in other modesc The problem of machine

I foundations on absorbers may thus be analyzed by treating the system as a

two-degrees-of-freedom system (Fig. 10.1h). The motion characteristics of
this system can be obtained as explained previously in Section 2.13. As-
spring kt
suming the masses of the system to be concentrated at their centers of
ff///bm gravity and located on the same vertical line, the differential equation of
(b) (c) motion may be written as in Eqs. (2.95a, b):
Figure 10.1. (a) Schematic diagram of a foundation on absorbers (supported type). (b) Equi-
valent two-spring-mass model of foundation absorber system. (c) Free-body diagram.
m1z + k z + k (z z = 0
1 1 1 2 1 - 2) (2.95a)
m z + k (z
2 2 2 z = F sin wt
2 - 1) 0 (2.95b)

where
The process of reducing transmission of vibrations by controlling the
amplitude of vibration of the footing by use of absorbers or by providing F0 sin wt =exciting force
barriers has been extensively used in the industrial world (Adiar, 1974; Baxa w =frequency of machine operation rad/sec
and Ebisch, 1982; Barkan, 1962; Klein and Crockett, 1953). z, z 2 =vertical displacements of centers of gravity of masses m 1 and
Amplitudes of a machine-foundation system that are within acceptable m 2 , respectively
limits at the time of its commission may increase following a period of its k 1 =equivalent stiffness of vertical soil spring below the base and is
operation. This may be occasioned by an increase in unbalanced loads, given by
 402 VIBRATION ABSORPTION AND ISOLATION
PRINCIPLE OF VIBRATION ABSORPTION 403

k = k = 4Gro in which S is a constant, depending upon machine characteristics such as

I z 1- V
and k, is the total equivalent stiffness of all springs in the absorber system.
The frequency equation for the system is (Section 2.13)
(6.18)
unbalanced mass and eccentricity. Substituting the expressions for F0 and
2 4
Ll.(w ) in Eq. (2.108) and dividing the numerator and denominator by w ,
one gets

w;- (w; 11 + w; 12 )(1 + !L)w; + (1 + !L)w; 11 w; 1, = 0 (2.98) (10.2)

in which w" 1 , 2 are the natural frequencies of the system, and
in which
(!)nil
r =-- (10.3)
1 w '
W"11is the limiting natural frequency of the entire system resting on soil
(when no absorbers are used) and is given by In case no absorbers are used, the amplitude of vibration of the entire
foundation resting on soil is given by
w -
nll-
~ m k+1 (2.99a)
1 m, (10.4a)

and w"t 2 is the limiting natural frequency of the mass m 2 resting on absorbers
a_nd calculated on the assumption that the system below the springs has large or
ngidity. w" 12 IS given by
(10.4b)
(2.99b)
It is seen from Eq. (10.2) that the amplitude with absorber will be small
The maximum amplitudes Z 1 and Z 2 are given by only if the ratio r 2 is small. When r 2 , i.e., w" 12 /w is negligible, the amplitude
of vibration .Z1 is almost zero and the absorber efficiency is high. The
2 effectiveness of the absorber is thus maximum when r 2 = 0 and decreases as
wn/2
z1 = m1 Ll.(w2) Fo (2.108) the ratio r 2 increases. For very large values of r 2 (r 2 ~oo), the value of Z 1
approaches the value Z for the no absorber case.
z _ (1 + !L)w; 11 + !Lw; 12 - w2
From the preceding discussion, it may be concluded that for the absor-
2- m, Ll.(w2) Fo (2.109) bers to have a favorable effect on the amplitudes of foundation vibration,
the natural frequency of the mass above the absorbers should be as small as
in which possible in comparison with the frequency of machine operation. The
required natural frequency of the foundation above the absorbers may be
achieved by using absorbers of suitable stiffness and by appropriate selection
of mass above the absorbers. For machines operating at high speeds, the
required condition bet~een w" 12 and w can be easily satisfied without
(2.104) significant increase in the' weight of the foundation above the absorbers. For
and w is the operating frequency. machines operating at low frequency, the relationship is usually difficult to
satisfy by just decreasing the rigidity of the absorber because this decrease
The exciting unbalanced force due to a machine is proportional to the
beyond a certain limit is not practicable due to strength requirements. In
square of the frequency of machine operation and, therefore, F0 may be
expressed as such a case, massive foundation above the springs is necessary. A proper
choice of the type of absorber is very critical in such cases. The absorber
system may be designed based upon the value of r 2 , which depends upon the
F0 = Sw 2
(10.1) required degree of absorption 1) defined by
404 VIBRATION ABSORPTION AND ISOLATION COMMON VIBRATION ABSORBERS 405

(10.5)

The principle of vibration absorber explained above will now be used for
developing a procedure for the design of foundations on absorbers. Dif-
ferent types of absorbers commonly used are described first.

10.2 COMMON VIBRATION ABSORBERS

Materials capable of undergoing elastic deformation can be used as vibration

absorbers. Commonly used vibration absorbers are

l. Steel or metal springs.

2. Cork pads.
3. Rubber pads.
4. Timber pads. Figure 10.3. A multiple spring absorber assembly. (Courtesy Korfund, Inc. 1986).
5. Neoprene pads.
6. Pneumatic absorbers. supporting machine foundations. They are supported-type (Fig. 10.1a) and
suspended-type (Fig. 10.4). In a supported-type arrangement, the springs
10.2.1 Steel or Metal Springs are placed directly under the machine or the foundation (Fig. 10.1a). In a
suspended-type absorber system, the springs are located at or close to the
Helical springs made of steel are the most effective elastic supports for floor level, and the main foundation is suspended from the springs. A typical
reducing amplitudes of vibration in machine foundations. A single spring
suspended-type absorber is shown in Fig. 10.4.
absorber is shown in Fig. 10.2. This type of spring absorber will be suitable
only for very low capacity machines. For machines of medium to high
capacity, absorber units having several springs are used (Fig. 10.3).
Two arrangements of mounting the spring absorbers are possible for

Spring Suspended
inertia block
Spring

Raise foundation for a

(a) (b) minimum clearance of 1"

Figure 10.2. Spring absorber having only one spring: (a) without housing; (b) with housing. Figure 10.4. Typical isolated double-frame hammer foundation-suspended-type absorber.
(Courtesy Korfund, Inc. 1986.) (Courtesy Korfund, Inc. 1986.)
406 VIBRATION ABSORPTION AND ISOLATION 407
COMMON VIBRATION ABSORBERS

The choice of any arrangement depends on the balance of the machine
and its operational speed. For high-speed machines that are relatively well
balanced, a supported-type arrangement is used since in such cases a heavy
foundation mass above the springs is not generally necessary. For low-
frequency machines, a heavy mass above the springs becomes necessary and
a "suspended-type" absorber arrangement is generally adopted. Suspended-
type arrangement provides easy access to the casings housing the springs.
Analysis of the absorber foundation system, irrespeCtive of the supported
or suspended type, can be made by treating it as a two-degrees-of-freedom
system, as described in Section 10.1.
Spring absorbers are commercially available in several sizes and
capacities. The information on the load-deflection characteristics is fur-
nished by the manufacturers of these absorbers. Steel springs are affected by
the environmental conditions and should be protected against corrosion.
10.2.2 Cork
Natural cork is one of the best vibration and noise absorbing materials. It
has a low unit weight, high compressibility, and is impermeable to gases and
Bolting Bolting
required not required
Vibracork
liquids. It can undergo large compression. Cork p_ads are placed under the
machine or the foundation as necessary. The sllffness of a cork pad to
vertical compression without lateral expansion may be calculated by usmg
Eq. (7.1)
EA (7.1)
k=-
t
To prevent lateral deformation, the cork pads may be framed, or the
arrangement shown in Fig. 10.5 may be used. Cork pads may need frequent
replacement. Oil and water hasten the decay of the cork pad.
10.2.3 Rubber
Rubber provides an excellent absorber material because of its resilient
properties. Pads and springs made of rubber can be used for th1s purpose.
Rubber can be directly vulcanized to metal. Rubber spnngs can be made by
vulcanizingc:rubber to metal and, j~ave the advantage of bei?g able. to take
compression, shear, or torsion. A typical rubber spnng of th1s type 1s show?
in Fig. 10.6a. A rubber spring in the form of a hollow cyhndncal sleeve IS
shown in Fig. 10.6b. For preventing buckling under heavy loads, hollow
cylindrical rubber springs are bonded witb metal plates (F1g. 10.6c). The
stiffness properties of rubber pads are frequency dependent (Snowdon,
1979) and are also influenced by the relal!ve stze of the loaded area to the
total area of the pad (especially the area of the lateral surface of the pad).
Resilient properties of rubber are strongly influenced by the env1ronme~t,

Vibracork
(a)
l" (c)
for example, operating temperatures and mdustnal otis. Uneven loadmg
also reduces the life of a rubber pad.

Retaining curn
for equipment
tending to walk

Machine base or concrete

Vibracork
(b) (c)
(a) (b)

Figure 10.5. Typical cork arrangement: (a) using channels. to apply load to vibracork for light
machinery; (b) continuous layer of Vibracork for heavy machinery and concrete foundations Figure 10.6. Bonded rubber pads: (a) rubber spring bond~d ~etween two metal plat~s; (b)
above the floor line; (c) Vibracork for isolation of equipment on concrete foundation below rubber spring in the forin of hollow cylinder; (c) rubber sprang m the form of hollow cyhnders
floor line. (Courtesy Korfund, Inc. 1986.) bonded to grooved steel plates. (After Major, 1980.)
408 COMMON VIHRA TION ABSORBERS 409
VIBRATION ABSORPTION AND ISOLATION

to the piston, and let i5 be the downward movement of the piston. If the area
of the piston is A, then the new pressure p 2 is given by PIA. According to
Boyle's law

Ia) (10.6)

(b)
in which n is an index. Also,
Figure 10.7. Timber pads with multiple layers: (a) two layers; (b) three layers.
v, = V1 - oA
1 0.2.4 Timber
Therefore,
Timber pads are commonly used below anvils in hammer foundations.
Single or multiple layers of hard wood (such as oak, pine, or beach) beams (10.7a)
are used for the purpose. The timber beams are arranged so that the
direction of the compressive load is across the grain. Arrangement of timber
beams in multiple layers is shown in Fig. 10.7(a, b). The stiffness of a timber or
pad in compression is given by Eq. (7 .1).
The values of E for different grades of timber are available in "Codes of
Practice."
(10.7b)

10.2.5 Neo11rene
Differentiating Eq. (10.7b) witb respect to B, we get
Neoprene and neoprene cork pads prove very resistant to industrial environ-
ment. These are commercially available in different sizes and with a wide
range of load deformation characteristics.

10.2.6 Pneumatic Absorber

A pneumatic absorber uses gas or air as a resilient material. The stiffness of If the change in volume is small, then the above expression becomes:
a pneumatic spring may be obtained by using the gas laws governing
adiabatic compression. Consider a piston cylinder system having air at a
(10.8)
pressure p 1 and occupying a volume V1 (Fig. 10.8). Let a force P be applied

r The pneumatic springs may be the single- or double-acting type (Harris and
Crede, 1976). Pneumatic springs can be made to provide damping as well.
The load supporting area may vary with deflection. Pneumatic springs are
commercially available in different shapes and capacities. A typical convo-
luted air spring knowif-as "Airmount" manufactured by Firestone, Inc., is
shown in Fig. 10.9. The performance characteristics of the pneumatic
springs are supplied by the manufacturers and must be ascertained before
planning use of such systems.
When the loads are heavy and the required natural frequency of the
absorber is low, the static deflection in the usual (spring or pad) type of
~Cylinder
absorbers will be large. However, in pneumatic absorbers, the static deflec-
tion can be controlled by adjusting the air or gas pressure to support the
Figure 10.8. Principle of a pneumatic absorber.
load while maintaining the low stiffness necessary. Baxa and Ebisch (1982)
410 VIBRATION ABSORPTION AND ISOlATION
DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR FOUNDATIONS ON ABSORBERS 411

Air i I Blind nut

2. First Trial. Make a trial design of the foundation without absorber
following the procedure of Section 6.8, satisfying the limiting amplitudes.
The foundation size may turn out to be too big for the size of the machine or
for the space available.
3. Second Trial. Depending upon the requirements of minimum foun-
dation size for the machine and available space, select the area of the
foundation in contact with the soil and the weight of the foundation part
below the absorber W1 (Fig. 10.1a).
4. Determine the equivalent spring stiffness of the soil k 1 below the base

( 4.27)
or
4Gr0
k 1 = (1- v). (6.18)

in which

C" = coefficient of elastic unifofm compression

A 1 = area of foundation base
G = shear modulus of soil
r0 = equivalent radius of the foundation contact area
v =Poisson's ratio

5. Determine the limiting natural frequency of the whole system resting

I on soil, wnll"

I wnli = ~ m;m
I 2
(2.99a)

Figure 10.9. A typical convoluted air spring. (Airmount® isolator by Firestone.) in which m 1 = W1 /g and m 2 = W2 /g. Compute the ratio of masses f.L
r m,
f.L = -
have reported the successful use of the pneumatic absorber to control the m,
vibrations of a 4000-hp hammer mill operating at 600 rpm. The total weight 6. Determine the ratio of frequencies r 1
isolated was around 550 tons and was supported on 16 Airmounts.
(10.3)
10.3 DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR FOUNDATIONS--ON ABSORBERS
where w is the operating speed of machine.
Design procedure for a foundation on absorbers and supporting a recip- 7. Compute the amplitude Z for the system resting on soil (no absorber
rocating machine having its main unbalanced force component in vertical provided).
direction is described below:
(10.4a)
1. Design Data. Procure all design data about the machine and soil
listed in Section 6.8 and the limiting amplitudes.
in which F 0 is the unbalanced vertical force.
 412
VIBRATION ABSORPTION AND ISOLATION PRINCIPLES OF VIBRATION ISOLATION WITH WAVE BARRIERS 413

8. Calculate the degree of absorption 71

15. Check the safety of the spring. From consideration of stresses in
z spring P, < P. But the absorber system works within narrow ranges. So
T/=- P, = P will be more reasonable.
]:, The process of designing an absorber is illustrated with an example in
in Which Zl is the amplitude of foundati.On Wit
. h a bsorber or permissible Section 10. 7. We shall now discuss the process of vibration isolation using
amplitude of foundation vibrations. wave barriers.
9. Determine the frequency ratio r2 , i.e., wn 12 fw from Eq. (10.5)
10.4 PRINCIPLES OF VIBRATION ISOLATION WITH WAVE BARRIERS
= .!:_ = [1- (1 + ~t)(ri + r;- r;r;)]
71 (10.5)
zl ri[(1+~t)(ri-1)] A vibrating footing results in transmission of energy through the sur-
in which wn 12 is the limiting natura I fr equency o f foundation above the rounding soil in the form of waves (Fig. 3.14). A major part of this energy is
absorber and is given by carried by Rayleigh waves, which travel near the ground surface and may
adversely effect nearby structures, precision machines, and people. One of
the possible ways to protect a structure from the harmful effect of Rayleigh
(2.99b) waves is to locate it far away from the source of vibrations. The amplitude
of wave motion decreases with increasing distance from the source because
10. Determine w~ 12
of the atte!luation of wave energY,due to geometrical and material damping.
2 This method of isolation with dis.tance is, however, of limited significance
,z =
2
£t) 11{2
2 since its advantage cannot be practically taken without sacrificing effective
w
space utilization. Effective protection from harmful effects of Rayleigh
or
waves may be obtained by using concepts of vibration screening which is
made possible by proper interception, scattering and diffraction of surface
waves with wave barriers (Woods, 1968). The wave barriers may consist of
open trenches, trenches filled with bentonite slurry, sawdust, or sand, sheet
11. Determine the total vertical stiffness of absorber k piles, and piles. Screening problems may be classified into two groups as
2

k 2-- 2
follows:
mzwnf2 (2.99b) Active Isolation. The isolation is provided at the source of vibration. A
12. Select the typ~ of absorber. An absorber having total stiffness k, may wave barrier is provided close to or surrounding the source of disturbance as
now be chosen. This selectiOn can be easily made from the information shown schematically in Fig. 10.10, in which a circular trench of radius R 0
gtven m ~anufacturers catalog about load us deformation characteristics of
commercial absorbers.

I
Oscillating
13. Find the amplitude of vibration Z 2 of the system above the absorbers. force

Z - (1 + f.t)W~ll + f.LW~/2- w'

,- m A(w 2 ) Fo (2.109)
2

in which
Circular, open
trench of
radius Ro
and depth H.
(2.104)
14. Actual load per spring P,

Figure 10.10. Schematic of vibration isolation using a circular trench surrounding the source of
(10.9) vibrations~active isolation. (After Woods, 1968.)

414 VIBRATION ABSORPTION AND ISOlATION
AMPLITUDE OF
SENSITIVE
INSTRUMENT OR
SURFACE
/TOOL
INCOMING RAYLEIGH WAVE
Figure 10.11. Schematic of vibration isolation using a straight trenchMpassive isolation. (After
Woods, 1968.)
and depth H surrounds the foundation for the machine (the source of
vibration).
Passive Isolation. The isolation is provided near the location of the
structure sought to be protected from th\, incoming waves. The wave
barriers are thus provided remote from the source of vibration but near the
site where reduction of vibration amplitudes is required. Figure 10.11 shows
an example of passive isolation in which an open trench of length L and
depth H is used to protect a sensitive instrument from the harmful effect of
waves.
The criteria for design of trench and pile barriers for effective vibration
isolation is discussed in this article. The wave barriers are considered
effective in reducing vibrations if the amplitude reduction factor (ARF) is
0.25 or less. The ARF is defined as (Woods, 1968):
ARF"' amplitude of vertical vibration with trench
amplitude of vertical vibration without trench
(10.10)
10.4.1 Trench Barriers
There have been several successful and unsuccessful applications of the
trench barriers for vibration isolation in the past (Barkan, 1962; McNeill et
at., 1965). The problem of designing trench barriers for effective vibration
screening has been the subject of several experimental and analytical
investigations. Based upon the results of a series" of field tests, Barkan
(1962) pointed out that a reduction in vibration amplitudes as a result of a
trench or sheet pile barrier, is achieved only when the trench dimensions are
sufficiently large compared with the wave-length of the surface waves
generated by the source of disturbance. Dolling (1966) studied the effect of
size and shape of the trench on its ability to screen vibrations.
Woods and Richart (1967) and Woods (1968) conducted a comprehensive
415
PRINCIPLES OF VIBRATION ISOLATION WITH WAVE BARRIERS
series of field tests to evaluate the screening effect of trenches. The cases of
active as well as passive isolation were investigated. The effect of parame-
ters such as the trench dimensions (length and depth), ItS distance from the
source and the frequency of vibrations, on their effectiveness as wav~
barriers was assessed. The tests were conducted at a prepared site. The soil
conditions at the test site consisted of uniform silty, fine sand (SM) up to 4ft
d eep w1'th 'Yd- - 104lb/ft3, w = ·7% ' e = 0 ·61 ' and. Vc =940ft/sec3 at surface,
_ m
and sandy silt (ML) from 4 to 14ft deep with 'Yd = 91lb/ft, w- 23-ro,
e = 0.68, and Vc = 1750 ft/sec at upper boundary. The water table was below
14 ft in depth. A small vibration exciter was used as the sourc~ of vertical
vibrations and was set up at the center of the test site. Usmg velocity
transducers the amplitudes of vertical ground motion were measured at
selected points throughout the test site before installation of the trench (no
trench condition) and after installation of the trench (after trench condition).
A comparison was made of the amplitudes of motio? for the "n? trench"
and "after trench" conditions and was used m evaluatmg the effectiveness of
the barrier. Amplitude reduction factor (ARF) defined in Eq. (10.10) was
used to give a quantitative evaluation of the effectiveness of the trench
barrier at the point of measurement. .
The critical dimensions of the trenches used in all tests were normah~ed
with respect to the Rayleigh wave length ( AR) for the frequency of vibratiOn
used in a particular test when comparing r~sults from two or more tests at
different frequencies. The velocity of Rayleigh waves VR and the wavelength
An were determined by steady-stat~ vibration tests (Section 4.6). Thevalues
of v and A at different frequenCies used m the test program are giVen m
R R
Table 10.1 (Woods, 1968). .
In the active isolation tests, the depth of trenches was vaned from 0.5 to
2ft the radius R of the annular trench (Fig. 10.10) varied from 0.5 to
l.O,ft, and the an;ular dimension e was varied from 90' to 360' around the
source of vibrations. Frequencies of 200 to 350Hz were used m tests (Table
10.1). The values of scaled depth H!An thus varied from 0.222 to 1.82 ~nd
those of scaled distances R 0 / An varied from 0.222 to 0.910. Some typical
results of the investigation by Woods (1968) are shown m Fig. 10.12 m the
Table 10.1. Wavelength and Wave Velocity for the
Rayleigh Wave at the Test Site
Frequency, AR
Hz ft VR, ft/sec
200 2.25 450
250 1.68 420
300 1.38 415
385
350 1.10
Source: Woods (1968).
 416 VIBRATION ABSORPTION AND ISOLATION PRINCIPLES OF VIBRATION ISOLATION WITH WAVE BARRIERS 417

4. Partial circle trenches having angular length 0 < 90", did not provide
an effectively screened zone.
5. Trench width is not an important parameter.
6. Amplification of vibratory energy occurred in the direction of "open
side" of the trench.

Woods (1968) also conducted passive isolation tests using open rectan-
gular trenches and investigated the effect of trench length L, width B, depth
H, and the distance from the source R 0 . A typical layout for these tests
consisting of two vibration exciters (operated one at a time), 75 transducer
locations, and a trench is shown schematically in Fig. 10.13. The trenches
ranging in size from 1.0 ft deep by 1.0 ft long by 0.33 ft wide to 4.0 ft deep
by 8.0 ft long by 10ft wide were used in the tests. Frequencies of excitation

32,
- > 1.25
D I ':i'. :.<-'
24'
01.25-0.50 H!An
1.452
RofAR
0.726
1.25-o.5o Hf>...n
0.596
RofAR
0.596
0 I 16'
!:::::: l 0.50-0.25
D o.25-0.125
l::::::j 0.50-0.25

0.25-0.125
N
0 7:0
I 8'

I
0

tw~mllld < o.l25 20 ft 0 0'

0 0 /
Ia I (b)
0
0 /~
0 0
Figure 10.12. Amplitude reduction factor (ARF) contour diagrams for active isolation: (a) full 0 0
0
circle trench; (b) partial circle trench. (After Woods, 19&8.) 0 0
0 0 0
0 0
0
0

~·75pick"P
form of amplitude reduction factor contour diagrams. It may be seen from 0
this figure that ARF of 0.25 or less was achieved for the trench dimensions
used in these tests. By comparing the results of different tests in which ARF benches
of 0.25 or less was achieved with those in which ARF of 0.25 could not be
achieved, the following conclusions were drawn regarding the use of
trenches for active isolation.

1. For full circle trenches (0 ~ 360"), a minimum value for HIAR of 0.6 is
required to achieve ARF equal to or less than 0.25.
2. The zone screened by a full circle trench extended to a distance of at
least 10 wavelengths (10AR) from the source of excitation.
3. For partial circle trenches (90" < 0 < 360"), the screened zone was
defined as the area outside the trench extending to at least 10
wavelengths (10AR) from the source and bounded on the sides by
radial lines from the center of the source through points 45" from ends
of the trench (Fig. 10.12b). A minimum value for HIAR of 0.6 is
required for the trench to be effective. Figure 10.13. Schematic of the test site for passive isolation tests. (Woods, 1968.)
 418 VIBRATION ABSORPTION AND ISOLATION PRINCIPLES OF VIBRATION ISOLATION WITH WAVE BARRIERS 419

from 200 to 350Hz were used in the tests. The values of HI An varied from
0.444 to 3.64 and that of R 0 1An from 2.22 to 9.20. It was assumed in these
tests that the zones screened by the trench would be symmetrical about the
0" line. It was defined that for effective isolation, the values of ARF should
be less than or equal to 0.25 in a semicircular zone of radius of ! L behind
the trench. Typical amplitude reduction contour diagrams for one of these
. tests are shown in Fig. 10.14. · HLIA~) should be increased with increasing scaled distance R 0 1An.
.. .. ...... .... .. .... ...
················· . .. .... .
....············
.... .. .. .... .... .. . .. .. ....
·············
.·················
. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .
.... .. .. .. .. .... .. .... ...... .. .
.. ...... .... .. ...... .... .... .. ....
. . . ... . .. .. .. .
···············
Significant results of this study were as follows:
1. For effective passive isolation (R 0 = 2An to ?An), the depth of the
trench H should be at least 1.33A..
2. Larger trenches were required at greater distances from the source. To
maintain the same ARF, the scaled area of the trench (HI An x LIAR=
The least area of the trench in the vertical direction should be 2.5A~ at
R 0 = 2An and 6A~ at R 0 = 7.
3. Trench width had practically no influence on effectiveness of open
trench (for BIAR = 0.13 to 0.91).
4. Amplification of vertical motion occurred in zones in front of trenches
and to the sides of the trenches.
Sridharan et al. (1981) conducted an experimental investigation to deter·
mine the effectiveness of open trenches and trenches backfilled with sawdust
and sand as isolation barriers. Surface and embedded square footing
l,'.i •i{.. .•)J?'

45 em x 45 em x 7.5 em and 45 em•?< 45 em x 180 em respectively were ex-

cited into vertical vibrations with a mechanical oscillator and served as the
source of disturbance. Several combinations of static and dynamic loads
were used in the investigations and trenches 30, 60, and 120 em in depth
located at 15 em from the footing were tried. Their observations revealed
that the open unfilled trenches are the most effective and the performance is
better with sawdust as compared with sand.
Haupt (1981) conducted model tests to study the effectiveness of open
trenches, concrete core walls and void cylindrical holes in reducing vibration
amplitudes.
The problem of effectiveness of trench barriers has also been the subject
of several analytical studies aimed at investigating the behavior of Rayleigh
waves in a homogeneous medium with discontinuities. Finite element
methods, finite difference methods, and special numerical techniques have
been employed for this purpose. Lysmer (1970) and Lysmer and Wass
(1972) used a lumped-mass model to study the propagation of Rayleigh and
SH waves in homogeneous layered medium. The method was also extended
to determine the effect of a trench in a homogeneous layer resting on a rigid
base and at the surface of which a harmonic load induced horizontal shear
~ > 1.25
wave motion. They ob~rved that the reduction in vibration amplitudes was
c:::::::J 1.25-0.50
H/).R L/).R Roi>.R· a function of trench depth and was achieved for several frequencies. Haupt
0.50-0.25
1.19 1.79 5.96 (1977) used the finite element method to study the effectiveness of concrete
0.25-0.125 core walls as an isolation barrier and found that the isolation capacity
.·::·-::·~~:-:·: < 0.125 depended on the cross section of the wall and not on its geometry. Segol et
al. (1978), and May and Bolt (1982) developed special finite element
methods to study the reduction of amplitudes of surface waves under plane
Figure 10.14. Amplitude reduction factor (ARF) contour diagrams for passive isolation. (After
strain conditions. Segol et al. (1978) observed that:
Woods, 1968.)
420 VIBRATION ABSORPTION AND ISOLATION PRINCIPLES Of VIBRATION ISOLATION WITH WAVE BARRIERS 421

1. The effectiveness of the trench as wave barrier is primarily a function

of the ratio HI An and significant reduction of amplitudes occurs when
H!An is larger than 0.6.
2. The trench location and shape of its cross section have only a marginal
influence.
3. Open trenches are more effective in reducing vibration amplitudes.

Beskos et a!. (1985) used the boundary element method to evaluate

effectiveness of open and infilled trenches as wave barriers. The cases of
active as well as passive isolation were investigated. They observed that the
trench barriers are effective in screening vibrations when HI An 2 0.6 for
open trenches and BH!A~ 21.5 for concrete-filled trenches (B =width of
trench).
It may thus be noted that the analytical studies generally support the
qualitative conclusions of Woods (1968). The open (unfilled) trenches are
more effective as wave barriers but may present instability problems neces-
sitating trenches backfilled with bentonite slurry, sawdust, concrete, or sand.
In some other situations, it may not be possible to use trench barriers and Figure 10.15. Definition of parameters for:~,~y~indrical hole barriers. (After Woods et al., 1974.)
the designer may prefer to use pile barriers. The use of pile barriers is now
discussed.
The data from different tests was plotted in the form of nondimensional
plots of effectiveness versus Sn!AR as shown in Fig. 10.16. From these
10.4.2 Pile Barriers results, Woods eta!. (1974) concluded that void cylindrical holes may act as
When vibrations are occasioned by a source operating at a very low isolation barriers if
frequency, the Rayleigh wavelength will be long afid may range up to 50 m D
->-
1
(10.12a)
or more. For a trench to be effective in such a case, its depth will range from AR- 6
30m (0.6An) for active isolation to 66.5 m (1.33An) for passive isolation.
When the Rayleigh wavelength is long, the trench depth often limits the
application of trenches and open or slurry-filled trenches are impracticable.
Piles may be used as barriers in such cases as they can be installed to any
depth. This alternative of using rows of piles as passive isolation barriers has 0.8
been investigated by Woods et a!. (1974). They used the principle of ~

holography and observed vibrations in a model half-space to evaluate the "'"'

I
effect of void cylindrical obstacles on reduction of vibration amplitudes. ~ o. 6 H-\--''r--t--''<:"'---'
Fine sand medium in a box 100 em X 100 em X 30 em constituted the model
half-space. A schematic sketch of the test set showing the geometry of the
problem is given in Fig. 10.15. In Fig. 10.15, Dis the diameter of the void
cylindrical obstacle and sn is the net space between two consecutive void
holes through which energy can pass through the barrier. The effectiveness
of the barrier was evaluated numerically by obtaining an average effect
(ARFs) from several lines beyond the barrier in a sector ±15° on both sides
of an axis through the source and perpendicular to the barrier (that is
0.10 0.15
8 = 30°, Fig. 10.15). The values of HI An and LIAR were kept 1.4 and 2.5,
respectively, in all tests. The isolation effectiveness for these tests was
defined as
figure 1 0.16. Isolation effectiveness as a function of hole diameter and spacing. (Woods et al.,
Effectiveness = 1 - ARF (10.11) 1974.)
 423
DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR WAVE BARRIERS
422 VIBRATION ABSORPTION AND ISOLATION

Soil type Barrier materials

and

(10.12b)
't I nfinitely
,; gid pile

-
Two rows of void obstacles were found to be more effective and could be
stee I
used if a single row of cylindrical void obstacles spaced closely enough is not
possible or when depth is not optimal. Slurry-filled barriers were found to be 10 7 -
effective provided solidification of the slurry is prevented. The solid wave Concrete
barriers were also effective, but their behavior was different and needed
further investigation. Gravel Timber
Liao and Sangrey (1978) used a two-dimensional acoustic P-wave model E 10 '-
to simulate in an approximate manner the passive isolation of foundations Dense sand
from Rayleigh waves. Experiments in multiple acoustic scattering were Hard c\ay
conducted as an extension of the work of Woods et al. (1974) and the effect 10 5 -
of diameter, spacing, and material properties of the soil-pile system on Silt

isolation effectiveness was investigated. Their results indicated that the

. Loose sand
Very soft clay
..
earlier conclusions of Woods et al. (1974) as given in Eq. (10.12) are
generally Valid and Sn = 0.4,\R may be the Upper limit for the pile barrier to 10
.,..,. ~;;. ;:~
Plastic foam

have any effectiveness. The effectiveness of the barrier was found to be

significantly affected by the material of the pile and void holes and acous-
tically soft piles were more efficient than acoustically hard piles. The relative o3 -
hardness or softness was defined in terms of impedance ratio (IR) as ·Void borehole
follows:

IR = Rayleigh wave impedance of the pile 10

,J
Rayleigh wave impedance of the soil medium Figure 1 0.17. Estimated values oi Rayleigh wave impedance for various soils and pile materials.
(After Liao and Sangrey, 1978.)

(10.13)
in which
Pp = density of pile material
p, = density of soil medium
VR(p) =Rayleigh wave velocity in the pile material
VR(•) =Rayleigh wave velocity in the soil medium.
The piles are considered soft if IR < 1 and hard if IR > 1. The values of
Rayleigh wave impedance (pVR) for various materials are given in Fig.
10.17. Liao and Sangrey (1978) also observed that the two row barriers can
be more effective than single row barriers.
A step-by-step procedure will now be given for design of trench and pile
isolation barriers.
10.5 DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR WAVE BARRIERS
The information listed below should be procured before attempting the
design of any type of vibration isolation barriers:
Data Required "'
1. Source Data. The information on operating frequency f of the source
of vibration should be obtained.
2. Soil Data. The soil profile, unit weights, and water c?ntent of the
soil at the site and information on its dynamic properties should be
obtained. The velocity of Rayleigh waves VR may be measured at the
site with steady-state vibration test. Alternatively, the shear wave
velocity may be determined by cross bore hole method. If no
424 VIBRATION ABSORPTION AND ISOLATION 425
DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR WAVE BARRIERS

information is available, the value of dynamic shear modulus may be 10. Location of the Trench. The trench should preferably be located
determined by using Eq. (4.9). between 2.0AR to 7 AR from the source.
11. Length of the Trench L. The length of the trench may be determined
G ~ 1230(0CR)ke·~7! ~e)' (0'0 ) 0 5 (4.9) from Eq. (10.17).
Ar~LH
The shear wave velocity V, may then be calculated as
or
v, ~ v;
{G (3.30b) L~­
Ar (10.17)
H
Assume VR = v;. The value of area of the vertical projection of the trench Ar is given
3. The distance between the source of disturbance and the structure to by (Woods, 1968)
be protected.
4. The size of the area over which effective vibration isolation is Ar ~ 2.5A~ for R 0 ~ 2AR (10.18a)
desired.
and
Design of Isolation Barriers (10.18b)
5. Calculate the wavelength of the Rayleigh waves through the soil by
Eq. ( 4.33a), For other values of R 0 between 2AR and 7 AR, the value of Ar may be
determined by interpolation. The minimum length of the trench
(4.33a) should not be smaller than the value given by Eq. (10.17) or the
length of the structure being protected.
Active Isolation- Trench Barrier
Passive Isolation- Pile Barriers
6. Calculate the minimum trench depth H as
12. Depth of Pile H. The minimum depth of the pile H should be 1.33AR
H~0.6AR (10.14) [Eq. (10.16)]. If the bedrock is shallow, piles may be placed on the
bedrock.
7. Location of the Trench. The trench should be located as close to the 13. Diameter of the Cylindrical Void (Pile) D. The diameter of the pile D
source as possible. The distance R 0 between the centerlines of the may be calculated from Eq. (10.12a):
source and the trench should be less than AR, especially when afull
circle trench is used. (10.12a)
8. The length of the partial circle trench 8° (Fig. 10.12b) should be
obtained as follows: Determine the angle a subtended by the outer 14. Spacing of Piles Sn. The clear spacing between the piles Sn is given by
boundaries of the protected area at the center of the source (Fig.
10.12b). The value of angular length 8 is then given by sn
-<-
1
(10.12b)
AR 4
(10.15)
15. Material of the Pile. Calculate the Rayleigh wave impedance of the
soil p,VR(.>)' Using Fig. 10.17, select the pile material so that the
Passive Isolation- Trench Barrier
impedance ratio IR is <1.
9. Calculate the minimum trench depth H for passive isolation as
(10.13)
(10.16)
 426 VIBRATION ABSORPTION AND ISOLATION
16. Length of the Pile Barrier L. The length of the pile barrier L may be
determined by joining the center of the source "with the outer
boundary of the area to be protected and then placing the pile barrier
perpendicular to the axis through the source as shown in Fig. 10.15.
17. If one row ?f piles is inadequate, a second row of piles may be
provided to mcrease the effectiveness of isolation.
10.6 METHODS OF REDUCING VIBRATION AMPLITUDES IN
EXISTING MACHINE FOUNDATIONS
Excessi~e foundation vibrations may sometimes develop soon after the
mstallatwn of the machine or sometimes thereafter due to an increase in the
unbalanced loads arising out of wear and tear of the machine, change in the
subsoil conditions, defective design or construction" It may be possible to
reduce or limit these vibrations by appropriate selection of the following
remedml measures" It must be emphasized that before any remedial mea-
sures are considered, the cause of excessive vibrations ffiust be established
by proper investigation, which will also help in choosing the most effective
measure. Improper selection of the remedial measures may further worsen
the situation rather than improve it. The methods used to reduce vibrations
in existing machine foundations are:
1. Counterbalancing the unbalanced exciting loads.
2. Chemical soil stabilization.
3. Structural measures"
4. Providing vibration dampers.
Each of these methods will be discussed now.
Counterbalancing of Unbalanced Loads Due to Machine Operation
Counterbalancing of unbalanced loads in a machine will result in smaller
~nbalanced exciting loads and hence result in reduced amplitudes of vibra-
tion. The unbalanced forces for rotating machinery such as centrifugal
pumps, turbogenerators and turbines are given by
F0 = mew 2 sin wt (5.37)
in which
Fa = unbalanced force
m = mass of the rotor
e = eccentricity of the mass
w = speed of operation
METHODS OF REDUCING VIBRATION AMPLITUDES 427
Reduction in Fa can be achieved by attaching additional mass (masses) on
the rotor in such a manner that the effective eccentricity of the rotating mass
decreases. In rotating components such as flywheels, the eccentricity is
reduced by cutting grooves on the flywheel at predetermined locations.
Unbalance of the rotors in high-speed rotary machines is checked as a part
of normal maintenance operation.
Primary inertia forces in reciprocating machines can also be balanced by
means of counterweights in two ways:
1. The component of the force in a direction perpendicular to piston
motion may be completely counterbalanced and the component along
the direction of piston motion may be only partly balanced.
2. It is also possible to counterbalance completely the first harmonic of
the exciting force in the direction of piston motion by using counter-
weights at appropriate distances from the axes of rotation" The
component of unbalanced force in the perpendicular direction of
piston motion will then increase.
The use elf a particular method>~nd its efficiency in counterbalancing the
exciting forces induced by an engine for the purpose of decreasing foun-
dation vibrations depends on the type of engine and on special features of
the foundation"
In a horizontal reciprocating engine, the most dangerous foundation
vibrations are those occasioned by simultaneous rocking and sliding. In this
case, a decrease in the vibrations of the foundation may be achieved by
counterbalancing the inertia forces of the engine by the second method,
even if it leads to some increase in vertical vibrations. Therefore, if an
engine was counterbalanced by the first method but impermissible horizon-
tal vibrations were observed after the construction of the foundation, then
counterbalancing by the second method (i"e., by changing the character of
counterbalancing) may be used as one of the simplest measures to decrease
these vibrations.
Cases in which vertical vibrations of an impermissible amplitude are
present in systems with horizontal motors; the use of second method is
unsuitable, and the first method should be applied.
Similarly, for vertical motors, the method of counterbalancing selected
will depend on the type of foundation vibrations-vertical, horizontal, or
rocking. •(
The main advantage in using this method for reducing vibrations is that
installation of counterweights for balancing a motor does not require
dismantling or prolonged interruption of operation" The shutdown is only
for th~ time needed to attach the counterweight to the sides of the crank.
Chemical Soil Stabilization
Foundation vibrations may sometimes be reduced by chemical stabilization
of the soil that results in an increase in the rigidity of the base and,
428 VIBRATION ABSORPTION AND ISOLATION
consequently, in an increase in the natural frequencies of the foundation.
This method is effective only when the natural frequencies of the foundation
before stabilization of the soil are higher than the operational frequency of
the machine. An increase in rigidity of the soil, in such cases, will increase
still further the difference between the frequency of natural vibrations and
the operating frequency of the engine, resulting in a decrease in the
amplitudes of foundation vibrations. If the foundation has natural frequen-
cies that are smaller than the operational frequency of the machine, then
soil stabilization may cause an increase in the amplitudes of vibration,
because the natural frequencies of the foundation after stabilization may
come closer to the operating speed.
Chemical and cement stabilization of soils is economical as its costs are
low in comparison with other methods of reducing vibrations. Another
advantage of this method is that it can be applied without any prolonged
interruption of the machine.
The extent of soil stabilization below the footing depends on the nature
of its vibrations. For a foundation undergoing only rocking vibrations,
stabilization may be necessary only near the foundation edges (perpen-
dicular to the plane of vibrations). If the foundation vibrations are vertical,
stabilization of soil below the entire area of the footing will be necessary.
The depth of the stabilized zone should not be less than the width of the
footing and it should extend by 30 em beyond the periphery of the foun-
dation.
Barkan (1962) reported a case where vibration amplitudes of foundation
for a horizontal compressor decreased by 50 percent as a result of soil
stabilization achieved by injection of silicates.
Structural Measures
The structural measures are used with the object of changing the natural
frequencies of the soil-foundation system in such a way as to achieve the
largest possible difference between these natural frequencies and the fre-
quency of operation of the machine. These consist in increasing the rigidity
of the foundation by providing piles below the foundation by method of
underpinning; by increasing contact area of the foundation with the soil; by
increasing foundation mass and by attaching suitably designed slabs to the
existing foundation. Appropriate choice of structural measure depends on
the nature of the vibrations and the relationships between the natural
frequencies and the operating speed.
It is also possible to. increase the foundation mass without inducing
changes in the frequency of foundation vibrations, resulting in a decrease in
the amplitudes of vertical vibrations. For undertuned machine foundations,
an increase in rigidity of the foundation will produce undersirable effects. In
such a case, it may be better to decrease further the natural frequency of the
foundation by increasing the foundation mass without increasing its area in
METHODS OF REDUCING VIBRATIONS AMPLITUDES 429
P:r: sin wt Foundation
I / block
~ Attached slab
/ ofareaA1
I
I --:c- ~
.
Foundation block
I
';?.mmmmmmmmmt!%''(,
~
"'
L rr
Figure 10.18. Use of special slabs in reducing vibrations.
contact with the soil. Local condition may govern the choice in some cases.
If a vibrating footing lies close to another foundation, it may be attached to
the latter. Use. of special slabs (Fig.,.,;[0.18) attached to the main foundation
may also prove effective in reduCing vibrations in some situations. The
weight of the slab and its area in contact with the soil must be analyzed to
ensure the effectiveness of this measure.
Vibration Dampers
Amplitudes of vibration of a foundation undergoing vertical vibrations may
be decreased by attaching two auxiliary masses as shown in Fig. 10.19 by
means of elastic tie rods. The attached mass and the tie rod constitute the
vibration damper. The system consisting of the foundation and the damper
can be represented by Fig. 2.22a in which m 1 is mass of the foundation and
machine, m 2 is the attached damper mass, k 1 is the equivalent soil spring,
and k 2 is the stiffness of the tie rod or the spring that attaches m, with the
foundation. The principle of vibration damper has been explained in Sectmn
2.13, where it has been established that if the damper mass and stiffness are
chosen so that the natural frequency of the damper wn 12 is equal to the
operating frequency of the machine w [Eq. (2.106)], then the amplitude of
vibration of the foundation becomes zero. The amplitude of vibration of the
attached damper mass ~then given by
(2.107)
Amplitude Z 2 thus equals the static deflection of mass m 2 produced by a
force of magnitude equal to the maximum value of the exciting force Fa. It
may be noted from Eqs. (2.106) and (2.107) that neither the frequencies nor
the amplitudes of vibration of the damper depend upon the properties of the
430 VIBRATION ABSORPTION AND ISOLATION EXAMPLES 431

only for some optimum value of damping. Dampers for foundations under-
t P, sin wl
going rocking or sliding vibrations can be designed similarly.

10.7 EXAMPLES
Foundation block

EXAMPLE 10.7.1
Design the foundation for a reciprocating machine operating at a speed of
750 rpm. The weight of the machine is 2.0 t and it produces a sinusoidally
varying unbalanced force of 0.5 t in the vertical direction. Due to limited
available space, the area of the foundation should not exceed 3m X 2m.
Ia I
Due to presence of precision machines in the vicinity, the vibration amp-
litude should be less than 0.025 mm. Assume the dynamic shear modulus of
the soil G = 1950 tim 2 and v = 0.305. Unit weight of concrete y, may be
taken as 2.4 tim'.

Solution
1. Design, Data

Weight of the machine= 2.0 t

Operating speed= 750 rpm= 78.53 radisec
Vertical unbalanced force P 2 = 0.5 t
~I Dynamic shear modulus G = 1950 t/m 2
<?.. Poisson's ratio for the soil= 0.305

L Permissible amplitude of vibration= 0.025 mm

Figure 10.19. (a) Vibration dampers attached to the foundation; (b) damper system with
dashpot.
soil below the base or the mass of the foundation. By satisfying the
condition wn 12 = w, it is theoretically possible to damp the vibrations of a
foundation and dampers with even small masses will be effective. A smaller
mass of damper necessitates a smaller value of the stiffness of the spring k 2 ,
which will result in large amplitudes of vibration of the damper mass. The
stiffness of the damper is thus governed by its strength requirements.
The damper will work efficiently if w, the Operational speed of the
machine, is constant. If the operational speed of the machine fluctuates and
comes closer to wn 12 , large amplitudes will build up. If the fluctuations in the
operational speed are large, it is difficult to design a vibration damper. The
working range of the damper may be increased by introducing damping into
the damper system, as shown in Fig. 10.19b, which results in a decrease in
amplitudes of vibration as w approaches w" 12 • These effects will be possible
2. First Trial
The limiting amplitude of foundation vibrations is only 0.025 mm. Con-
sidering the limitation of 3 m x 2m on the foundation area, it will not be
possible to design a simple block foundation satisfying the criteria for
adequate design. The amplitude of vertical vibrations is 0.2024 mm as
computed subsequently. A foundation resting on absorbers must be de-
signed.
3. Second Trial
Adopt a foundation \'rea of 3m x 2m. Let the size of the foundation
below the absorber (F~: 10.1a) be 3m x 2m x 0.3 m and the size of the
foundation block above the absorber be 3m X 2m X 1m.
Weight of foundation block below the absorber= W 1
= 3 X 2 X 0.3 X 2.4 = 4.32 t
4.32 2
Mass m 1 = . = 0.4403 t sec im
9 81
Weight of foundation block above the absorber W2 = 3 x 2 x 1 X 2.4 =
14.4 t
 432
VIBRATION ABSORPTION AND ISOLATION EXAMPLES 433

Total weight above the absorber= 14.4 + 2 = 16.4 t or

M 16.4 2
ass m 2 = = 1.6177 t sec /m 1- (1+ t-t)r;
. f 9 ·81 m 1.6717 r 22 -
R atto o masses t-t = - 2 = ~~ = 3 796 - (1 + t-t)(11-1)(r; -1)
m1 0.4403 ·
2
r2 = 1- (1 + 3.796)(1.0906) = 0.4706
4. Stiffness of Soil Spring below the Base k 1 2
(1 + 3.796)( -10- 1)(1.09062 -1)
Equivalent radius r 0
10. Determination of w~ 12
ro = J"! = 1.382m
2 Wntz
Tz = - 2 -
2

4 X 1950 X 1.382 w
k, = k, = ( _ _
1 0 305 ) = 15510 tim (6.18) or
w ~ 12 = (0.4706)(78.53) /sec
2 2
5. Limiting Natural Frequency of the Whole System Resting on Soil wn
11
or
W - ~ m k+I m (2.98a)
n/1-
I . 2 wn 12 = 53.87 rad/sec

~ 15510 11. Stiffnes~. pf the Absorber k,_ .•

wnll = 0 .443 +1. 6717 =85.69rad/sec ., ·i':''''~'c

(2.98b)
6. Frequency Ratio r 1
2
= (1.6717)(0.4706)(78.53) = 4851 tim
85.69
Wnll
rl = ~ = 78.53 = 1.0911 k 2 = 4851 tim is the total stiffness of the absorber system. Use eight
' absorber units, each having a stiffness of 600 tim. The actual value of
7. Amplitud¢ of the System Resting on Soil (No Absorber Case) wn 12 = "1/(8 X 600) /1.6717-53.58 rad/sec.
Step 12 is omitted since pertinent data is not supplied.
Z= Fo
(m 1 + m 2 )(w~ 11 - w 2 ) (10.4a)
13. Amplitude of Vibration of the System above the Absorber Z 2
0.5 2
(1 + t-t)w~ 11 + f-'W~ 12 - w
(0.4407 + 1.6716)(85.692 -78.53 2 ) z, = m,A(w') F0 (2.109)
= 0.0002024 m = 0.2024 mm
4
= w - (1 + t-t)(w~ 11 + w~ 12 )w + (1 + t-t)w~I1W~ 12
2 2
A(w )
8. Degree of Absorption (2.104)

11=-
z A(w 2 ) = 2.200 X 108
(10.5)
zl 2
= (1 + 3.796)(85.65) + 3.796(53.58) -78.53 (0.5)
2 2

8
0.2024
11 = O.D25 = 8.096
z, <o( (1.6717)(2.20 X 10 )

Adopt 17 = -10 for the design
9. Frequency Ratio r 2 , i.e., wn 12 /w
_ [1- (1 + t-t)(r; + r~- r;r~)]
1)- r;[(l+t-t)(r;-1)]
= 0.000053 m = 0.054 mm
Dynamic load on each absorber= 0.000053 x 600 = 0.0324 t
Note that the amplitude Z 2 is calculated to check the stresses in the
absorber material. The amplitude Z 1 has been restricted to a value less than
the specified value of 0. 025 mm. The value of Z 1 may be calculated using
(10.5)
Eq. (2.108).
 434 VIBRATION ABSORPTION AND ISOLATION
EXAMPLES 435
2
Wn/2
Solution
zl ~ mlb.(w') Fo (2.108)
1. Source Data
(53.58) 2 Operating speed of the compressor ~ 1200 rpm
(0.4403 )( 2 .20 X 10') (0.5) ~ 0.0000148 m 1200
Operating frequency f ~ 6o ~ 20Hz
~0.0148mm

<0.025mm 2. Soil Data

Shear wave velocity v; ~150m/sec
EXAMPLE 10.7.2
Rayleigh wave velocity VR = v; ~150m/sec
A compressor having an operating speed of 1200 rpm was installed in an
industrial unit. Two precision machines were added to the plant later on. "It 3 and 4. The location of the compressor C1 (source of disturbance) and
was felt necessary to protect these precision machines from any harmful the precision machines P 1 and P2 (object or structure to be protected)
vibrations due to operation of the compressor. The locations of the com- are shown in Fig. 10.20. The distance between the center of the source
pressor ( C1 ) and precision machines (P1 and P2 ) are shown in Fig. 10.20. and the center of the structure is 60.0 m.
Design an open trench barrier to provide effective vibration isolation for
the cases of (a) active and (b) passive isolation. The velocity of shear waves 5. Wavelength of Rayleigh wave AR
was determined at the site by cross bore hole method and its values was
A ~,.!::'"':~ 150 ~7 5m
found to be 150m/sec.
R r 2o .
(4.33a)

Active isolation

f--20.0 m----1 f--20.0 m----1 6. Depth of the Trench H for active isolation
~ 1!:!1 ~ 1!:!1 H~0.6AR (10.14)
II I', I
I
I
I I
I
)
1
15.0 m
~0.6 x 7.5 ~ 4.6m
I I Trench \ I 7. The trench may be located 5 m from the center of the source, as
I I \ \ !
I I --+--,----,- shown in Fig. 10.20a.
I I 8. It is planned to use a partial circle trench. Angle a is determined as
I I 1• \ 30 m--+,-->j
(Fig. 10.20a):
I I I I
I
a~ 2 tan- 1 G~) ~ 18.92°
I I I
Ct Compressor \ 1 60 .0 m .
I I
I I I I
PI Precision \ I I I The angular length of the trench 0 is given by:
p2 } machines \ I 45.0 m
I I
I I I I 0 ~ a0 + 45° + 45° ~ 18.92 + 90 ~ 108.92° ~ 110°
I I I I
I I
45oj /::::45'
><
50~/
>/ a
1/
I I
Jl
II
Passive isolation ""-

9. Depth of the trench H for passive isolation.

Trench CI ~c, H ~ 1.33AR ~ 1.33 x 7.5 ~ 9.975 m (10.16)
lal (b) 10. It is planned to locate the trench at a distance of 15m from the
precision machines as shown in Fig. 10.20b. This distance is within
Figure 10.20. Layout of compressor and precision machines in the industrial building (Example 2AR to 7 AR from the source.
10.7.2). (a) Active isolation; (b) passive isolation.
 436
VIBRATION ABSORPTION AND ISOLATION REFERENCES 437
11. Length of the Trench L
Dolling, H. J. (1966). "Efficiency of trenches in isolating structures against vibrations," Proc.
Symp. Vib. Civ. Eng. Butterworth, London. .
Scaled distance= ;,~ = 6AR "Firestone Airmount Isolators" (1986). Firestone Industrial Products Company, Nobesvtlle,
Scaled depth= 1.33,\R Indiana. ., G
· c . M . an d
Harns, cre de , c . E . (1976) · "Shock and Vibration Handbook, 2nd ed. Me raw-
Minimum scaled area A r required [by interpolation of Eqs.
(10.18a, b)]= 5.3A~ Hill, New York. ·z M h
Haupt, w. A. (1977). Isolation of vibrations by concrete core walls. Proc. Int. Conf. Soz ec ·
A Found. Eng., 9th, Tokyo, Vol. 2, 251-256. 'l M h
L = ___I (10.17) Haupt, w. A (1981). Model tests on screening of surface waves. Proc. Int. Conf. Sot ec ·
H
Found. Eng., 10th Stockholm, Vol. 3, 215-222. . . .
2
5.3 X 7.5 O ( ) · A. M., an d c roc ke tt ' J . H . A . . (1953) . Design and construction
Klem, of a fully vtbratton-
24(5) 421-444
8
9 .975 =29. 8m= 30. m say controlled forging hammer foundatiOn. J. Am. Caner. Inst. , ·
"Korfund Vibro Isolators" (1986). -Korfund Dynamics Corporation, Westbury, New York ..
which is also more than the distance between P 1 and P •
2 ·
Ltao, S., an d sangrey, D . A . (1978) . Use of piles as isolation barriers. J. Geotech. Eng. DlV.,
Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 104(GT9), 1139-1152. .
Lysmer, J. (1970). Lumped mass method for Rayleigh waves. Bull. Setsmol. Soc. Am. 60(1),
10.8 FINAL COMMENTS
89-107. . "J E M h
Lys.mer, J., an d Wass, G . ( 1972) . "Shear Waves in Plane Infimte Structures. . ng. ec ·
The principles of vibration absorption and isolation have been discussed in Div. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 98(EM1), 85-105. . ''
this chapter. The absorber system is designed on the assumption that the Major, A. (1980f:,'"Dynamics in Civil Engih~~ring: Ana Iysis. an d D estgn, Vol · 2 · Akademiai
operating speed is constant. Fluctuations in the operating speed will ad- Kiad6 Budapest. ,_. . d · · · t'on
versely affect the efficiency of the absorber system. The damping in the May, T . W'., an d B oIt , B . A . (1982) . The effectiveness of trenches m re ucmg setsmtc mo l •
Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn. 10, 195-210. . . .
absorber system has not been included. Damping has a favorable effect on
McNeill R L Marganson B. E., and Babcock, F. M. (1965). ''The Role of So~l Dy~amtcs. m
the performance of the absorber and takes care of the influence of minor De;ign. of. Stable Test Pacts." Guidance and Control Conference, ~inneapohs., Mmnesota.
fluctuations in the speed of the machine. Performance characteristics of
Segol, G., Lee, P· c · y ·• an d Abel ' J · F. (1978). Amplitude ( M3)reductton of surface waves by
621 641
commercial absorbers are supplied by their manufacturers and are helpful in trenches. J. Eng. Mech. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 104 E , - ·
selecting the appropriate absorber system for given operating conditions. d J c (1979) "Vibration Isolation: Use and Charactenza · t'ton, " NBS .Handb · No ·
Isolation procedures using trench barriers have been investigated both Sno~2~~·u.S. Depart~ent of Commerce, National Bureau of Standar~s, Washmgt~n, D.C.
experimentally and analytically. ~ased on the available information (1988), Sridharan A Nagendra, M. v., and Parthasarathy, T. (1981). Isolatton of mach.me foun·
design procedures have been developed as described in this chapter. Stan- datio~s b; barriers. Int. Conf. Recent Adv. Geotech. Earthquake Eng., St. Lows, Vol. 1,
279-282.
dardized procedures are not currently available for design of pile barriers.
Woods, R. D. (1968). Screening of surface waves in soils. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Proc.
Based on present recommendations, a procedure has been suggested for the
Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 94(SM·4), 951-979.
design of pile barriers which may need modification as more information . 1 art , F · E ·• Jr · (1967) · Screening of elastic waves by trenches. Proc. Int.
becomes available. Woods, R .D. ,an d R tci 4
Symp. Wave Propag. Dyn. Prop. Earth Mater., Albuquerque, NM, 275-28 . .
W00 d R 0 Barnett N. E. and Sagessor, R. (1974). Holography-A new tool for sml
REFERENCES d~~a~ics.''1 . Geote~h. Eng.' Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. lOO(GT·ll), 1231-1247.

Adiar, A. (1974). The design and application of pneumatic vibration isolators. Sound Vib.
8(8), 24-27.
Barkan, D. D. (1962). "Dynamics of Bases and Foundations," McGraw-Hill, New York.
Baxa, E., and Ebisch, R. (1982). Controlling automobile shredder vibration through pneumatic
isolation. Foundations for equipment and machinery. Publ. Am. Caner. Inst. SP~78,
33-46.
Beskos, D. E., Dasgupta, B., and Vardoulakis, I. G. (1985). Vibration isolation of machine
foundations. Proc. Symp. Vib. Frob. Geotech. Eng. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., Annu, Conv.,
Detroit, 138-151.

11
ELASTIC HALF-SPACE METHOD
Dynamic Response of
Embedded Block
Foundations
In the discussion of the analysis and design of machine foundations in
Chapter 6, it is assumed that the foundation rests on the surface of the
ground. The real foundations, however, are founded below the ground
surface. For an embedded foundation, the soil resistance is mobilized both
below the base and on the sides. The additional soil reaction that comes into
play on the sides of an embedded footing may have a significant influence on
its dynamic response. The results of the field investigations of embedded
foundations by Novak (1970, 1985}, Beredugo (1971}, Beredugo and Novak
(1972}, Fry (1963), Stokoe (1972}, Stokoe and Richart (1974) and of
laboratory experiments by Chae (1971), Gupta (1972}, and Vijayvergiya
(1981) show that as a result of embedment, the natural frequency of the
foundation-soil system increases and the amplitude of vibration decreases as
compared to the response of a surface footing under otherwise identical
conditions. These conditions are illustr~ted in Fig. 11.1 by typical response
curves for a concrete block of diam'eter d, having different depths of
embedment h, and subjected to an unbalanced horizontal force. It is
observed from this figure that the natural frequency of this system increases
and the horizontal vibration amplitude A, decreases with an increase in
embedment ratio hid.
The determination of the response of an embedded foundation sup-
porting a machine is thus of great practical importance and has been the
subject of several theoretical and experimental studies. The available
analytical procedures for computing the response ·of an einbedded footing
may be classified into the following categories:
1. Approximate methods, which consider the effect of the soil on the
sides of the footing separately and include extension of the elastic half-space
method for the surface footing (Anandakrishna and Krishnaswamy, 1973a;
Baranov, 1967; Beredugo and Novak, 1972; Novak and Beredugo, 1971,
438
439
350 1-------Wr--1----+---j--
3500
3000
--~-,pm
Fi 11 1 Response curves of horizontal vibrations of concrete foundation with different
h~~~~s of ~ontact with surrounding undisturbed soil at the same excitation intensity. (After
Novak, 1970.)
1972} and extension of the linear-elastic-weightless spring approach of
Barkan (1962} byPrakash and Puri (1971, 1972).
2. Rigorous methods, which include th~ finite ele~ent methods with o~
without special energy absorbing boundanes (Chnstmn and Carner, 1978,
Dasgupta and Rao, 1978; Day, 1977; Johnson et a!., 1975; Kausel and
...
U sh lJima, 1979·, Lysmer , 1980·, Tassoulas , 1981·'· Wass, 1972}, and the
boundary integral approach (Dominquez and Roesset, 1978).
In the design of machine foundations the elastic half-space method and
the linear elastic weightless spring method are commonly used and the
design of embedded block foundation~ using these. two m~thods only ts
considered in this chaf~ter. Pile foundatwns Will be dtscussed m Chapter 12.
11.1 ELASTIC HALF-SPACE METHOD
The earlier solution for computing the dynamic response of embedded
foundations was obtained by Baranov (1967} and has been extended by
Novak and Beredugo (1971, 1972), Beredugo (1971, 1976), and Novak and
Sachs (1973). The following assumptions are used as a basts for the
 441
HASTIC HALF-SPACE METHOD
440 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BLOCK FOUNDATIONS
P,(t). The equation of motion may be written as
solutions: (1) the footing is rigid, (2) the footing is cylindrical, (3) the base
of the footing rests on the surface of a semi-infinite elastic half-space, and mi(t) = P,(t)- R,(t)- N,(t) (11.1)
the soil reactions at the base are independent of the depth of embedment,
(4) the .soil reactions on the side are produced by an independent elastic in which m is the mass of the footing, z the vertical displacement of the
layer lying above the level of the footing's base, and (5) there is a perfect footing, R,(t) the dynamic vertical reaction at the base, a?d N,(t) th~
bond between the sides of the footing and the soil. Assumption 1 is valid in dynamic vertical reaction along the side surface of the footmg. The sml
all practical cases. Assumption 2 may not hold in all cases. Assumptions 3 reaction at the base is obtained from the elaslic half-space approach as
and 4 enable the reactions on the base and side to be independent of each
follows:
other. The contact between the soil and the sides of the foundation
(assumption 5) may not be perfect. The nature and extent of the contact R,(t) = Gr (C + iC,)z(t) (11.2)
0 1
between soil and the sides of the foundation are affected by the nature of
the soil, the method of placement and compaction, the amplitude of in which
vibration under operating conditions, and temperature variations, depend-
ing upon the specific use of the machine. Assumptions 1-5 considerably and (11.3)
simplify the evaluation of the soil's resistance, and the elastic half-space
approach can be conveniently extended to account for embedment effects.
The vibrations of embedded block foundations in different modes of vibra- The displacement functions/, and/2 (Reissner and Sagoci, 1944; Sung, 1953;
tion are discussed below. Bycroft, 1956; Luco and Wes~n, 1971) depend upo? (1). the dimen-
sionless frequency ratio, a0 = wrWfJ7G, (2) the Pmsson s ratiO v, and (3)
the stress distribution below the base. G is the dynamic shear modulus of
the medium. The dynamic soil reaction N,(t) on the side is obtained by
11.1. 1 Vertical Vibrations using
The solution to the problem of vertical vibrations of embedded foundations
was obtained by Novak and Beredugo (1972) in the following manner: N,(t) = f s(z, t) dz (11.4)

Consider a cylindrical block foundation of radius r o and height H embedded

to a depth h, as shown in Fig. 11.2, and subjected to a vertical exciting force
in which s(z, t) is the time-dependent soil reaction per unit length on the
vertical side of the footing and is a functiOn of the shear mo~ulus of the side
layer c,, its mass density p,, depth of embedment h,d!menswnles~ frequen-
cy ratio a , and the quality of contact between the soil and th~ footmg. If the
0
soil reaction is considered to be independent of the depth, sIS equal to s(t),
and by Baranov's (1967) approach, its value is given by

///////

Side layer
I )
//////T s(t) = G,(S 1 + iS2 )z(t) (11.5)

in which S 1 and S2 are given by

+e.G.
.. J 1(a 0 )J0 (a 0 ) + Y 1(ao)Y0 (ao) (11.6)
J~(ao) + Y~(ao)
----=:N:c-,-(t)1-b-'----,-----I-[-N,_It)::-==G-,,-p,__
z(t)
lh and
S, "& 21Tao

-
_ _ ...J._ _ _ _ _ - - - - _J....---
G,p
1---,o- R,lt) s, =
4
J 02 (a 0 ) + Y '0( a0 )
(11.7)
Elastic half-space
Figure 11.2. Vertical vibrations of an embedded foundation according to the elastic half-space in which J (a 0 ) and J1 (a 0 ) are Bessel functions of the first kind of order zero
0
approach. (After Novak and Beredugo, 1972.)
 442 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BLOCK FOUNDATIONS
ELASTIC HALF-SPACE METHOD 443
and one,. respectively, and Y0 (a 0 ) and Y 1 (a 0 ) are Bessel functions of the
second kmd of order zero and one, respectively. The natural frequency from Eq. (11.13) can be determined by trial and
The value of the soil reaction on the side is thus given by error, because both C1 and S 1 are functions of the frequency ratio a0 •
Calculation of the dynamic response can be simplified considerably if the

N,(t) = f G,(S1 + iS2 )z(t) dz

stiffness parameters are C 1 and S1 taken as frequency independent, and the
damping parameters, C2 and S2 , as proportional to frequency. Therefore, by
assuming that
= G,h(S 1 + iS2 )z(t) (11.8)
(11.16)
By substituting the values of R,(t) and N,(t) into Eq. (11.1), one obtains
in which C, C2 , S, and S2 are the constant values of the corresponding
.. () G [ . G, h ]
mz t + r0 C 1 + •C2 + G ro (S1 + iS2 ) z(t) = P,(t) parameters and are given in Table 11.1, wherein the frequency-dependent
values are also shown. The value of the frequency-independent spring
= P,(e'w') constant can be obtained by substituting C1 = C1 and S1 = S1 into Ijq. \ ..
1
= P,(cos wt + i sin wt) (11.11) thus: "~ ,;v- n-0r<;-· L cvv-'t;r.J- ·.,.&.~ l V' '>I
(11.9)
r./a
in which P, is the real force amplitude. The steady-state response is given by

z(t) = ze'w' (11.10)

kz = Gro~ +..:a 'oh St·]
The value of the frequency-indepen'j:fent damping is !liven by
J (11.17a)

in which z is the real response from Eq. (11.9). The stiffness k, and
dampmg c, are thus given by [compare Eq. (11.9) with Eq. (2.37)] (11.18a)

(11.18b)
(11.11)

and and

cz = Gr ( + -G
-w° C - ' -h Sz)
z Gr (11.12) 1
( c, + s,~v (p,ipJ(a,laJ)
0
t;, = -2-vrlo_b_o -y7c"",=+~(~G=,/=G=)""(h=/=ro""s,=)- (11.18c)
~:e undamped natural frequency of the embedded footing w"" is then given
in which b0 is the mass ratio m/pri.
A comparison of the response, for which the frequency-dependent values

=
fk:. v-
v-;::; (Gr
=
0 ()
cl + G h
sl )
of the stiffness and damping parameters and corresponding constant values
{t)nze
m m
_!..
-
G 'o
(1l.l3) of these parameters are used, is shown in Fig. 11.3, in which it may be
observed that the two solutions are close to each other in the range of
The damped amplitude of vibrations A is practical interest (Novali;and Beredugo, 1972).
"
(11.14) 11.1.2 Sliding Vibrations
Consider a cylindrical block of radius r0 , height H, and embedded to a depth
in which the damping ratio is h, as shown in Fig. 11.4. This block is acted upon by a horizontal exciting
cX force, Px(tl = Pxe'w'. It is assumed that only ~lidi!!K.Y!!?!<tti5?.11S.t~J<e.J?l.~~e.·
t; =
(11.15) The forces of resistance are: (1) the horizontal soil reaction Rx(t) at the base
z 2mwnze and (2) the.soil reaction Nx(t) on the side. The eqnation of motion may thus
 445
ELASTIC HALF-SPACE METHOD

8 -Variable parameters
c-i
VI VI ---Constant parameters
0
,f
"'
VI VI
0 0

oo
"'"'
MM
00
NO
v-i v-i
RR
N~ -------
II II II II II II
rc...i"'rt..JN r\.,)""n;•.J'l IC'),..II:.-:JN

Dimensionless frequency a 0
Figure 11.3. Gomparison of vertical re.~90se curves computed with variable and constant
parameters (hi r = 0.5, b0 :;:: 8.1, piPs= 0':75, and G.fG = 0.5.) (After Novak and Beredugo,
0
1972.)

be written as (Novak and Beredugo, 1971; Beredugo and Novak, 1972)

(11.19)

The reaction Rx(t) is tbe same as for a footing resting on an elastic

half-space and is given by

~0
"'0
+ ,.o
I .., H - h
<---<>
<'10
I \ I
. /,1'/// 10'/
v-i v-i I I
II II I I I
u"'v('l I I I
Side layer
I 1 ~N,(t) h
GS> Ps I I
0 I I
0 'f( I I
I I
i I J
x(t)
I ~

I Rx(l)
\--,o--1
Elastic half-space
G, P

Figure 11.4. Sliding vibrations of an embedded foundation according to the elastic half-space
approach (After Beredugo and Novak, 1972.)
444
 446
DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BLOCK FOUNDATIONS
Table 11.2. Stiffness and Damping for Half-Space and Side Layers for Sliding
(11.20) Vibrations

in which G is the dynamic shear modulus. The parameters C, and C, Poisson's Validity Constant
1
depend upon the displacement functions /, 1 and fx 2 for sliding as well as2 ratio v HalfRSpace Functions Range Parameters
upon the dimensionless frequency a0 = wr0VPfG, the Poisson's ratio v, the
frequency of excitation w, and the mass density p of the half-space (Bycroft, 89.09a
0
1956). The horizontal reaction N .. (t).,_~~ layer is give\!__12Y_{J':Iovak C,, = 4.571- 4.653a 0 + a,+ 19 .14
and Beredugo, 1971; Beredugo and Novak, 1972) 0.0 0:S:a 0 <2.0
'' ····-- -~-------~------
0.1345a 0
C, 2 = 2. 536a, - a, _ 1. 923
(11.21)
in which Q, isthe dynamic shearlllodulus of thesid.~-l~y.er and the functions
S,1 and s~, depen(ftipoii the Poiss6ii;s ratio and-dimensionless frequency of 0
c,, = 5.333- 1.584a, + a,+ 6.552
10.39a
the side~_s;L.J'he values of C, 1 , C, 2 , S 1 , and S,, are gi~abiel1.2.
By substituting the values of R,(t) and NJt) from Eqs. (11.20) and (11.21), 0.5 Q:s:a 0 <2.0
respectively, into eq. (11.19), one obtains 0.1741a 0
C, 2 = 2.923a 0 - a,_ 1.927

mi(t) + Gr0 (C, 1 + iC,,]x(t) + G,h(S, 1 + iS,,)x(t)

Side Layer F~_ns;ions
= P,(t) (11.22a)
or 3.609a 0
S,, = 0. 2328a, + a, + 0.06159 0.2 s a0 :s: 1.5

s,, = 3.60
0.0 S, 1 = 150.3a 0 - 3630a~ + 3948a;
- 1934a~ + 348Sai

0.8652a,
By comparing Eq. (11.22b) with Eq. (11.9) for the case of vertical S,, = 7.334a, + a,+ 0.00874
vibrations and Eq. 2.37 one obtains
Sxl = 2.474 + 4.119a 0 - 4.320a~
3 4
+ 2.057 a0 - 0.362a 0 0.2!5a 0 o52.0
(11.23) s,, = 4.00
and 0.25 S, 1 '
= 1.468vU; + 5.662ya;;

f 41.59a,
S,, = 0.83a, + 3.90 + a,
(11.24) ft
I'I
sxl = 2.824 + 4.7fl:t)a
3 0 - 5.539a~
4
Both k, and c, are frequency dependent. Beredugo and Novak (1972) + 2.445a 0 - 0.394a 0 0.2:::::.;: a0 :s: 2.0 _
established that the values of k, and s_may be approximat<e.!:Ll>.)C.1n;q]lency- s" = 4.10
_!.ndepen4wsa1!Jes_J2!.Jlll practical purposes by the substitutions 0.4 s"' = -1.796vU; + 6.539V'a;;
----------------
56.55a,
(11.25) sx2 = 0.96ao + 4.68 + ao 0,;; a0 ,;; 1.5 S, 2 = 10.60

(11.26)
Source: Beredugo and Novak (1972).
447
 448
DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BlOCK FOUNDATIONS
ELASTIC HALF-SPACE METHOD 449

The values of C,p cx2• sxl> and sx2 are also given in Table 11.2. Therefore,
the frequency-independent value of k, is given by
.---.....
My(t)

I
I
(11.27)
H! h I
and the frequency-independent damping is
f//////
1' I
I
I l
'//uu

' and
(11.28)

(11.29)
+
lL~ r ~I
I
I
ioltl Nq,(t) ) Side layer
Gs, Ps

The undamped natural frequency of the sliding vibration is given by

I
I 'o----i ~
~G, p
R<l>(t)
Elastic half-space
(11.30) Figure 11.5. R:~king vibrations of an e.l~ded foundation according to the elastic half-space
approach. (After Beredugo and Novak, 1972.)
and the damped amplitude of the sliding vibrations A" is
. h' h C and C
are dependent upon the displacement functions for
(11.31)
~~c~i~; vib:~tions ol~ circular foundation on an elastic half-spac~ ~ycr~ft,
1956) and are shown in Table 11.3. The parameters, c.,l an ¢2• or
k' d nd only upon the dimensionless frequency a,.
roc ~g e:fs~in moment N (t) about the center of gravity ?f the system
11.1.3 Rocking Vibrations oc~si~~ed by fhe soil reacti~m
on the sides of the founda!ion m response to
rocking is
Figure 11.5 shows a cylindrical block being excited in rocking vibrations by a
moment My(t) = M/'w'. The base of the block rests on the surface of an
(11.34)
elastic half-space with a dynamic shear modulus G, mass density p, and
Poisson's ratio v. The side layer has a shear modulus G, and mass density p,.
The rotation of the block is defined by cf>(t), and the resisting moments Table 11.3. Stiffness and Damping for Half-Space and Side Layers for rocking
occasioned by the soil reaction at the base and side are R</> (t) and N., (t), v Half-Space Functions
respectively.
The equation of motion of the rocking vibrations is c _ 2.654 + 0.1962a 0 1. 729a; + 1.485a;
0.0 •• - 0.4881a~ + 0.03498ai c•. = 2.50
c. = 0.000025a0 + 0.01583a; + 0.20~5a,3
(11.32) ' + 1.202a~ 1.448a: + 0.4491a, c.,= 0.43
in which M mo is the mass moment inertia of the block about the axis of Side Layer Functions
rotation. The resisting moment about the center of gravity of the system S = 3.142- 0.421a 0 - 4.209a; + 7.165a;
occasioned by the resistance of the soil at the base is (Beredugo and Novak,
1972) Any value •• - 4.667a '0 + 1.093 a,5 s•. = 2.50
S = 0.0144a 0 + 5.263a~- 4.177a~
., 4 4 5
+ 1.643a 0 - 0.25 2a, s., 1.80
=

(11.33) Source: Beredugo and Novak (1972).

 450 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BLOCK FOUNDATIONS ELASTIC HALF-SPACE METHOD 451

The values Sft• and So/ 2 are independent of v, are functions of the
dimensionless frequency a0 , and are shown in Table 11.3. The values for Sxt
and Sx, are shown in Table 11.2. The equation of motion then is
(11.35)
11.1.4 'Coupled Sliding and Rocking Vibrations
Consider the coupled sliding and rocking vibrations of the embedded footing
shown in Fig. 11.6. The footing is acted upon by a honzontal force,
M (t) = My e'w', ahout its center of gravity.d
e'w'' and a moment ' Y
Px (t) = p x
The forces and moments occasioned by the soil's reaction at the base an
side are shown in Fig. 11.6. The equations of motion for sliding and rocking
are

(11.42a)
The frequency-dependent spring kq, is given by
and
(11.36) (11.42h)

The frequency-dependent damping factor is in which M is the mass moment of inertia about an axis that passes through
the system~ center of gravity and is perpendicular to th~ plane of the
vibrations. The values of the soil's reaction, RxCt), and reststmg moment on
(11.37)
the base, Rf(t), are (Beredugo ati<l,·tNovak, 1972)

Beredugo and Novak (1972) found that the frequency-independent values of (11.43)
kf and c</> may be u~ed for all e_ractical pu_!poses. These ~!lay be obtained by
SUbStitutin~ eft= eft• Sf!= Sf!• Sxt = Sxt and eo/ 2 = eo/ 2 a0 , S</> 2 = S~ 2 a 0 , and
and Sx 2 = Sx 2 a0 • The values of Cft• S<t>t• Co/ 2 , and So/ 2 are given in Table
11.3. This gives the frequency independent k</> as
R,p(t) = Gr~(e<t>t + ie</> 2 )</>(t)- Gr 0 (ext + iex 2 )[x(t)L- L </>(t}]
2

2 (11.44)
kf = Gro'{ eft+
- G
a' ( -h ) (-
Sft + -h2 Sxt
- )}
(11.38a)
'o 3r 0
and frequency-independent damping co/ as
2
, cr; •{ - G, h (- 1 h - )}
Cq. = v puro c</>2 + G ro so/2 + 3 r~ sx2 (11.38b)
The damping ratio is

(11.39)

The natural undamped frequency is

(11.40)

and the damped amplitude in rocking is

Elastic half-space
G, p
Figure 11.6 Coupled rocking. and sliding of an embedded foundation according to the elastic
(11.41)
half-space approach. (After Beredugo and Novak, 1972.)
 453
452 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BLOCK FOUNDATIONS ElASTIC HALF-SPACE METHOD

The values of horizontal soil reaction, Nx(t), and resistance moment, Nq,(t), By substituting for x(t), x(t), <f>(t), and ¢(t) from Eqs. (11.49a,b) into
of the side layer are (Beredugo and Novak, 1972) Eqs. (11.47) and (11.48) and rearranging, one obtains
(11.50)
(11.45)

and and
2
G,r~( !!._ ){[<s., + iSq, h~ + L:)(sx, + iSxzl]<t>(t)
(11.51)
Nq,(t) = 2) +( h2 -
'o 3'o ro ro
in which the frequency-dependent stiffness constants are
+ _!_(!!___- L)(s +iS )x(t)} (11.46)
'o Zro 'o xt x2
Gro( Cx, + ~ ~ Sx,)
kx = (11.52)
The parameters ex,, Cx 2 , Sx,, and Sxz have been defined for the case of pure
sliding vibrations and are given in Table 11.2, and the parameters Cq, 1 , C<l''
Sq, 1 and Sq, 2 have been defined for the case of pure rocking vibrations and kq, =
'{ (L)' G., (h) (G')(h)
Gro c.,+ ro ex,+ G Yo s., + G Yo
are given in Table 11.3. By substituting the values Qf Rx(t) and Nx(t) into 2 2
Eq. (11.42a) and of Rq,(t) and Nq,(t) into Eq. (11.42b), one obtains h L hL] } (11.53)
X [-+--- S
3r~ r~ ~/'!fa xl

mx(t) + ro[ G(Cx! + iCX,) + G, : (Sxl +iSX,) ]x(t)

0 and

(11.54)

=P eiwt (11.47)
X and the frequency-dependent damping constants are
and
(11.55)
Mm¢(t) + r~[o,!!._ ( 2h - !:_)(sx, + iSx2 ) - G !:_ (Cx 1 + iCxzl]x(t)
'o 'o 'o 'o
or: ( (L)'
;:;; ex,+ (G
Cq, =--;;;-- c.,+
G,)( roh )s"''
+ r~{ G(Cq, 1 + iCq, 2 ) + G,:, [<s., +iS.,)
2 2 G)(h)[ 3r~
+ (G
h+L 2
hL] )
2

r~ - r~ Sxz
(11.56)
+ ( -h 2 - -,
hL + 2L ') (Sx, + iSxzl ] + G 2L ( Cx 1 + iCxz) } <f>(t) Yo
3 'o 'o 'o 'o
(11.48) and

(11.57)
Particular solutions of above equations can be found by substituting

(11.49a) The terms kxq, and ex</> represent cross co~pling stiffness ~nd damping terms
respectively. Undamped natural frequencies may be obtamed by makmg ex,
and
c and C P (t) and M (t) equal to zero in Eqs. (11.50) and (11.51). This
<b' x</>' x y
(11.49b) leads to

in which Ax and A <I> are complex displacement amplitudes. (11.58)

454 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BLOCK FOUNDATIONS ELASTIC HALF-SPACE METHOD 455

and and

(11.59) (11.70)

For a nontrivial solution Beredugo and Novak (1972) suggested that the parameters CxP Cxz• Sx 2 ,
c</>1> c.,, s<f>l• and s., may be replaced by their frequency-independent
values _cxl' cxz, §xl' sxz, ~4>1' co/2' ~!fld s4>2' by ~ubstituting ~xl = cxl'
(11.60)
c,t = 9</>t' Sxt = Sxl' S<l>t = S<t>t' Cxz = Cxzao, Cct>z = Cq,zao, Sxz = Sxzao, and
s., ~ Sq, 2a0 , respectively as discussed earlier for the cases of pure sliding
or and rocking.
With these substitutions we get frequency-independent springs
(k x -mw 2 )(k o/ -Mm w 2 )-k2xo/ ~o • (11.61)

On solving for w, one obtains (11.71)

(11.62) kq, =
'{ - ( L )'-
Gro Cq,r + '• ex!+
G
G(h)-
;:; Sq,r + G
G(h)
;:;
in which w ~ 1 and w ~ 2 are the two natural frequencies of the system in (11.72)
coupled rocking and sliding.
Real amplitudes of vibration are obtained (Beredugo and Novak, 1972) and
as follows:

(11.73)
(11.63)

and Frequency-independent damping is given by

(11.64) (11.74)

in which
c<f> = VPGro
•{-c.,+ (L)'-
- Cxz + (h)
- \1rp;a;[_
~ -r.:G s., + (h' L - -,
-3 + -, hL)- ]}
2
2

sx2
~ ~ p ro ro ~
a1 ~
2 (MY)
(k </> - M m w - - k px¢ (11.65) (11.75)
X

and
(11.66)

{3 1 ~ k x -mw - -
2. px ex</>= -v"--=z[- (h)rp;a;( h)-]
p(iro LCX, + ro \1 '{;' G L- 2 sx2 (11.76)
M kxc/> (11.67)
y

The frequency-independent values ex~> ex,,_ SxP _and ~xz are gi~en in Table
(11.68) 11.2. The frequency-independent values of C.;~> C1 ,, S.;~> and S.; 2 are given
in Table 11.3. The use of frequency-independent values for stiffness and
mMmw'- [mk 1 + Mmkx + CxCq,- c~ 1 ]w + [kxk</>- k~<l]
2
E1 = damping makes it possible to calculate natural frequencies and amplitudes
(11.69) by hand.
 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BLOCK FOUNDATIONS 457
ELASTIC HALF-SPACE METHOD

11.1.5 Torsional Vibrations and c., and c., are given by

Consider a cylindrical foundation of radius r 0 and height H that is excited in
torsional vibrations by a horizontal moment M,(t) around the vertical axis -!~" (11.79)
through the foundation's center of gravity as shown in Fig. 11.7. It is
c.,=!'!frt +f'!fr2 , c.,=!''''t +f'l/lz
assumed that the base of the foundation rests on the elastic half-space
defined by G and p and that the footing is embedded in an elastic layer in which f.; 1 and f.;z are the displacement functions (Reissner and Sagoci,
characterized by G, and p,. The equation of motion of the torsional 1944; Bycroft, 1956).
vibrations may be written as The side reaction N.p(t) is given by
(11.80)
(11.77)

in which in which s and s are parameters for the side layer and are functions of
the dimen~lonless f~equency ratio. By substituting the values R,;(t) and
1

.P = angle of rotation N,;(t) from Eqs. (11.78) and (11.80) into Eq. (11.77), one obtams
R.p(t) =moment of the resistive force at the base of the footing about z axis
N.p(t) =moment of the resistive force on the sides of the foundations about
z axis
MmJ;(t) + Gr~[ C.; + ~ (
1 :Js., + ;( C~, 2 + ~ ( ~)s,,,,] i/J(t)
M m• = polar mass moment of inertia of the foundation about z axis
(vertical axis about which the torsional vibrations take place). = M,(cos wt + i sin wt) (11.81)

The value of R~,(t) is given by (Novak and Sachs, 1973) The frequency-dependent stiffness coefficient for torsional vibrations is thus
given by
(11.78)
(11.82)

z and the frequency-dependent damping constant is given by

Mz(t)
(11.83)

H- h
The natural frequency (undamped) of the torsional vibrations is given by
Y. /

H w,., = {li- (11.84)

Jl""·~
m•
Gs, Ps

The amplitude of damp"ia torsional vibrations A.;, is given by

.
(11.85)

~'O
G, p

R;(t)

Figure 11.7.
approach.
Torsional vibrations of embedded foundations according to the elastic half-space
I in which

r
I
 458 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BlOCK FOUNDATIONS LINEAR ElASTIC WEIGHTLESS SPRING METHOD 459

(11.86)
{11.90)

Novak and Sachs (1973) suggested that the frequency-independent constant

values of the spring and d~mping may be used. The frequency-independent in which
values may be obtamed With the following substitutions:
B "' Mmz
= --
· · ratio
mertta · (6.38)
5 =
pro

We will now discuss the extension of linear weightless spring method for
(11.87)
calculation of dynamic response of embedded footings.
The values of C"" c,,,
S"" and s,,
are given in Table 11.4 (Novak and
Sachs, _1973). The value of the frequency-independent stiffness coefficient is
then giVen by 11.2 LINEAR ELASTIC WEIGHTLESS SPRING METHOD

The linear elastic weightless spring approach of Barkan (1962) was

(11.88) extended by Prakash and Puri (1971, 1972) for the purpose of computing the
response of ~.mbedded foundatio_!}§."and is based upon the following sim-
plifying assumptions: ... ·• ·
and the damping constant is given by
1. The foundation block is rigid.
2. The soil mass participating in the vibrations may be neglected.
(11.89)
3. The soil behaves as a linear elastic material.
The damping coefficient is given by 4. The damping in the system may be neglected.
5. The reactions on the base of the footing are the same as those for a
surface footing resting at that depth.
6. The soil reactions on the sides of the foundation are provided by an
Table 11.4. Stiffness and Damping Parameters for Torsional Vibrations independent elastic layer of soil lying above the base of the footing,
Constant Validity and
Stiffness and Damping Parameters Parameters Range 7. The soil throughout remains in contact with the sides of the footing.
Half-space
Assumptions 1-4 are the same as for the surface footing (Section 6.7).
c,, 5.333 + 0.032a 0 1.368a: Assumptions 5 and 6 make it possible to separate the soil reactions on the
+ 0.743a:- 0.1414a: base and sides and determine them separately. Assumption 7 is the same as
C"' 2 = 0.486a~ assumption 5 in Section 11.1 and its relevance is discussed there.
Side layer On the basis of the,preceding assumptions, solutions for vertical and
s,, 12.58 1.01a0 - 5.912a~ horizontal vibrations, c~upled rocking and sliding, and torsional vibrations
s., ~ 12.4 are presented below.
s,, ~ 12.59- 1.855a0 - 3.349a: + 5.335a;
- 2. 76a: + 0.495a; s., ~ 10.2 0.2s a0 :s: 2.0
s>JI2=9.04a~ 3 s., ~·2.0 0 ::5 a0 s 0.2 11.2.1 Vertical Vibrations
S !/12 -7
-
.72ao
.Sao - 0.455 + ao s"'2 =5.4 0.2 :5 a0 ::s: 2.0
Consider a foundation block of length a, width b, and height H, which is
embedded to a depth h, as shown in Fig. ll.Sa. Let the block be subjected
Source: Novak and Sachs (1973). to a sinusoidally varying unbalance force P,(t) = P, sin wt, which acts along
460 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BLOCK FOUNDATIONS LINEAR ELASTIC WEIGHTLESS SPRING METHOD 461

t PAt) t P,it)
or
(11.91b)

~
+T H
t
%
in which A equals ab, the area of the base of the foundation block in contact
with the soil.
The vertical soil reaction on the faces of the block occasioned by sliding

llc,J C,ah, between the bloc]< and the soil F, is

Crsbhz (11.92)
L _ _ _ _ _a_ _ _ _ _ _JT
CuAz in which C" is the coefficient of elastic uniform shear of the soil on the sides
z(t)
(a) (b) of the block.
The equation of motion may be written as
tP,lt)
mi! + C"abz + C"(2a + 2b )hz = P,(t) (11.93a)

or
mi! + [ C.ab + Cit('{;a + 2b )h ]z = P,(t) (11.93b)

The equation for free vibration is therefore

.

mi! + [C"ab + 2C,,(a+ b)h]z =0 (11.94)

1c.,
<'////,

A,

(')
and may be rewritten as
Figure 11.8. Vertical vibrations of embedded foundations (linear elastic spring approach). (a)
Actual problem. (b) Soil reactions. (c) Equivalent problem. (11.95)

in which c., is the equivalent value of the coefficient of elastic uniform

the vertical axis through the block's center of gravity. Under the action of compression given by
the dynamic load, dynamic soil reactions develop on the base and sides of
the block, as shown in Figure 11.8b. . c.ab + 2C"(a + b )h (11.96a)
The equation of motion of the foundation may be obtained by consid- cue= ab
ering the equilibrium of the actuating and resisting forces and applying
Newton's second law. The various forces acting on the foundation are = c" + 2c"(~ + ~) (11.96b)

l. The applied vertical force P,(t). The embedded foundation then will be analyzed as a footing resting on
2. The inertial force mi!, in which m is the mass of the foundation and z the surface and using c.,~iven by Eq. (11.96b) in place of c. (Section 6.7).
is the displacement at any time. When his equal to zero in Eq. (11.96), c., is equal to c., as for a surface
3. The vertical soil reaction at the base Rb, and footing.
The natural frequency of the vertical vibrations w., of the embedded
4. The vertical soil reaction (frictional force) on the sides F,.
footing is given by
The magnitude of the vertical soil reaction on the base Rb is given by
(11.97a)
(11.91a)
or
4&2 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BlOCK FOUNDATIONS LINEAR ELASTIC WEIGHTLESS SPRING METHOD 4&3

the applied external force, Px(t), the inertia of the block, mx, the horizontal
(11.97b) soil reaction at the base R x, and the horizontal reaction on all the four sides
of the block, R,.
The amplitude of vibration of the embedded foundation A, is given by The magnitude of horizontal soil reaction at the base is given by

P, (11.101)
A, = m ((J)nze-
z z) (11.98)
w
in which C, is .the coefficient of elastic uniform shear at the base of the
in which w is the frequency of the exciting force. foundation.
If instead of a rectangular or a square block, the block is circular with a The horizontal soil resistance on the vertical faces of the block R, consists
radius r and embedded to a depth h, the equation of motion for free of a force occasioned by the uniform compression of the soil against the
vibrations is given by faces of the block parallel to the y axis and the shearing force on the two
faces parallel to the x axis that result from the uniform shear between the
(11.99) soil and the block. Thus,

The value of C"' is thus given by (11.102)

(11.100) in which C , the coefficient of elastic uniform compression for the side
layer, repre~ib'nts the net force oci:l\'gioned by uniform compression and the
decrease in compression on faces of block perpendicular to the direction of
vibration.
The equation of motion is, therefore,
From Eqs. (11.96) and (11.100) for h > 0, C"' is greater than C", and the
overall spring stiffness of soil is more than that for a surface footing. (11.103a)
or
11.2.2 Sliding Vibrations
Consider the sliding vibrations of a rigid block that are caused by a (11.103b)
sinusoidally varying unbalanced force, Px(t) = Px sin wt, shown in Fig. 11.9.
When the block slides by an amount x along the x axis, it is acted upon by in which C, denotes the value of equivalent coefficient of elastic uniform
shear and is given by

(11.104a)

zt Px(t)
(11.104b)
----.---
lJ- h
l
I
The natural frequency ~f the sliding vibrations of embedded foundation is
" I given by ·
h
I
I C.,.s a hx Gus bhx

1 a
I
I
J -:;._X
Cr A x
or
(11.105a)

Figure 11.9. Sliding vibrations of an embedded foundation according to the linear elastic (11.105b)
spring approach (a) Actual case, (b) Soil reactions on sides and base.
464 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BLOCK FOUNDATIONS LINEAR' ElASTIC WEIGHTLESS SPRING METHOD 465

The amplitude of vibration is

2
Axe= m ( (J)nxe- 2) (11.106)
w (Cq,zrf>) X bdz

For a circular block embedded to a depth h, the soil reaction against the
vertical face may be replaced by a net force of uniform compression on the
projected area of the face on a vertical plane, and the equation of motion is

mJi + C, 1rr 2x + Cu,2rhx = 0 (11.107)

and

(11.108a)
~-------------a------------~
or Ia) (b)

---
~) /
T+
C, = ( C, + ; C"' (11.108b)
r'r;r I
It will be noted from Eqs. (11.104) and (11.108) that when h > 0, C, > C, I ~
and hence the overall stiffness of the equivalent soil spring for an embedded I
H I dz Fore e on elementary
foundation undergoing sliding is higher than that for a surface footing. area d ue to nonuniform

u
~ lf---z¢ shear = C.;,(z¢>)(adz)

11.2.3 Rocking Vibrations -/¢

I
Consider now the rocking vibrations of an embedded rectangular block !
(Fig. 11.10) excited by a moment, My(t) =MY sin wt, acting at the center of 0
gravity of the foundation. Rocking of the block occurs in the plane of the Figure 11.1 o. Rocking vibrations of an embedded foundation according to linear elastic spring
figure, i.e., about they axis. Let the position of the foundation at any time approach: (a) block under excitation; (b) non-uniform compression on faces parallel to Y-axis;
be denoted by the angle of rotation c/>, as shown in Fig. 11.10a. The various (c) non-uniform shear on faces perpendicular to Y-!lxis.
actuating and resisting moments on the foundation are

1. The applied external moment MY sin wt, 5. The moment occasioned by the nonuniform compression of the soil
2. The moment due to inertia of the block M against the faces of the block parallel to the axis of rotation, i.e., they
axis, M, (Fig. 11.10b),
(6.68) bh 3
l
h
M,_~
0
(Cq,,zc/>)(b dz z) = c.,,cf> 3 (11.109)
3. The moment occasioned by the displacement of the center of gravity
Mw: in which Cq,s is the coefficient of elastic nonuniform compression for
(6.69) the soil layer on the sides of the foundation and represents the net
effect of the soil's reaction on the faces of the block parallel to the axis
4. The moment occasioned by- the soil's reaction at the base M R: of rocking, and
6. The moment occasioned by the nonuniform shearing resistance be-
(6.72) tween the faces of the block perpendicular to the axis of rotation and
 LINEAR ELASTIC WEIGHTLESS SPRING METHOD 467
466 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BLOCK FOUNDATIONS

the soil, MN. The shearing displacement of any height z above the
base equal to z<f>. The shearing resistance of an elementary area of the
face of the block is c,,(z</> )adz.
The moment about 0 occasioned by this resistance is given by
Therefore the total moment due to nonuniform shear for the two faces
is given by
in which c," is the equivalent coefficient of elastic nonunif~rm ~om­
pression for the embedded foundatiOn, and I the moment of mertia of
the base contact area of the foundation around the y axis, which is
ba 3112.
For h equal to zero, c,, is equal to C•, and for h greater than zero,
c,", is greater than c.,.
The natural frequency of the rocking vibrations, w""', may be computed
by using,

M =2C (<f>ah') wnct>e

= ~(C.,,I-
M mO
WL) (11.114a)
Ft/J if's 3 (11.110)

7. The moment M F• occasioned by the shear resistance of soil along the or

faces of the block parallel to axis of rocking Fig. (11.10a). The shear
displacement is (a/2)</>, and the shearing resistance of soil is Fs =
fnq,,
= J__ ~( Cq,J-
2-rr M mO
WL) (11.114b)
(a/2)</>Cu(bh). Thus,

The amplitude of the rocking vibrations A"'" is given by

The equation of motion is MY (11.115)

.. bh 3 ah 3
Mmo<f> + Cq,l</>- WL</> + Cq,, 3 </> + 2C,, 3 </> For circular foundations, the moment occasioned by the soil's resistance on
2 the sides is due to the nonuniform compression of the soil on the sides and
+ Cn'P_,_ -a bh .
- =MY sm wt (11.112a) the moment occasioned by the shear F,. The moments are given by
2
and the equation of motion for free vibrations is
3
M, = J: c.,,(2r dz z</>z) (11.116a)

Mmo<l>.. + [ Cq,I + c,, 3bh + 2C1, (ah')

3 + C"' (a'bh)
- 2 - - WL ] </> rh') (11.116b)
= ( 23 c,,
=0 (11.112b)
or and
(11.112c) (11.117)
M F< = C"'(r<f> )(2rh )2r = 4C,,r'h</>
in which "%:
The value of c., therefore, is
(11.113a)
(11.118)
3 3 2
bh ah a bh
c,, 3 + 2C1, 3 + C,., -2- The natural frequency and amplitude of the rocking for a circular footing
=C+-----~----=-- (11.113b)
• I can then be obtained using Eqs. (11.114) and (11.115).
 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BLOCK FOUNDATIONS LINEAR ELASTIC WEIGHTLESS SPRING METHOD 469
468

11.2.4 Coupled Rocking and Sliding Vibrations in which

The response of an embedded foundation to coupled rocking and sliding .6.(w 2) = mMm ( wne1-
2 w 2)( Wne2-
2 w 2) (11.122)
(Fig. 11.11) may be obtained by treating it as a surface footing and using the
equivalent values of the coefficient of elastic uniform shear C,. and of the The horizontal force Px sin wt acting alone:
coefficient of elastic nonuniform compression c., from Eqs. (11.104) and
2
(11.113), respectively, and following the procedure described in Section 6.7. (Cq,,l- WL + C,.AL - Mmw')Px
The frequency response of embedded foundations may be computed by (11.123)
A"= A(w 2 )
using Eq. (6.112) in Section 6.7 by replacing the limiting natural frequen-
cies, wnx and wn<f>, with wnxe and wn.Pe, respectively. The characteristic
and
frequency equation for coupled rocking and sliding may thus be written as
(11.124)
(11.119)
Both the force Px sin wt and the moment MY sin wt acting:
Equation (11.119) is a quadratic in w~, and will yield two roots, (w,,) 2 and
2
2
(w"' 2 ) , which are the two natural frequencies of the embedded foundation. [C.,I- WL + C,.AL 2 - Mmw ]Px + C,,ALMY
(11.125)
The amplitudes of vibration may similarly be obtained as follows: Ax,= A(w2)
·:.:.,->·~
Moment MY sin wt acting alone:
and
(11.120) 2
C,.ALPx + (C,.AL- mw )My
(11.126)
and Aq,, = A(w 2 )
(11.121)
11.2.5 Torsional Vibrations
z Consider a cylindrical foundation block of radius r and heig_ht H that is
embedded to a depth h in the soil (Fig. 11.12). The block 1s torswnally
vibrated by a horizontal moment, M,(t) = M, sin wt, about the vertical axis.
The displacement of the block may be defined by angle 1/J. Moments of the
various forces acting on the block may be obtained as follows:

1. The applied moment M,(t) is equal to M, sin wt.

' 2. The moment M 1 occasioned by inertia of the block is expressed by

h (11.127)

3. Moment M n;, oc~isioned by elastic nonuniform shear at the base is

expressed by
(11.128)

1---------a--------1 in which C is the coefficient of elastic nonuniform shear at the base

and I is the" polar moment of inertia "of the base area about th e z ax1s
.
Figure 11.11. Coupled rocking and sliding of an embedded foundation according to the linear I ' 4
elastic spring approach. and, is 1rr 12.

I
 470
DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BLOCK FOUNDATIONS
DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR AN EMBEDDED BLOCK FOUNDATION 471

z in whicb c.,, is the equivalent coefficient of elastic nonuniform shear of

<::.bI
Mz(t) "" Mz sin wt embedded foundation.
The natural frequency w""'' of the torsional vibrations of embedded

~!
foundation is expressed by

l~ _/JG (11.132a)

L L c_p
I
I Ms.;,
and

(11.132b)

'----M-:;;::-+--;¢=---,~_j~x The undamped amplitude A.,, of the torsional vibrations is given by

A~,= M mz ( t.;'. ')

SFpig~re 11.12. hTorsional vibrations of an embedded foundation according to the linear elast'oc (11.133)
rmg approac . (J) mpe - (t)

The response of a non circular Jo;undation to torsional vibrations can be

computed by using Eq. (6.58c) to determine the equivalent radius and then
4. The moment M, occasioned by elastic uniform shear at the vertical following the procedure just outlined.
face of the block is expressed by

M,, = C"(hrh )(n/l)r 11.3 DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR AN EMBEDDED BLOCK

FOUNDATION
= (27rC"hr 3 )1f; (11.129)
Thus far, the method for analyzing the response of an embedded block
The equation of motion of the torsional vibrations is expressed by foundation in different modes of vibration have been discussed with regard
to the following two methods:
(11.130a)
or 1. Elastic half-space method (Novak and Beredugo, 1971, 1972; Novak
and Sachs, 1973); and the
2. Linear elastic weightless spring method (Barkan, 1962), which is
(11.130b)
extended to include embedment effects (Prakash and Puri, 1971, 1972)
in which Mm is the mass moment of inertia of the foundation about the ·
of rotation. axts A step-by-step design procedure witb both approaches is given below.
The information required for making the design and other steps common
to both the methods a!'¢
(11.131a)
1. Machine data
= c, + (2"'c")h'' (11.131b) 2. Soil data
'TrY
3. Trial size of the foundation
2
4. Centering the foundation area in contact with the soil and deter"
= C~~ +4Crs h
-;: (11.131c)
mination soil pressures
5. Design values of unbalanced exciting forces and moments
 473
DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR AN EMBEDDED BlOCK FOUNDATION
472 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BlOCK FOUNDATIONS

6. Determination of the moment of inertia and mass moment of inertia. 1

- - h ~p,
[ c., + s,,, -;:;;
G,]
-p 7J
These steps have been discussed in detail in Chapter 6 (Section 6.8) g=- (11.90)
for surface footings and are not repeated here. " Zy'"B, yc"' 1 + (G,/G)(hlr 0 )S,,
7. Natural frequencies and amplitudes.
in which
A. Elastic Half-Space Approach B = --
. , l ratio
Mmz = mert1a . (6.38)
5
1. Selecting Values of G, G, p, p,. The values of G for the soil at the "' pro
base should be determined by following the procedure given in Chapter 4.
The undamped natj!ral frequency wn,., is
Because the soil on the sides is usually backfilled and compacted, the value
of G, may be taken as 0.5 to 0.75 of G below the base. The density of the
soil at the base and on the sides should also be determined. The value of v (11.84)
for the soil below the base should be determined or selected depending
upon the type of soil. The damped amplitude of torsional vibrations A,., is
The appropriate values of equivalent radius r0 for a given vibration mode
should be calculated as detailed in Section 6.5. M, (11.85)
2. Uncoupled Modes. For vertical vibrations, the spring constant k, is

(11.17a) 3. Coupled Modes. The response occasioned by coupled sliding and

rocking may be obtained as follows:
The damping ratio g, is The stiffness constants kx, ko~, and kxq, are

- G, h S ] (11.71)
kx = Gro [ cxl +G ~ xl
(11.18c)

3 - - - - ko~ = Gro
'{ c.,+
_ (L)'-
-;:; cx1 +GG., (h)s (G·)(!!_)
Yo '" + G ro
in which b 0 is the mass ratio, m/pr 0 . The values of C" C2 , S" 5 2 should be·
obtained from Table 11.1 (column 3). The undamped natural frequency wnu 2 2
h L hL]- } (11.72)
is X [ 2 + -, - - 2 Sx1
-
3r 0 r0 'o
wnze =
fk: =
\1-;:;
m
~Gr
-
m
0 (-C, + GGs - St
r0
h-) (11.13) and
(11.73)
The damped amplitude of vibrations A;, is given by

The frequency-independ3il!t damping is given by

(11.14)
A'"=z= ~[1-(~)']' +[zg,c(--<f-)r ex= VPGro'(-ex,+ (h)
;:;; 'J/P,p G,S
G
..---,..-
) (11.74)
Wnze ---~) Wnze
x2

For torsional vibrations, the spring stiffness k"' is

Cq, =
- ( L )'- fP:G,
ypor~ { Cq,z + ~ cx2 + ~ \) =--:: G
(h)
k~, =
3
Gr 0 (C.p
-
1 +
(G,h)-)
G -;: s,., (11.88)
[ - + (h' L- 2
0
Sq,z - , + -, hL)-
-z Sxz ]} (11.75)
3r 0 r0 r0
The damping ratio g,, is
 474
DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BLOCK FOUNDATIONS DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR AN EMBEDDED BLOCK FOUNDATION 475

and
described in Chapter 4. The values of C, for the soil on the sides may be
similarly determined from suitable tests. The value of C., for the side layers
will depend upon the type of soil and the method of placement and
compaction. If no other information is available C"' may be taken as 0.5 to
0. 75 Cu.
The_ valu~s of _ex\' cx2,}xl, and sx2 are given in Table 11.2, and the values
of c.,, C</> 2 , s.,, and S• 2 are given in Table 11.3. The undamped natural 2. Uncoupled Modes. For vertical vibrations the coefficient of elastic
.
f requenctes, wn2 1 an d wn2 2 , are uniform compression c"' for the embedded foundation is given by

w'
nl.2
~!2 [(kx
m
+ !.±..) ± ~! (kx
M 4
_ !.±..)'
M
_IS__]
+ M
(11.96b)
m m m m m
(11.62) The natural frequency of vertical vibrations "'"" is
The damped amplitudes of vibration, Ax and A•, are
(11.97a)

(11.63) or
and
(11.97b)

(11.64) The undamped amplitude of vibration A., is

in which P,
A,= mwnze-w
( 2 ')
(11.98)

(11.65) For torsional or yawning vibrations the value of coefficient of elastic

nonuniform shear c,, for the embedded foundation is
(11.66)
(11.131c)

(11.67) The natural frequency of the torsional vibrations "'""' is given by

(11.68) (11.132a)

or
(11.69)
€z ~ -[mc<P + Mmcx]w + [cxk<P + c,kx- 2cx<Pkx.p]w
3
(11.70) (11.132b)
',
B. Linear Elastic Weightless Spring Appro/ch The maximum undamped amplitude of torsional vibrations A"' is given by
1. Selecting Soil Constants. Soil constants such as C C C and C , M,
, . ' U' r' ¢' .p (11.133)
for the sot! below the base may be selected by following the procedure A.,,= M ( 2 _ ')
i mz Wn!fre W
 476
DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BLOCK FOUNDATIONS
EXAMPLES 477

co The response. of a noncircular foundation to torsional vibrations can be

mp~ted by usmg Eq. (6.58) to determine the equivalent radius and then
followmg the procedure outlined above.
The resultant horizontal and vertical amplitudes are given by
~· Coupled Modes. Sliding and rocking are coupled modes. The fol-
lowmg steps are followed: A he = Axe + hA<Pe
The values of C" and c., are calculated as below:
and

(11.104b) (6.134b)
and
9. Check for Adequate Design
The design of the foundation will be satisfactory if the computed natural
frequencies and amplitudes of vibration are within their prescribed values,
(11.113b) as discussed earlier in Chapter 6.
The values of limiting frequencies in pure sliding of w and pur k"
w are nxe e roc mg
nq>"
11.4 .EXAMPLES

w = VC"A
m
EXAMPLE 11.4.1
nxe (11.105a)
A foundation block 6 X 4 X 4 m high and made of M-150 concrete is
and embedded in soil to a depth of 3.0 m, as shown in Fig. 11.13. The block is
subjected to a vertical sinusoidal force of P, = 7.6 sin wt tons by an engine.
_ v(Cq,J WL) r The operating speed of the engine is 600 rpm. The dynamic shear modulus
wn<Pe - (11.114a) ' G for the soil below the base is 6300 tim 2 and Poisson's ratio is 0.25.
Mrno Assume G, = 0.75, the density of the soil below the base, y = 1.8 tim 3 and
The natural frequencies in coupled sliding and rocking d for the side soil r, = 1.6 tim 3• Determine the natural frequency and am-
given by . ' wne1 an wne2' are

W4 _
wznxe + wzm/>e ) 2
2 2
WnxeWnq.e
ne ( W 11 + = 0 (11.119)
I' ' I'

The amplitudes occasioned by coupled sliding and rocking are

"////

3.0 m
and

2
A
"''
= C"ALPx + (C"jL- mw')My
~(w') (11.126) _L'-----------'
! - - - - - - - - 6 . 0 m ---------1
1 1
The term d(w ) is given by
Figure 11.13. Embedded block (Examples 11.4.1 and 11.4.2).
 479
478 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BLOCK FOUNDATIONS EXAMPLES

plitude of vibration of the block using the elastic half-space approach. The r = (A (6.58a)
0 \1-;
density of concrete y, may be taken as 2.4 tim 3•
(24
Solution
= \13.14 = 2.764 m

1. Machine data
The frequency-independent spring stiffness k, of the embedded foundation
The weight of the machine is not given in the problem and has not been
included in the calculation. Operating speed of the machine is 600 rpm. is

w = 62.83 radisec
k, =
- G, h -
Gro [ cl + G ;:;; sl
J (11.17a)
2. Soil data
For soil below the base
From Table 11.1, column 3, for v = 0.25,
G 6300 tim'
=
y= 1.8tim
3 .c 1
=5.2, sl =2.70
v= 0.25 4725 3 ]
k, = (6300)(2.764) [ 5.2 + X
2 _764 X 2.7 tim
6000
For soil on the sides
= 130734.8 tim
G, = 0.75G = 4725 tim 2
')', = 1.6 tim3 The frequency-independent damping ratio ~' is
3 and 4. Foundation data
The data on the foundation is given in the problem.
- - h ~-
( C' +S-
p,
- G,)
1 2 ro p G (11.18c)
Length of block a = 6.0 m ~' = 2Vbo V(C1 + (G,iG)(hir 0 )S 1 )
Width of the block b = 4.0 m
Height of the block H = 4.0 m m W
b0 = - = - ,
Embedded depth h = 3.0 m pr~ 'Y'o
Weight of the foundation block = ( 6 x 4 x 4)2.4 = 230.4 t
Base area of the block= 6 x 4 =24m 2 230.4 = 6.06
3
1.8(2.764)
5 and 6. Unbalanced exciting forces
The unbalanced vertical exciting force From Table 11.1, column 3,
P, = 7.6 tons c, =5.0
Since the exciting force is in the vertical direction only, calculation of
moment of inertia and mass moment of inertia is not relevant to this
sl = 2.1 s, = 6.7
problem. ..., 3 /"'1-c.6~'4'"'72"'5
5.0 + 6 ·7 X 2.764 \11.8 X 6300
7. Natural frequencies and amplitudes of vibration ~=------~~~~==~ 112
a. Selecting soil constants ' ( 4725 3 2 7 )
2(v'6.Q6) 5 ·2 + 6300 X 2.764 X ·
The values of soil constants given above are adopted for this calculation.
(Follow procedure of Chapter 4 if adequate soil data is available.) = 0.816
b. Vertical vibrations
The undamped natural frequency of the embedded footing w"' is
The equivalent radius r 0 is
 4BO
DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BLOCK FOUNDATIONS EXAMPLES 4B1

w.,=~ b. Vertical vibrations .

The equivalent value for the coefficient of elastic uniform compression C"' IS
/130734.8 X 9.81
c"' = c" + 2c,,( ~ + ~)
wn, = y 230 .4 = 74.60 radisec
(11.96b)
fu, = 11.87 Hz

The damped amplitude of vibration (A,)d of the embedded footing is

= 6000 + 2(2250)( ~ + D = 11625 tim
3

The natural frequency of the vertical vibration, w""' is

P,
(A, ) d = , 112 (11.14) _
wnze- ~ C",A
m (11.97a)
k, {[ 1- (wiwn,,)'] + (2g,wlw.,,)'}
=~----,--,~~=
- I 11625 X 24 x 9.81 = 108.99 radisec
7.6 - y 230.4
= (130734.8){[1- (62.83/74.6) 2) 2 + [2 X 0.816(62.83/74.6)] 2 } 112 = 108.99 = 17.35 Hz
fnze 21T
= 3.88 x 10- 5 m= 0.0388 mm
The amplitude of vibration \undamped) A" is
EXAMPLE 11.4.2 ., A=
. f<.·~
Solve Problem 11.4.1 by using the linear elastic weightless spring approach. 2Z ..· 2 , (11.98)
3 ze m(wnze- w )
Assume that C" =6.0kgicm (for a 10m 2 area) for the soil at the base and
that C"' = 0. 75 C". _ _ _7:...:,.6::___ __
A,= - m
Solution 230
( .4 )(108.99 2 - 62.83 2 )
1. Machine data 9.81
Same as in Example 11.4.1 = 4.08 x 10- 5 m= 0.0408 mm
2. Soil data It should be interesting to compare the natural frequency and amplitud~
2
of vibration of the foundation if it were resting on the surface of the soil
C" for the base (for a 10m area)=6.0kgicm 3 =6000tim 3 with c = 6000 tim' and the embedment effects were neglected. The natural
C"' for the side layer (for a 10m 2 area)= 0.75 C" = 4500 tim' frquen~y wn, as surface footing would be
3, 4, 5, and 6 are the same as in Example 11.4.1
_ /6000 x 24 X 9.81 = 78 .3 radisec
wn,- Y 230.4
7. Natural frequencies and amplitudes
78 30
a. Soil constants t,
nz
= · = 12.46 Hz
21T
The amplitude of vibration (undamped), A, as surface footing would be
Because the base2 area of the block and the embedded area of each side are <0:.. 7.6
more than 10m , the values of cu, cus' and crs for the 10m 2 area will be A = m
used. 230
Adopt ' ( .4 )(78.302 - 62.83 2 )
9.81
C" = 6000 tim 3 = 1.482 x 10- 4 m= 0.1482 mm

C"·' = 4500 tim

3 It should he observed that

C" = li2C"' = 2250 tim 3 Wnu = 108.99 = 1.391

wn, 78.30
 COMPLIANCE-IMPEDANCE FUNCTION APPROACH 483
482 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BLOCK FOUNDATIONS

that is, the natural frequency of the embedded foundation in this case is 39.1 associated rigid massless footing as shown in Fig. 11.14b. For the case of
percent greater than that of the surface footing. The ratio of undamped pure vertical vibrations, the vertical impedance K, is then defined as
amplitudes is
A,_ 0.0408 (11.134)
A, = 0.1482 = 0 ·275
that is, the amplitude in the embedded case is only 27.5 percent the in which R (t) is the total vertical soil reaction against the foundation and
amplitude if the footing were treated as a surface footing. includes th~ resistive forces at the base and on the sides for the case of
embedded foundations and, z(t) is the uniform harmonic settlement of the
soil-foundation interface. R,(t) will be equal to the vertical exciting force
11.5 COMPLIANCE-IMPEDANCE FUNCTION APPROACH and may be expressed as
(11.135a)
The response of a vibrating footing may also be computed by using
impedance-compliance functions for the footing soil system (Gazetas, Similarly,
iwi (11.135b)
1983). For the case of harmonic excitation, the dynamic impedance is z (t) = ze
defined as the ratio of the steady-state force (or moment) to the resulting
displacement (or rotation) at the base of a massless rigid foundation. The dynamic compliance function F, for the case of purely vertical vibra-
Dynamic compliance functions are similarly defined as the ratio of the tions may be expressed by Eq.-,(~~1.136)
dynamic displacement (or rotation) to the dynamic resistive forces (or
moments) at the base of the foundation. Dynamic compliance functions may z(t) (11.136)
also be termed as dynamic displacement or flexibility functions. The impe- F, = R,(t)
dance and compliance functions will be different for different modes of
vibration. Consider the footing shown in Fig. 11.14a to be replaced by an The torsional impedance K"', the horizontal impedance Kx (or Ky) and
rocking impedance K can be defined by equations similar to Eq. (11.134).
For the vibration coridition involving coupled rocking and sliding, cross-

± Actual foundation
coupled impedance terms such as K,x (or K,y) may also be defined. .
The dynamic force and displacement are generally out of phase (Section
2.5). The dynamic displacement can be resolved into two components: a
component in phase and another component 90° out of phase with the
applied harmonic load. The impedance function [Eq. (11.134)] may be
expressed using complex notation in the form
(11.137)

in which the subscript a represents z, x (or y), </>, <f>x (or <!>y) and .P depending
upon the form of vibrations. Both the real and imaginary components of
impedance are func.tj.ons of frequency w. The significance of real and
imaginary components· of dynamic impedance can be eastly understood_ by
considering a single-degree-of freedom system as for the case of vertical
vibrations. The equation of motion for damped vertical vibrations may be
written as

mi'(t) + c,i(t) + k,z(t) = P,(t)

(a) •
Lettmg z ( t) = ze iwi an d p , ( t) = p ,eiwi and substituting in the equation of
Figure 11.14. (a) Rigid massive foundation. (b) Associated rigid massless foundation. motion above, we obtain
 485
484 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BLOCK FOUNDATIONS COMPLIANCE-IMPEDANCE FUNCTION APPROACH

(11.144)
2 • p (t)
( k,- mw ) + tc,w = z(t) (11.138)
in which f3 is the hysteretic damping ratio. . . .
Comparing Eq. (11.138) with Eq. (1.134), we obtain As for the case of dynamic impedance, the dynamic compliance functmns
defined by Eq. (11.136) may be expressed in terms of real and imaginary
2
K, = (k,- mw ) + ic,w (11.139) parts as follows:
(11.145)
Equation 11.139 shows that the dynamic impedance is a complex number.
Further, comparing Eqs. (11.137) and (11.139)
Subscript a has already been explained earlier for the case of dynamic
Kzl = kz- mwz (11.140a) impedance. . . . .
For uncoupled modes as in the case of vertical or torsw~al vJbratmns, the
Kz2 = CzW (11.140b) compliance functions are the inverse of impedance functmns, for example

It is observed from Eq. (11.140) that the frequency-dependent real 1 (11.146)

F =-
component of dynamic impedance represents the stiffness and inertia of the " K"
soil-foundation-system and the frequency-dependant imaginary component a= z, .p
represents the damping (energy loss) in the system.
Equation (11.139) may be rewritten as For coupled ~ode,s, such as rock;';;)iand sliding vibrations, the compliances
may be obtained by inverting the impedance matrix:
(11.141a)
K X</> ]-t
or
K,
For calculating the dynamic response of a massive machine foundation,
K, = k,{k + iwc,} (11.141b) the pertinent dynamic impedance functions at the anticipated frequency (or
range of frequencies) of machine operation are evalua:ed first. Any method
in which
used to calculate these impedances must take mto cons1deratmn the shape of
the footing, type of the soil profile, the depth of embedment ~n? ?ature of
soil contact on the sides of the foundation, and the flexural ngJdJty of the
foundation. This can be done by using discrete or continuum type for-
Equation (11.141b) shows that the dynamic impedance can be expressed as mulations. A detailed discussion of these approaches is given by Hadjian et
a product of static spring constant k, times a complex number (k + ic,w), a!. (1974), Jakub and Rosse!, (1977), and. Gazetas (1983). Using the
that encompasses dynamic characteristics, namely, inertia and damping. impedance functions, the equations of motmn for different modes of
Using the dimensionless frequency factor a0 = wr)V,, Eq. (11.141b) can be ' vibration of a massive foundation (Fig. 11.15) may be written as follows:
written as
mi(t) + R,(t) = P,(t) (11.147)
K, = k,(k + ia 0 C) (11.142) "4~.

Mm,lj,(t) + T<l>(t) = M,(t) (11.148)

in which
m.X(t) + Rx(t) = P,(t) (11.149)
v
c=c_§._ (11.150)
(11.143) Mmy4>(t) + T,(t)- Rx(t) = My(t)
'r"
Equation (11.142) may be modified to account for both the radiation and in which R T R and T. are vertical, torsional, horizontal, and rocking,
Z' o/' X ~ ,

material damping and may be written in the form reactions of the soil acting at the center of the foundatiOn base, and other
 486 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BLOCK FOUNDATIONS 487
COMPLIANCE-IMPEDANCE FUNCTION APPROACH

z () iw<
t = ze , z=z 1 +iz 2 (11.152a)
Mz{t)
t = xe
x ()
iw< , x = x 1 + ix2 (11.152b)
cJ>(t) = cJ>e'w' , . </> = </> 1 + i</>2 (11.152c)
iJ!(t) = 1/Jeiw< , 1/1 = 1/11 + ii/12 (11.152d)

in which z, x, q,, and 1/J are frequency-dependent displacement and rotation

amplitudes at the center of gravity. .

TI The soil reaction also will be harmonic in nature and may be wntten as

R,(t) = R,eiw< (11.153a)

11 RJt) = Rxeiw<
T,(t)
T,(t)
=

=
Tq,eiw<
T,e'w'
(11.153b)
(11.153c)
(11.153d)

The complex soil reaction amp~jtudes in Eqs. (11.153) are related to the
displacement and rotation amplitudes through the correspondmg Jmpe-
d.ances as given in Eqs. (11.154).
Original position

(11.154a)
Rx = Kx(X- L</>) + Kx</></> (11.154b)
I T, = K<l</> + Kx<l>(x- L</>) (11.154c)
I
I --.._)
T, = K•iJ! (11.154d)
-i I X f------
Substituting Eqs. (11.151), (11.152), (11.153), and (11.154) into the Eqs.
(b)
(11.147) to (11.150), we obtain
Figure 11.15. Definition of variables for vibrations of a massive foundation. (a) Section. {b)
Plan. P ,e Ia~
z = 2 (11.155a)
K,(w)- mw
M eio:o/1
quantities are as previously defined in this chapter. For harmonic excitation,
"'= K</>(w)-' Mm,w 2
(11.155b)
P,(t) = P,eli(w<+a,)] (11.151a)
'*'= {K*<J>x
>.. P e0"x 1 - M e0"• 1}N
K*x,Py (11.155c)
Px(t) = Pxe[i(wt+ax)]
(11.151b)
"- =
'P {K*X M y e0 "• 1 - K*X<f> PX eu"" 1}N (11.155d)
My(t) = Mye[i(w<+a•)] (11.151c)
M,(t) = M,e[i(w<+••)]
in which
(11.151d)
K~ = Kx(w)- mw
2
(11.156a)
in which a is the phase angle of excitation and its subscript indicates the
form of excitation. The steady-state motion may be represented by K:.; = Kx<l(w)- Kx(w)L (11.156b)

488 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BLOCK FOUNDATIONS
2
K; = K,(w)- Mm,w' + Kx(w)L - 2Kx<P(w)L (11.156c)
N = (K*x K*-
q, K*x<b2 )- 1 (11.156d)
This approach can be us~d for surface as well as embedded machine
foundations by suitably defining the impedance functions. If the forcing
function is nonharmonic, it may be decomposed into a number of sinusoids
by using Fourier analysis.
11.6 OVERVIEW
The problem of analysis and design of embedded rigid block type
foundations subjected to sinusoidally varying unb'i.lanced forces has been
discussed on the basis of the elastic half-space approach and linear elastic
weightless spring approach. Both solutions are extensions of the solutions
for surface footings that have been obtained by extending the method
developed by Baranov (1967), who assumed that the soil underlying a
footing is an elastic half-space and that the soil on the sides is an in-
dependent elastic layer composed of a series of infinitesimally thin in-
dependent elastic layers. The compatibility condition between the elastic
half-space and the overlying elastic layers is thus satisfied only at the body
and far from it. The approach yields reasonable results in the closed form
and is very versatile and easily applied to any mode of vibration (Novak and
Beredugo, 1971, 1972; Novak and Sachs, 1973).
The response of embedded foundations has been solved with the elastic
half-space approach by using expressions for the overall spring stiffness and
overall damping ratios and accounting for the properties of soil on the base
and sides of the footing and the embedment ratio hI r 0 • In these solutions,
the stiffness and damping are frequency dependent. Constant values of these
parameters have also been given for which the predicted response compares
well with exact solutions in the range of practical interest.
For the linear elastic weightless spring approach, expressions have been
derived for computing the equivalent soil constants c"'' c", c.,. and c.,, in
terms of (1) the values of C", C", C<P, and c. for a surface footing and (2)
the factors accounting for the geometry of the foundation, and depth of
embedment, and parameters of the soil on the sides of the foundation. By
using the values of equivalent soil constants, it was found that an embedded
footing can be analyzed in the same manner as a surface footing.
As in the case of surface footing, the effect of soil mass participating in
the vibrations has not been considered. The effect of damping has been
neglected in the case of the linear elastic weightless spring approach.
The elastic half-space solutions were developed for circular footings. The
concept of equivalent circular area may be used for footings of other shapes,
as already discussed in Chapter 6 (Section 6.5). Gazetas and Dobry (1985)
489
OVERVIEW
and Dobry and Gazetas ( 1985) have suggested a different approach for
calculating soil stiffness and damping factors for embedded foundatmns of
arbitrary shape for the case of vertical vibrations. The soil is assumed to be a
homogeneous and elastic half-space. The arbitrary base area Ab of the
footing is circumscribed with a rectangle of length L and wtdth B as shown
in Fig. 11.16. A dimensionless shape paramete: A.ILB i~ used to acco~nt
for the effect of shape of the area on its dampmg and sl!ffness properl!es.
The static stiffness is first calculated for a surface footing case and then
modified for embedment effects. The static stiffness of the embedded
footing is further modified to calculate the values of dynamic stiffness. The
method appears promising but more work is needed before it can be
adopted by a practicing engineer. . .
The response of a footing embedded in a homogeneous u~tform sot! can
be computed easily using the same elastic constants and denstty for the sml
on the sides as for the soil at the base.
The effect of embedment in a stratum can be easily accounted for in the
elastic half-space approach by using the proper displacement functions [ 1,2 to
compute the stiffness and the dampJ9g parameters c1 ,2 for the base layer.
For the case of a stratum, increasing the embedment reduces dependence on
the stratum's thickness considerably.
The effect of the nonlinear behavior of a soil has not been accounted for.
Experimental data on the response of embedded foundations shows goo.d
qualitative agreement with theoretical predictions based on the elasttc
half-space approach (Novak and Beredugo, 1971). It has been observed that
backfilling considerably reduces the effects of embedn:'ent and that non-
linearity causes an inevitable scatter when the expenmental results are
compared with linear spring theory.
Rigorous analytical solutions of embedded footings have been attempted
by Lysmer and Kuhlemeyer (1969), Kaldijan (1971), Krizek et a!. (1972),
Wass and Lysmer (1972), and Urlich and Kuhlemeyer (1973). Johnson eta!.
(1975) proposed static stiffness coefficients for rigid circular, and stnp
Figure 11.16. Rectangle circumscribing an arbitrary area.

490 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BLOCK FOUNDATIONS
footings embedded into an elastic stratum as well as for layered strata.
These coefficients can be used for dynamic analysis involving soil-structure
interaction.
Anandakrishnan and Krishnaswamy (1973b) accounted for the effects of
embedment on vertical vibrations by considering an increase in effective
damping force occasioned by a skin friction mobilized between the vertical
surface of the footing and the surrounding soil as a Coulomb damper and
obtained solutions for natural frequency.
It will be realized that embedment. significantly affects the dynamic
response of foundations. The effect of embedment essentially depends upon
the nature of the soil on the sides of the footing and the method of
placement and compaction. The nature of the contact between the soil on
the sides and the foundation is an important consideration (Novak, 1985).
While considering the effects of embedment on the dynamic response of a
foundation, the behavior of the soil on the sides under continuous vibration
over long periods must be given due consideration along with effects·
brought about by the specific operating conditions of the machine. Although
embedment reduces the amplitude of vibration of the foundation, more
energy is transmitted into the surrounding soil as more surface area of the
vibrating footing is in contact with the soil. The energy transmitted in this
manner may have adverse effects on adjoining structures. No studies are
available on the effects of vibrations of embedded foundations on sur-
rounding structures. The designer must carefully consider the favorable
effect of embedment on response amplitudes to any unfavorable effect on
surrounding structures.
The compliance impedance function approach may be used to analyze the
vibration response of a footing. The method is promising as it better defines
the contribution of the soil on the vibratory response of the footing.
However the process is too complicated for design of an ordinary machine
foundation and has generally been used only in soil structure interaction
studies under seismic loads.
REFERENCES
Anandakrishnan, M., and Krishnaswamy, N. R. (1973a). Response of embedded footings to
vertical vibrations. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 99, 863-883.
Anandakrishna, M., and Krishnaswamy, N. R. (1973b). Vibrations of embedded footings.
Proc. Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., Moscow, Book Nd: 4.3, SpeC. Sess. Soil Dyn.
428-429.
Baranov, V. A. (1967). On the calculation of excited vibrations of an embedded foundation (in
Russian). Vopr. Dyn. Prochn. 14, 195-209.
Barkan, D. D. (1962). "Dynamics of Bases and Foundations." McGraw-Hill, New York.
Beredugo, Y. 0. (1971). Vibrations of embedded symmetric footings, Ph.D. Thesis, University
of Western Ontario, London, Canada.
491
REFERENCES
Beredugo, Y. 0. (1976). Modal analysis of coupled motion of horizontally excited embedded
footings. Int. J. Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn. 4, Q · 3-410.
Beredugo, Y. 0., and Novak, M. (1972). Coupled horizontal and rocking vibration of
embedded footings. Can. Geotech. J. 9(4), 477-497.
Bycroft, G. N. (1956). Forced vibrations of a rigid circular plate on a semi-infinite elastic space
and an elastic stratum. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 248, 327-368.
Chae, Y. S. (1971). Dynamic behaviour of embedded foundation-soil systems. Highw. Res.
Rec. 323, 49-59.
Christian, J. T., and Carrier, W. D. (1978). Janbu, Bjerrum, and Kjaernsli's chart reinter-
preted. Can. Geotech. J. 15, 123-128.
Dasgupta, s. P., and Rao, K. N. S. V. (1978). Dynamics of rectangular footings by finite
elements. ], Geotech. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 104 (GT5), 621-637.
Day, S. M. (1977). Finite-element analysis of seismic scattering problems. Ph.D. Thesis
University of California, San Diego.
Dobry, R., and Gazetas, G. (1985). Dynamic stiffness and damping of foundations by simple
methods. Proc. Symp. Vib. Probl. Geotech. Eng., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., Annu. Conv.,
Detroit, 75-107.
Dominguez, J., and Roesset, J. M. (1978). "Dynamic Stiffness of Rectangular ~oundations,"
Res. Rep. R78-20. Department of Civil Engineering 1 Massachusetts Instttute of Tech-
nology, Cambridge, Massachusetts. ~:..-':t·
Fry, z. B. (1973). "Development and Eva1~ation of Soil Bearing Capacity, Foundation of
Structures," Waterways Exp. Sta. Tech. Rep. No. 3-632.
Gazetas, G. (1983). Analysis of machine foundation vibrations. State of the art. Soil Dyn.
Earthquake Eng. 2(1), 2-42.
Gazetas, G., and Dobry, R. (1985). Vertical response of arbitrarily shaped embedded
foundations. J. Geotech. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 111 (GT6) 750-771.
Gupta, B. N. (1972). Effect of ~foundation embedment on the dynamic behaviour of the
foundation-soil system. Geotechnique 22 (1), 129-137.
Hadjian, A. A., Luco, J. E., and Tsai, N.C. (1974). Soil-structure interaction: Continuum or
finite element? Nucl. Eng. Design 31, 151-617.
Jakob, M., and Rosset, J. M. (1977). "Dynamic Stiffness of Foundations: 2-D vs. 3-D
Solutions," Res. Rep. R77-36. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts.
Johnson, G. R., Christiano, P., and Epstein, H. I. (1975). Stiffness coefficients for embedded
footings. J. Geotech. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 101 (GT-8), 789-800.
Kaldijan, M. J. (1971). Torsional stiffness of embedded footings. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div.,
Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 97 (SM-7), 967-980.
,._ Kausel, E., and Ushijima, R. (1979). "Vertical and Torsional Stiffness of Cylindrical
Footings," Res. Rep. R76-6. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts.
Krizek, R. J., Gupta, D. ~.,and Parmelee, R. A. (1972). Coupled sliding and rocking
vibrations of embedded foundations. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 98
(SM-12), 1347-1358.
Luco, Y. E., and Westman, R. A. (1971). Dynamic response of circular footings. J. Eng. Mech.
Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 97 (EM-5), 1381-1395.
Lysmer, J. (1980). Foundation vibrations with soil damping. Civ. Eng. Nucl. Power, Am. Soc.
Civ. Eng. 2 (Pap. 10-4), 1-18.
Lysmer, J., and Kuhlemeyer, R. L. (1969). Finite dynamic model for infinite media. J. Eng.
Mech. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 95 (EM-4), 859-877.
492

12
DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BlOCK FOUNDATIONS

Novak, M. (1970). Prediction of footing vibrations. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ.
Eng. 96 (SM-3), 836-861.
Novak, M. (1985). Experiments with shallow and deep foundations. Proc. Symp. Vib. Probl.
Geotech. Eng. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., Annu. Conv., 1-26.
Novak, M., and Beredugo, Y. 0. (1971). Effect of embedment on footing vibration. Proc.
Can. Conf. Earthquake Eng., 1st, Vancouver, 111-125.
Novak, M., and Beredugo, Y. 0. (1972). Vertical vibration of embedded footings. J. Soil
Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 98 (SM-12), 1291-1310.
Machine Foundations on
Novak, M., and Sachs, K. (1973). Torsional and coupled vibrations of embedded footings. Int.
J. Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn. 2(1), 11-33. Piles
Prakash, S., and Puri, V. K. (1971). Dynamic response of embedded foundation in vertical and
torsional modes (unpublished report). University of Roorkee, Roorkee, India.
Prakash, S., and Puri, V. K. (1972). Coupled rocking and sliding vibrations of embedded
foundations (unpublished report). University of Roorkee, Roorkee, India.
Reissner, E., and Sagoci, H. F. (1944). F~rced torsional oscillations of an elastic half space. J.
Appl. Phys. 10, 652-662.
Stokoe, K. H., II (1972). Dynamic response of embedded foundations. Ph.D. thesis presented
to the University of Michigan, at Ann Arbor, Michigan. , '
I In foundations subjected to vibrations and shocks the use of piles may be
Stokoe, K. H., II, and Richart, F. E., Jr. (1974). Dynamic response of embedded machine
foundation. J. Geotech. Eng. Div., Am, Soc. Civ. Eng. 100 (GT-4), 427-447.
necessary ,jn the following situ!lti}lns:
. • ~)>:"''"',

Sung, T. Y. (1953). Vibrations in semi-infinite solids due to periodic surface loadings.

Symposium on dynamic testing of soils. ASTM Spec. Tech. Pub/. STP 156, 35-64.
Tassoulas, J. L. (1981). "Elements for the Numerical Analysis of Wave Motion in Layered
Media," Res. Rep. R81-2. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts.
Urlich, C. M., and Kuhlemeyer, R. L. {1973). Coupled rocking and lateral vibrations of
embedded footings. Can. Geotech. J. 10(2) 145-160.
Vijayvergiya, R. C. (1981). Response of embedded foundations. Ph.D. Thesis, University of
Roorkee, Roorkee, India.
Wass, G. (1972). Analysis method for footing vibrations through layered media. Ph.D. Thesis,
University of California, Berkeley.
Wass, G., and Lysmer, J. (1972). Vibrations of footings embedded in layered media. Proc.
Symp. Appl. Finite Elem. Methods Geotech. Eng. Vicksburg, MS, 581-604.
1. The pressure due to the combined action of static and dynamic loads
exceeds the permissible values of soil pressure and an adequate shallow
foundation is not feasible.
2. Soil and water table conditions are such that machine vibrations may
result in a significant loss of soil strength and/or buildup of large defor-
mations, thus necessitating that the foundation loads (static and dynamic) be
transferred to deeper soil layers.
3. It is necessary to increase the natural frequency of the foundation and
decrease its amplitude of vibration, or,
4. Seismic considerations and the value or sensitivity of machines neces-
sitate a foundation resting on piles.

If a pile foundation is used because the total pressure on the soil is larger
than its bearing capacity, then conventional methods of design are applied.
In such cases the practical procedure of pile-foundation design consists in
the determination of the number of piles needed from the known value of
the bearing capacity l?f a single pile. This value may be determined by load
tests or any other "!.'tandard procedure. The length of the piles is best
selected on the basis of test pile driving.
When a pile foundatioJ1_ !§.. l!.~eded to increase the natural frequency of
vibraiTOnanddecr-ease-ihe amplitudeoFVlfirailoii 'orifie fouiiclation, lheii
tlie'practical-Cfesignproceoiirerequfreni'pecrarconslcferallons,'wh1i::'h-will be
examined in this chapter. The natural frequency and amplitude of a soil-pile
system for any mode of vibration can be calculated from a knowledge of its
stiffness and damping properties by using the theory of vibrations (Chapter
493
 ANAlYSIS OF PilES UNDER VERTICAl VIBRATIONS 495
494 MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ON PilES

IJ ~~~c!~s::ethods of d':~ermining !~e~~(l~l:P.!.~e~~~fi?:'.'~~~r@.~i~g2~ow

12.1 ANALYSIS OF PILES UNDER VERTICAL VIBRATIONS

If a cyclic pile test under vertical loads is performed as on a plate (Section Two cases of pile supports will be considered: end bearing piles and friction
4.6), then the elastic settlement of the pile is proportional to the magnitude piles.
of the load. Thus, denoting by P the load acting on the pile, and by z 1 the
elastic settlement, we obtain 12.1.1 End-Bearing Piles
If piles are driven in soft soil and are embedded in smmd .mck-rn;..a hard
p = c,z, (12.1)
stratum at their ti we rna c · ~r that this stratum is rigid. Deformations
o p1 e tlp do not occur when dynamic loads are transferred to the pile. The
in which C, is a coefficient of proportionality, i.e., the coefficient of elastic pile can then be considered as an elastic rod fixed at its tip (base) and free at
resistance of the pile and represents the load required to induce a unit elastic the top, with a mass (m) resting on the top (Fig. 12.1).
settlement of the pile. If no mass rests on top, we then have a solid resonant column with the
The coefficient of elastic resistance of the pile depends on soil properties, fixed-free condition, which has a resonant frequency wn given by
pile characteristics (e.g., length), and the length of time the pile has been in
the soil. For example, the elastic resistance of a pile may have different (2n -1)1rV,
wn = 21 (3.22)
values during driving and some time later.
The natural frequency of the pile in vertical vibration is then given by
forn=1, -.:;-;;,.;.:,:·
''7rv,
(12.2) wn=-zr

V, 1 [E
in which m is the mass of the pile and static load on pile. fn = 4/ = 4/ \j p (12.3a)
Based upon the above simple concepts, Barkan (1962) has described test
data and typical values of elastic constants of piles and pile groups under or
both vertical and horizontal vibrations. This analysis does not consider
(12.3b)
damping in the system and the dynamics of the problem, for which practical
solutions are described in the following sections.
Prakash (1981) has discussed the solutions of piles under earthquake-type in which
loading, in which case the deflections are relatively large. In machine E =Young's modulus of elasticity of the pile,
foundation problems, the permissible amplitudes of vibration are quite p(=ylg) =mass density of the pile material, and
small. Hence the values of the elastic constants ( C,) determined from a
lateral deflection of the order of 3.4 mm in Barkan's test are not applicable I= length of the pile
to machine foundation problems. V, =compression wave velocity in pile (V,).
Soli-pile constants to be used in machine foundation problems are to be
determined essentially at very small deflections, of the order of a few
thousandths of an inch. The soil property, e.g., shear modulus, must

I
essentially be at a low strain value, e.g., around 10~ although there is no
'Oirecr relaUonshtp available between strains in the soil along a pile, par-
ticularly in horizontal vibrations and soil deformations around the pile. Puri
et a!. (1977) have suggested a procedure for determination of amplitude-
dependent soil-pile stiffness from dynamic and cyclic pile-load tests.
Solutions for vertical vibrations will be presented first, and will be
Figure 12.1. Fixed-free rod pile with mass attaciled to free end.
followed by cases of horizontal and torsional vibrations.
 496
MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ON PILES ANALYSIS OF PILES UNDER VERTICAL VIBRATIONS 497

For the case in which the weight of the pile is negligible as compared to 1.6
the supported mass, the natural frequency may be obtained as follows: We
apply the end condition U = 0, at x = 0, to Eq. (3.15) and find that c = 0 1.4
and tbe displacement amplitude becomes
1.2
• W X
U= Dsm-"- (3.23) 1.0
V,
From Eq. (3.13), we get ~I"
•""
N
0.8

0.6
au au
ax = ax (A cos wnt + B sin wnt) (12.4) 0.4

and 0.2

a2 u ,
- , = -wnU(A cos wnt + B sin w t)
at n (12.5)
IV
For longitudinal excitation of the rod in Fig. 12.1, displacement is zero at Figure 12.2. Graphical solution for Eq. (12.8). (After Richart, Hall, Woods, "Vibrations of Soils
the fixed end. At the free end, a force equal to the inertia force of the and FoundationS," © 1970, page no236.·,,R~rinted by permission of Prenctice-Hall, Englewood
concentrated mass is exerted on the rod. Therefore, Cliffs, NJ.) ".

F=-AE=-m-
au a'u resonant frequencies of unloaded steel, concrete, and wooden piles, as
Jx at' (12.6)
computed from Eq. (12.8). As the axial load is increased on a pile of given
Substituting Eqs. (12.4) and (12.5) into Eq. (12.6), we get length, the resonant frequency is reduced and can be determined from Fig.
12.3.
au
AE- =mw 2 U
ax n (12.7)
12.1.2 Friction Pile~
Finally, substituting U from Eq. (3.23) into Eq. (12.7), we get
Analysis of floating piles under vertical vibrations is quite different from that
(J)n wn[ 2 W I
for end-bearing piles in which no load transfer from the shaft to the soil
AE V cos y = w nm sin -"- occurs. There are at least four methods that could be employed to examine
r r ~ the response of floating piles to vertical loads.
which can be reduced to
1. A three-dimensional analysis (e.g., using the finite element method) in
which the propagation of waves through the pile and soil is consi-
(12.8) dered.
2. Solution of the,.pne-dimensional wave equation, for example, in a
in which Al-y is the weight of the rod and W is the weight of added mass. manner similar to the solution of this equation to analyze the pile-
The solution of Eq. (12.8) is plotted in Fig. 12.2, from which the natural driving process.
frequency in vertical vibrations, fn may be determined. 3. An analysis of the response of a lumped-mass-spring-dashpot system
In order to illustrate the influence of axial loading on the resonant representing the pile and soil.
frequency of end-bearing piles on rock, Richart (1962) prepared a diagram 4. An approximate elastic analysis in which the problem is simplified to
th~t.l.~!?}uded t~':_Par!!';'."t.~:~.!. .ii."i.~J2.!!£L!'i!J<J~J1Kth,_,m£!.J>jle material one of plane strain and it is assumed that the elastic waves propagate
(f:\g. 12."3). Tile three curves in the upper part of the diagram illustrate the only horizontally.
 498
MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ON PILES ANALYSIS OF PILES UNDER VERTICAL VIBRATIONS 499

Material E(lb/in. 2) '}'{lb/ft 3)

Barkan (1962) and Maxwell et al. (1969). They have used a single-degree-
Steel 29.4 X 1Q6 480
Concrete 3.0 X 1Q6 of-freedom model, while Madhav and Rao (1971} used a two-degree-of-
150
Wood 1.2 X 106 40 freedom model. The single-degree-of-freedom model is simple and useful
for design purposes and will be described in detail in this chapter.
The fourth approach has been used by Novak (1974, 1977) and Sheta and
Novak (1982) to obtain an approximate solution for pile response to vertical
loading. It has been assumed that the soil is composed of a set of
independent infinitesimally-thin horizontal layers of infinite extent. This
model could be thought of as a generalized Winkler material that possesses
inertia and dissipates energy. By applying small harmonic excitations,
Novak derived solutions for the equivalent stiffness and damping constants
of the pile-soil system. This model is regarded as superior to that of
Maxwell et al. (1969) and will also be described in detail.

60 80 100 150
Pile length, {ft)
F.ig.ure 12.3. Resonant frequency of vertical oscillation for a point~bearing pile resting on a
ngrd stratum and carrying a static load W. (After Richart, 1962.)
A three-dimension~! analysis is too expensive and involved for practical
des1gn. Such an analys1s may be necessary for pile-supported turbogenerator
foun~atwns In nucl~ar p~wer plants, where toleranc.e limits are very critical.
Soluti~ns of one-dtmensmnal wave equations, involving extension of the
numencal method of analysis used for pile driving, does not appear to have
been used for s~lving problems of pile response under vertical vibrations
(Poulos and Dav1s, 1980}. The use of a lumped'mass spring-dashpot system
h~s been succes~fully apphed to shallow foundations (Richart et al., 1970;
R1chart and Wh1tman, 1967) and has been applied to pile foundations by
Lumped-Mass-Spring-Oashpot Model
The single-degree-of-freedom lumped-parameter model for the actual soil
pile system Fig. 12.4a is shown in Fig. 12.4b. The foundation response can
be determined" from elementary theory of mechanical vibrations (Chapter 2)
if appropriate values of the mass,' damping, and spnng constant can be
selected for the system. It should be noted that the model m Fig. 12.4b is
the same as in Fig. 2.9a for which complete solutions have been obtained
(Se~tion-:h-5~ring £On§tant, C, has been used in this model in place of
•. /·'kin Chapter 2. This solution differs from Barkan's solution described earlier
!' in this chapter in only one respect. Maxwell et al. (1969) considered
···~ ~ 'i damping in the system.
V In their model, M_illnyel!~L~LL!2.69) have considered the equivalent
mass m to be only above the giund i.e., mass of the oscillator, pile cap,
and the static load. They report tests on steel H-piles and concrete-filled
pipe piles, in silty sand and cl overlying sand, to determine the rela-
200 tionship between frequency and isplacement. Fro!l1_.1h,.~te_st_Ees\llt_s, v.~l\les
of equiv~lentstiffness. C,and da ping ratio g were back-calculated.
. At nisoiiince, the dynamiC vafue-oCc;was '£ound to-be 'greater than the
statiC sllffness for comparable p1le~ But:J.!._was suggested that use of tlie 1111\..
~!at[s.§Jiffw:ss w_guld be a<!~.guat<UQ!:_Practiciirpilfp'ases.-::_------
The computed damping ratio g for single piles was of the order of 0.00 to
0.24 (Fig. 12.5}. However, it was alsofOl,l_ll.<l.!h,at _i,J()Jh,!il_e__~ti_f,f_I'~~~~-':~JEe
damping ratio varied wi'tb frequency, so that the use of a single frequency-
iiidepe'lld~-;;(··~ai;:;-;;-· o£ · · eac11·· c;rfflese i>aranieters\voura·n:orTeaa"!oan
ac;cufl'.t1f.:.I1X<>:9i£JJ2ii:§f'Pile'response·a£-atnre<iuenc1es:·rn.-j)';.:tic.ila;:·&e
resp.onse at resonance'was-nofi'e1ia&ly'predicted from data on stiffness and
damping generated at non-resonant frequencies. The variation of stiffness,
expressed in terms of a stiffness ratio c,tc,. (in which c,. is the stiffness at
resonant frequency), and damping ratio g with frequency ratio flf., is shown
in Fig. 12.5 for pipe pile D-1 (Maxwell et al., 1969}.
 >UU
MACHINE fOUNDATIONS ON PILES
ANALYSIS Of PILES UNDER VERTICAL VIBRATIONS 501,
Static load
'r:=--:-::-r Oscillator 2.0
0
Pile cap
lA a
eiJ 1.s
6
"'• "'fu"~ ~§ 111 <!l.
I. 0

0. 5
~ t 89i
n8~o o" o
Pile
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3. 0

Q = Qo sin 2'11" ft

0.25

m
0.20
I·•<t 0~/ 0
'-r----r-'-r z = Aq, sin(2'1!'ft - q,)
~

0
~
0.15
oll_ 0
8

~
c
·c_
E 0.1 0
/l
00%~t
a
BpB ~ "'"'"'
B a a
0.0 5 a

-- A
~
/

c = damping coefficient 0
0 0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3. 0
Co = effective spring constant
m = equivalent mass of system Legend Static f
Frequency ratio, fn
Q = periodic exciting force load (tons)
Qo = magnitude of exciting force 50
t = time Figure 12.4. Analytical model for floating 0

pile. (a) Pile and soil system. (b) Mechanical 0 100

z = periodic displacement 0 200
Aq, = amplitude of displacement model. (After Maxwell et al., .1969.
q, = phase angle between Qo and z Copyright ASTM. Reprinted with per- _,._ figure 12.5. Stiffness and damp!ng rati~ vs. fre~u~ncy ratio, pipe pile D-1. (After Maxwell et
f = frequency (Hz) ' al., 1969. Copyr_ight ASTM. Reprmted w1th perm1ss1on.)
mission.)

Maxwell et al. also carried out tests to determine the effeot_()fJ>il~c;~ It should be noted ;~at because the stiffness of a pile foundation is
thJ;.J:-e~<>-OL.pile fou.o>l~s. One test was performed with the cap in' generally greater than that of a corresponding surface foundatiOn, the
contact with the soil and another test after excavating beneath the cap. natural frequency of the foundation-soil system Will be mcreased by the use
Typical test results showed that the dynamic displacements of the pile cap of piles. '1 b
were approximately 0.0385 in and 0.145 in respectively with a constant force The values of soil-pile-constant C, (spring constant) must necessan y e
excitation of 4T for pile in contact with the soil and pile cap not in contact determined from a pile test aliiJtlie value of the daommg ratio {; must be
with the soil. estimated based on 3!!.eerin_gj~~~l_lt. There may be several questtons
'ontlle3ccuracy-of"-·these values and hence on the predicted response.
 502
MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ON PILES ANALYSIS OF PILES UNDER VERTICAL VIBRATIONS 503
Novak's Model
vibration w(z, t) such that (Novak, 1977)
;r~~ main assumptions in development of this model (Novak, 1974, 1977)
w(z, t) = w(z)e'"" (12.9)

I. The pile is vertical, elastic, and of circular cross section in which w(z) is the complex amplitude at depth z, w is circular frequency,
2. It is a floating pile. ' and t is time.
The motion ~UJ!~e- is re~sted _l?y~ distributed ..".~~~~o_~_'.'.~.s.<J.i!.~.SP,~~
3. It is perfectly connected to the soil. along the pile length and ~y ~..C:QQCentrated react'?.ll.. actmg at the tlp.
Theretore-;-illed!Stributed reaction appears in the equation-of mo11o!i'IOi'an
. The soil abo~e . the tip is modeled as an elastic layer composed of element dz, and the concentrated reaction represents the boundary condi-
mfimtesi.mally thm mdependent layers. This assumption is equivalent to the tions at the tip.
assu'_llptlon of plane strain and leads to very reasonable results for end- The distributed soil reaction acting on pile element dz at depth z can be
beanng piles and embedded footings. It actually means that the elastic written as (Baranov, 1967).
waves propagate only honzontally. The soil reaction acting on the tip is
assumed to b~ eq_ual to that of an elastic half-space. It is further assumed p(z, t) dz = G(Swl + iSw 2 )w(z, t) dz (12.10)
that t?e motmn IS small and the excitation is harmonic. The latter as-
sumptiOn yields the Impedance functions and the equivalent stiffness and in which G is the shear modulus of the soil surrounding the pile and
dampmg constants of the soil-pile system that can be used in structural
analysis. •·· J,(aoV6(a 0 ) + Y,(a 0 )Y0 (a 0 )
Sw = 21Tao ·2 2 (11.6)
In Fig. 12.6, an elastic vertical pile is shown undergoing complex vertical ' J 0 (a 0 ) + Y 0 (a 0 )

(11.7)

in which J0 (a 0 ), ! 1 (a 0 ) are Bessel functions of the first kind of order zero and
one, respectively, and Y 0 (a 0 ), Y1 (a 0 ) are Bessel functions of tbe second kind
of order zero and one, respectively. Parameters Sw 1 (=S 1 ) and Sw 2 (=S2 ) are
functions of the dimensionless frequency, a0 = r 0 w/V,, in which r 0 is the pile
radius, V, is VGTP; and pis tbe mass density of soil. Equation (12.10) is
similar to Eq. (11.5). Parameters S are shown in Fig. 12.7 as function of
dimensionless frequency a0 •
With the soil reactions defined by Eq. (12.10), the differential equation
of damped axial vibration of the pile is
2
a'w(z, t) aw(z, t) E A a w(z, t)
m1 +c -
at' at P az'
+ G(Sw, + iSw,)w(z, t) = 0 (12.11)
~~-
in which m,' is the mass of the pile per unit length; cis the coefficient of pile
internal damping, E is Young's modulus of the pile, and A is the area of the
pile cross section.~-----..----~---------.... .._---"------------
With harmonic motion described by Eq. (12.9), Eq. (12.11) reduces to an
ordinary differential equation

Figure 12.6. Vertical pile and notations.

w(z)[ -m, w2 + icw + G(Sw +iS )]- E A
t w2 P
dzw~z)
dz
= 0 (12.12)
 504
MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ON PILES ANALYSIS OF PILES UNDER VERTICAL VIBRATIONS 505

the mass density of the pile. Let

(12.18)

and

2 2 b
r=V(a + b ), tan.p=- (12.19)
a
Then the frequency parameter A is more conveniently written as

(12.20)

in which
Dimensionless frequency ao
Figure 12.7. Parameters 5"' 1 , 5"' 2 , C,. 11 and C.., 2 • (After Novak, 1977). A1 =vrcos
<P
2, A2 = vrsin ~ (12.21)

The integration constants B and I:Hl;'te given by the boundary conditions.

The solution to this equation is At the head of the pile, harmonic motion with a unit amplitude is
assumed w(O, t) = 1e'w' since this form of excitation defines the stiffness and
z z
w(z) = B cos A y + C sin A y (12.13) damping of the soil-pile system at the pile head. Therefore, the first
boundary condition is
in which B, C are integration constants, I is pile length, and the complex
frequency parameter w(O) = 1 (12.22)

At the tip, the motion of the pile generates a concentrated reaction, R(t)
(12.14) of the soil lying below the level of the tip. This can be described ap-
proximately as the reaction of an elastic half-space to the vertical motion of
Note a rigid circular disk. This reaction can be written as R(t) = Re'w', the amp-
litude of which is

(12.15) (12.23)

which, for a pile of circular cross section, is .• in which

G, =shear modulus of the soil below the tip

A = _!_ ~ Pr G _ _!_ V,
o r . p E ao - r V ao (12.16) w(l) = the comple'l1 amplitude of the tip
0 p 0 c

and
cw1' cwz =;=,.dimensionless parameters depending on the dimensionless fre-
quency, a 0 = r0 w/Vb, and Poisson's ratio v.

The shear wave velocity of the soil below the tip V, =yG,Ip,, and G,,
(12.17) and p, are the shear modulus and mass density of the soil respectively.~
G,--> oo, Jl!~ mo,!i2!!_Qf the tip vanishes corresponding to an end-bearing
in which Vc = YEP/pP is the longitudinal wave velocity in the pile, and Pp is -pile. ----- --··-~-··--··---·~-·-y;·---·~·---·---
With G,--> G, the pile becomes floating. Tne uJstributed soil reaction,
~
 506 MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ON PILES ANALYSIS OF PILES UNDER VERTICAL VIBRATIONS 507

p(z, t), contributes to the total stiffness and damping of the system in both
cases, but to different degrees. (12.31)
Using Bycroft's (1956) solution, the polynomial expressions for the
parameters Cw are for v = 0.25: With the integration constants established, tbe amplitude of the pile
displacement becomes
Cw 1 = 5.37 + 0.364a 0 - 1.41a~ (12.24a)
w(z) = 1 cos A}+ C(A) sin A}= w1 + iw 2 (12.32)
(12.24b)
and for v = 0.5 in which C(A) is obtained from Eq. (12.29). The unit appearing in Eqs.
(12.28), (12.29), and (12.32) is actually the amplitude of the head and thus
has a dimension of length.
Cw, = 8.00 + 2.18a 0 - 12.63a~ + 20. 73ai - 16.47a:+ 4.458a~
The real amplitude of motion is
(12.25a)
w(z) =vw; + w; (12.33)
Cw, = 7.414a 0 - 2.98a~ + 4.324ai -1.782a: (12.25b)
and the phase angle is
The parameters Cw described by Eqs. (12.24) and (12.25) have been w,
plotted against dimensionless frequency in Fig. 12.7. cf>(z) = a tan - (12.34)
,~-'~'. wt
The axial force in the pile, positive for tension, is
Novak (1977) has plotted variations of the amplitude and phase with relative
( ) _-EPA-d-=EA-
Nz dw(z)
z
A ( . z
l -BsmA-+CcosA-
l l .
z) (12.26)
depth z/1, slenderness ratio llr 0 , wave velocity ratio V,IV,, and frequency
p ratio a 0 for v = 0.5 and density ratio p/pP = 0.7, which is typical of reinfor-
ced concrete piles, and shear wave velocity ratios Vb!V, = 1 and 10,000 that
The end force of the pile must be equal to the soil reaction given by Eq. characterizes floating and end-bearing piles, respectively. Internal dam~
(12.23). Thus, the boundary condition for the tip, z = l, is o1 the pile has been neglected. These plots indicate that the tip condition is
particularly important in weak soils (small V,IV,) in which even a very long
A
EPA[ (-BsinA+ CcosA)= -Ghr0 (Cw, +iCw,)(BcosA+ CsinA). pile can vibrate almost as a rigid body. Conversely, in stiff soils it is o_n.Jythe
upper part of a pile that undergoes significant displacement. The increase in
(12.27) the phase shift, where VISible, is indicative of increased damping.
Equations (12.22) and (12.23) yield To design ri!":~Ul'IJ<Jr!e_d_f<:)otin_g_s_ll_nd.~t~ll~!l!E~s,_t_ll~-~tiffness and damp-
ing constants of the soil-pile-system at the level of the pile.Kead are'iieedea.
B= 1 After theseli.ave beeiicteierillinecl;-ffie-reiii.ainfrig proceoure aoesnofarner
(12.28)
from that applied to piles resting on rock, i.e., end-bearing piles.
The second integration constant from Eq. (12.27) is The complex stiffness is equal to. the force that produces a unit dynamic
displacement of the pile head at a cer!am frequency. Thus, It IS kw ''l'V{U}
K'AsinA-(C +iC )cosA inwhich N(z) EPA dw(z) !dz. Differentiating Eq. (12.32) and substituting
C(A)- w, wz
z = 0, we get the coll)plex stiffness
- K'A cos A+ (Cw, + iCw,) sin A x 1 (12.29)

in which Cw, and Cw, are calculated for frequency a 0 = r 0 w/Vb and (12.35)

K' =EPA in which

Gblr 0 (12.30)
Fw(A) = - AC(A) = Fw(A), + iFw(A), (12.36)
1
For a circular pile, K becomes
and C(A) is given by Eq. (12.29).
 508
MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ON PILES
ANALYSIS OF PILES UNDER VERTICAL VIBRATIONS 509
Subscript 1 denotes the real part of Fw, which defines the real stiffness,
and subscnpt 2 md~cates the imaginary (out of phase) part of F , which p<lf_al_ll_.,t_"~[>;',!_c_hli_~C>lc_l_e~~~ill:!l..2.~.1?~1'.i!!g, __~I~. JJ!sml'9..19J. Jel".. typi~~l__::,~es .
relates to the dampmg. w This figure shows that both for slender as well as rigid piles, theAYilmnic
The stiffness constant k~ of one pile can be rewritten as stiffness of the soil-pile system varies_()l!!Y~!!!9.ds:rately_w.ith..fr!'.qlll'!!.CY. The
1lampu1g-cfecreases-rapldlfwltli-liicreasing frequency but levels off in the
range of moderate frequencies. Since stiffness and damping do not depend
(12.37) much on frequency, it is possible to pre~ent .l'."f.".!!!_etes!'.lw, an_(l::r,;:Joraes1gn
in which ®~®J!l'~-''~!!Ellii2~JiS!~!lL2:ULequeiJ.cy.
Figure 12.9 shows the variation of the stiffness and damping parameters
of the pile with the shear wave velocity ratio, Vb!V,, of the soil below and
above the pile tip. It is seen from this figure that with increasing stiffness of
(12.38)
~i!_ below the tip,the8t!ffi1e880TillepileTiicrea8eSI)titffi.eoarn:piiig ~
decreases. With increasi~oerrgt.ll.,__ t]l~~t~f_f_~"~-':'f end.:_lJear~_eiles de-
creases while the stiffness of floati)Jg_pile_s_in.9Iffises. Damping increases with
The constant of equivalent viscous damping of one pile is E AF (A) 1 pile length in most cases. --
(lw ), which can be written as P w 2
In Fig 12 1Q,_s_tiffness and damping h":~~-be~l<J_tted•."g.alll".t..s.l~-~~~ess (
_t:a to (!.i.!:o2J9J.!12..ati_!!g.Ji!~.~..!!l!L.~.'l9.:.bearirrg.!lil~~.
(12.39) Response curves were computed by Novak (1977) for the case in which
the total mass of the rigid footing.,was 96, 162 kg, the shear wave velocity of
in which soil was 220 fps (67 m/sec), v = 0.25, pb = p. Two shear wave velocity ratios
were considered for comparison, Vb/V, = 1.5 and 10,000 to represent piles
that are either floating (case a) or end bearing (case 6). Tl1efe were eight
(12.40) '>Vooden piles with r 0 = 5tr!(T30 mm) and length either 25r 0 or 50r0 ,
EP = 1.728 X 10 8 psf (8.28 X 10 6 kN /m 2 ), p/p6 = 2.0, and (V,IVcJ = 0.02.
The excitation was quadratic.
The stiffness and damping of piles vary with frequency Such variations
are shown in Fig. 12.8, in which parameter fw , characterizlng stiffness and V8 1Vc "" 0.03
··-------·-··--·······--·~-·-+··--·>~--~-L---------..----·~-----·-------·----~
p: = 0.7
v = 0.5
a0 = 0.3
p
Pp = 0.7 v = 0.5

Vs!Vc = 0.03
N
--
..!!
J
E
O.D3 '
\

.............
f.~w1_ -------::-100
40 -- ---- 100
.....
---.::.. «:---
''
100
40
•
E
• O.Q2
ro
0.
- -- -- ------
40 --
109
---------40
O.Ql
- - VbfVs = 1
- - - VbiV8 = 5

0
0
Dimensionless frequency a0 = r w/V8
0
Figure 12.8. Variations of stiffness and damping parameters of pile with frequency (After Shear wave velocity ratio Vb /V8
Novak, 1977.) · Figure 12.9. Variations of stiffness and damping parameters of pile with ratio of shear wave
velocities of soil below and above the tip. (After Novak, 1977 .)
 510
MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ON PILES ANALYSIS OF PILES UNDER VERTICAL VIBRATIONS 511

\ - Floating pile For design of both e_nd bearing and friction piles, Novak (1974, 1977) ,!!'!.<:!,
Rroposed_.."~.E~~!()E••~~il ..':'!_ofi~~~~~ ...~.~!'-:. !~."~--~~~!}•..4.".P.th... N. o.vak and. ,.!2-
1
\ - - - End-bearing pile ~
\ Sllaii1ouby (1983 1 extended t ese so utions ror soil shear modulus decreas-
\ ilfg·upward'accofl:lilfgl6 a qiiifi:lriitic"parilool'aofor end
bearing oas'weii as
\ tfoating piles (Figs. 12.12 and 12. 13, respectively). - - - - -
\ The geometric damping ratio for a single pile supporting a structure can
\ fw2 (damping}
\ be computed from the damping constant by using Eq. ( 12.41 ).

--- (12.41)

.'W
/'.·
\.'\./
\

Pile slenderness lfro

Fig~re 12,1 0. Comparison of floating piles with end-bearing

ao- 0.3, V.IV., = 0.03). (After Novak, 1977.) piles (pi Pp = 0.7, v = 0.5,

.,The calculated response curves for both floating as well as point b .

pies are shown m Fig. 12.11. Parameters f. . eanng
cy dependent. ' wl,w2 were considered as frequen-
It can be seen that the relaxation of the f d
!~6u:~~~ ~~l~s~mplitude. This reduction can ~~ ::r~c;:a~:~7c~~a:t~~~~a:~
Ia)
a b 0.10

•I i'
•
0 !4 b

~e
~
•
0.08

\ v
fw1 -
fw2 -

Epile/Gsoil
stiff~ess
damping
T

= 250

..•-
0.06

'~Wi ,-
~~ 500
-a;Sl
u Eu
0
~'3
~ 0.04 250 f--
·~
~li ~~
0 4 0~
E
<( •
0
··~
500
)00'" F Gsoil

0.02 1000

.;;,
2
~2500(
-+- 10,000
0
0 20 40 60 ' 80 100
• Frequency w (rad/sec) (b) Pile slenderness .!:..
F•gure 12.11. Vertical response of foot' 'o
piles (/I ro =50, 25, v = 0.5 p/ = 2 ;~i, s~pported by: (a) floating piles; (b) point bearing Figure 12.12. ~~a~!! .. ~~':!!e!!!gJ.~£tors for fi~ed-tiJ?~~~~!l~~!!L~~~!!l!.li)KPJ!es. (a) homoge-
, PP ' .• c- 0.02. (After Novak, 1977.)
neous soil (b) parabolic soil profile. (After Novak and EI-Sharnouby, 1983.)
 0.1 2
,
0.10 !
I
!'-\'. . . . Epile/Gsoil
- - 1 - - - ·t- --==
~ 250
0.10

,"'- ~',·,
llfw -- stiff~ess
2 damping
i
! llfw2' i' ...... __ ---1 ---
0.08
.Lfw2 Epile/Gpile ~ 250
0.08
- .....·...
I',
-- --- ---
- -
~-~ I 1- 500 0.06
I I ~
......
!!?~
~ g 0 . 06
Q) c:
I
.......
250
I
I
'"---. - ---
t--_ '" 500
Ea>
"'""
~o
I
I

I r\rW!
t---- --- 1000 0.04
~
~/
2501-- --
1--- 1000

fw1-- --
"' E
a.

---
0 Gsoil 2500
500

I
-"
0.04
f' lf:'- r - - - t-2500-
-- 500
hiooo I> Gsoil

v--- -- --
1000 0.0 2 _l.0.Q9{2_
-~
1/ / . / I-- 10,000
~
0.02 2500 -- 2500 10,000
·~ v 0
40 60 80 100

(a)
0
0
~
20
"""- 40 60
10,000

80 100 (b)
0 20
Pile slenderness lro

Figure 12.13. Stiffness and damping parameters for vertical response of floating piles. (a) figure 12.13. (Continued). (b) parabolic soil profile. (After Novak and EI-Sharnouby, 1983.)
homogeneous soil.

512 513
514 MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ON PILES ANALYSIS OF PILES UNDER VERTICAL VIBRATIONS 515

where m, is the mass of the cap plus machinery or the portion of the If the pile cap is not in COf!l_a<;t with the ground, Eqs. (12.42)an~(12_,43)
structure vibrating in phase with the cap.
c~~)is~ii!.llrectlyto'compute~theresponse o(ihe pile group_in _verlical f' '\
a
v'ibrations. Emb;;d,;ient of theplie--cap:-however, has favorable effect on :
Pile Croups the--response of the group: the stiffness and damping values of the pile group '
are increased.
Most piles are installed in groups. The group stiffness as well as damping ~ In practice it--should be assumed that embedment is effective only in the
will not, in general, be the simple sum of the stillness anC~<tanrpmg-·of development of side friction between ilfu ca and oil and only whende~~e
Individual piles. Novak and Gngg (1976) have suggested that the deilect!on nu ar ac fill is used. The sm beneath the base of the cap iSlikely to be
factors proposed by Poulos for groups of statically loaded piles may also be
applied to a pile group undergoing steady-state vibrations. Hence Novak
oTJ,-;;-;;;-guaHt£:!inCi _ci~£~y_t!J"-~-'Y-~Y.fr_()l1l__tl1".£~· Similarly conesivellaCklill )o'
and Grigg propose that stiffness of pile group k! may be obtained from Eq.
(12.42):
mayshrink away from the sides and become ineffective.
Novak and Beredugo (1972) have develo e
stiffness and geometric damping cons
essions for calculating
s for the embedded fpotings (pile
1
cap in this case, see Section 11.1.1 . These are added to the stiffness and
damping values obtained in Eqs. (12.42) and (12.43). The sum of the two
(12.42) stiffness and damping values give the total system stiffness and damping for 1
a group of piles. _
In Eq. (11.17a), neglecting the effect of the base (i.e., C1 = 0) and using
. get ___::.:__-~~,;.-
kwf for k , , we .,.,.:"'~------'--;,_-'--'-
___
in which n is the number of piles and a, is the axial displacement interaction
factor for a typical reference pile in the group relative to itself and to all
other piles in the group, assuming the reference pile and all other piles carry
· RG,hS,J 1
_ (12.44a)
Also, from Eq. (11.18b), neglecting the effect of base, C2 = 0, we get (c,) or
the same load. The factor a" can be evaluated from Fig. 12.14. cf
The equivalent geometric damping ratio for the group is given by w ---------
c~ = hr0 S2VG:P, ~ (12.44b)
In these equations, h is the depth of embedment o the cap, r 9 is the
(12.43) equivalent radius of the cap, G, and P,.!':_r_e the shear o and total mass
d~sity of the backfill, and S(imd S2 are con n s 'II: 1 able 11 v,
is the Pmsson 's ratw of the backfill sml. "'-["
f ~---------r

Total (k!) = k! + K~ / (12.45a)

1.0

0.8
~
,~.....
,~
t [ Total(c')
= c' + c1
---~--~::.w---' .
/ (12.45b)

l
Novak (1974) computed the vertical response of a machine and its
foundations (Fig. 12.15). The foundation consisted of a rectangular block of
"'
.9
u
0.6 concrete (16ft long X 10ft wide X 8ft high). It was considered both (1)
.1'
0
I embedded 2ft into the soil and (2) having no embedment. It was supported
0
~ 0.4
I on 35-ft-long end beaqpg timber piles in a medium stiff clay. The machine

"E• I weight was 10 t. The reiponse of the pile foundation with varying frequency
0.2
--- ' ~
0
I is shown in Fig. 12.16. It can be seen from this figure that in pile-supported
structures,

1. Damping is very low compared to soil supported footings and

oo 2 3 4 5
2. The use of piling increases the resonant frequency and, in this case,
(-
·-." 0.2 0.1 increased displacement amplitude at resonance. Damping can be
-. S/2r \
0 ·2r0 1S
increased by embedding the pile cap. )Yiaterial diimpmg was not
Figure 12.14. a., as a flulction of pile length and spacing. (After Poulos, 1968.)
'CO'nstdered m thts particular _analysis.
 ANALYSIS OF PILES UNDER TRANSLATION AND ROCKING 517

It must, however, be noted that if the operating frequency of the machine

is less than 60 rad/sec the amplitude of vertical vibrations is reduced by use
of piles. If the operating frequency is less than 40 rad/sec, the amplitudes
are reduced to less than one-half of their corresponding values without piles.
Sheta and Novak (1982) presented an approximate theory for vertical
vibrations of pile groups. This theory accounts for: (1) dynamic interaction
of piles in a group; (2) weakening of soil around the pile because of high
strain; (3) soil layering; and ( 4) arbitrary tip conditions. Effect of pile

I
interaction on damping and stiffness of pile groups, distribution of internal

T.
8'
forces in the piles, and response of pile-supported foundations to harmonic
excitation have been studied.
It was found that dynamic group effects differ considerably from static
gtou effects and ella! dynamtc stiffness and dam ing of pile groups are'
[

much _pore requen~en ent t an t ose of single piles.

1 It hada'!Sci been concludeCilliat the dynalil'iCbehav'!Orf a pile group is
very complel\._ It is therefore recommended that the approximate methoa
outlined above be used in practice until better methods become available.

12.2 ANALYSIS OF PILES UNDER TRANSLATION AND ROCKING

The response of a single pile subjected to a time-dependent horizontal force

Figure 12.15. Dimensions of pile foundations. and moment has been studied by several methods. Some oTtliesememoas
are:

a
1. The pile is considered to be an equivalent cantilever and the effect of
soil is neglected. The resonant frequency and the amplitude of vibration of
the cantilever may then be determined by methods applicable to beams.
However, no information can be obtained on the moments, stresses, and
displacements along the length of the pile 'for dynamic loads.
2. The pile is considered as a beam on an elastic foundation subjected to
time-dependent loading and analyzed by finite differences. Moments, stres-
ses, and displacements along the length of the pile may be analyzed, and
impact loads as well as harmonic loads can be considered (Tucker, 1964).
3. Prakash (1981) presented an analysis for determination of natural
frequencies and mod~ shapes of fully embedded piles under lateral free
vibrations. This solut~n can be extended for determination of pile response
to horizontal excitations.
4. The approximate analytical
derives stiffness and dam in
Frequency w {rad/sec)
Figure 12.16. Vertical response of (a) pile foundation, (b) embedded pile foundation (c)
shallow foundation, and (d) embedded shallow foundation (b = m!pr: =5.81). (After N;vak
1974.} z , Novak (1974) had derived lateral stiffness and damping constants for
516
 ~~
.-\ ,~tl] ~~ s·
~
n
a - ~
~.8 ;?_
::o
~~
::o
~~
..,
~~
..,
~~
g, '"" c.
nSe;gg::l ~ ~ · ::(~"'·0 =~
"-!-,

n
II II ~r--tf'
o""" ,.,""'!"'

0
II
~ 3
II ;;·
::£
o.
~
;!!,~ a· a·
::s
0> 0>
a.
fa ~
0

~ N'
3
2. Z
n· ~
~
g:,.

a· .....
§;:c~Oo ~"" ~ a(t)<~o(r
'\:I U'l :::::r ;:::;.; 2 ::l ::t
3 S" § §
~ =
0..
c 3 'i:l
3~ ~ ~ ~ ~
§ ~ 8" " 00. g
I'Jl (JQ (D -· r.ll ..... Vl
.-+ -· '""I -· Vl c.. U'l 0" J-j ........

,g "' 5' '" g Iii " o;· § g :1.

&1' 3 ~ ~ ~ ~ 8.. ~ 0o' c.. ~ g.
'"0
8::I s· S'
s· - =~ < so 0
Vl ..... ("') (D
(D
(D i-1'> =:~:
0
r..ll
(JQ
......
Vl
("')
-·
::;
(D
Cl'l
• ;:::;.;
- c m---- Cll

~"'"~~(§"O.c
(D

-E.(!)
...... -·
S
=
Vl

a~
,....
0"
~
0
o
C1tl r.ll
n
a
~;;.,c.n'-':;
1:' 'I" N 0
c;l
c:r
(i"
<o=~
tl)

(D g. r.ll ;·
.....
"
..
§
..... s-
r.ll

c
ga
Vl
=
~
U'l
Vl~os
::r'>-t
§ 8. g s- 0
,_. <<...::'!g,o r .... S § c.;J;""or=.o..
!!,. ..... "t::
_, ::I ,.... 0.. :::r' ;::: g ;: :
~ ...~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 8"
N
c =.: '"0
~U'l
0 :..'\.... ('"') r':l ,...... " (l)
o.U'l(ll=.:
- o o '$- -e. -e...... -e...... ........ ........ se; _._ ......
=: II II II II II II 'E. 9 - g 8
I~~ I~~
'<
s·
'"c:::l
0g
g;
0 I
.., "1::1t"l
~ "1::J"""-!
""l
oN
't:l\"'j

't:l
o,~
It"l"1::1
1oo.,;
"":)
0
"'! "1::1V·j 0 . , It"l
~
tv 't:l
'<J
....., 0
""t
'-'
I~t"l
"C

't:l
,g
(")
Q
0Q.
;:::
,_.
675 "~ "tJ
lJ.)"
..._
t:j 0
U'l

~ a~~o..-
:.: 1 o, 't;j o,

~ ~ ~ ~ ~
(!) --. -- ,-.... --- -.. -
Pt.
-· -e. -$. N ....., N
;-;., ??' e:.. ::Ia---..-!<
-· V)
=::
Q
::l
N
'-" .._,
'-' '-' '--" .._.-
=~(lln:::r'
(tlCilQ.'-"::::::;,:
>
(/j 0..00.. ~
~tr1 ..... ..§(l) ;
= ..0 :::r' -"t::
Q. t:: (tl (tl ,....
z
ITI

,_J~r5C..?'
'"""] ..... '""I 0"'"
~ooo
...... 0 """"
co,....~
c:
z
(tlVl=~(tl
-.. -
1--' 1--' .....
::t.
0 (") 0
>
!VN§::Io :::!
1--' ~ Vl ~ .~ 0
::::::":0'....,._:;0.: z
;!; y·o o. CD VI
<:1--'::::l~ft
>-t 0
z
~!'-JQ..;:::~
_-.,
!--' - -
!--' - -
!--' - -
!--' - -
!--' - -
!--' Vl-- -· -
!'J !'J N N !'J !'J "'1::1
Ul
!--'
Ul
0
+>--
\0
+>--
00
+>--
-.J
+>--
0\
=
(tl!--'
Ut o.= ~J-->
;!!_-, i=
1T1
'-' '-' '-' '-' '-' '-' 'VJ ' - ' (tl ' '-' Vl

~-~-~~~~-~.~~--~~·

TABLE 12.1. Stiffness and Damping Parameters of Horizontal Response for Piles with I I r0 > 25 for Homogeneous Soil Profile
and I I r, > 30 for Parabolic Soil Profile
Stiffness Parameters Damping Parameters
£pile/
v ff>~~: f~~~~ ~~I f.,. !~</>~, fx;" !~2
(1)
Gsoil
(2) (3} (4Y
!"'"
(5}. (6) (7) (&Y (9")' (10)
(a) Homogeneous Soil Profile
0.25 10,000 0.2135 -0.0217 0.0042 0.0021 0.1577 -0.0333 0.0107 0.0054
2.500 .~
0.2998 -0.0429 0.0119 0.0061 0.2152 -0.0646 0.0297 0.0154
. 1,000 0.3741 -0.0668 0.0236 0.0123 0.2598 -0.0985 0.0579"'; 0.0306
500 0.4411 -0.0929 0.0395 0.0210 0.2953 -0.1337 0.0953 0.0514
250 0.5186 -0.1281 0.0659 0.0358 0.3299 -0.1786 0.1556 0.0864
0.40 10.000 0.2207 -0.0232 0.0047 0.0024 • •;": 0.1634 -0.0358 0.0119 0.0060
2,500 0.3097 -0.0459 0.0132 0.0068 , ., 0.2224 -0.0692 0.0329 0.0171
1,000 0.3860 -0.0714 0.02q1 0.0136 0.2677 -0.1052 0.0641 0.033,9
500 0.4547 -0.0991 0.0436 0.0231 0.3034 -0.1425 0.1054 0.0510
250 0.5336 -0.1365 0.0726 0.0394 0.3377 -0.1896 0.1717 0.0957
(b) Parabolic Soil Profile
0.25 10.000 0.1800 -0.0144 0.0019 0.0008 0.1450 c-0.0252 0.0060 0.0028
2,500 0.2452 -0.0267 0.0047 0.0020 0.2025 -0.0484 0.0159 0.0076
1.000 0.3000 -0.0400 0.0086 0.0037 0.2499 -0.0737 ,o.03o3: 0.0147
500 0.3489 -0.0543 0.0136 0.0059 0.2910 -0.1008 •'1l0491 0.0241
250 0.4049 -0.0734 0.0215 0.0094 0.3361 -0.1370 0.0793 0.0398
0.40 10,000 0.1857 -0.0153 0.0020 0.0009 0.1508 -0.0271 0.0067 0.0031
2,500 0.2529 -0.0284 0.0051 0.0022 0.2101 -0.0519 0.0177 0.0084
1,000 0.3094 -0.0426 0.0094 0.0041 0.2589 ~0.0790 0.0336 0.0163
500 0.3596 -0.0577 0.0149 0.0065 . 0.3009 -0.1079 0.0544 0.0269
250 0.4170 -0.0780 0.0236 0.0103 0.3468 -0.1461 0.0880 0.0443
:::
<.c Source: Novak and El-Sharnouby (1983). /~ 1 and /~ 2 are parameters for pinned end.
 520
MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ON PILES
ANALYSIS OF PILES UNDER TORSION 521
It will be seen from the comparison of corresponding numbers for two
o.s r-=:o-r-.......c::---r--r-
1 --r-~~~--r-
1
profiles that the parabolic soil profile shows much lower ·stiffness and 111
damping than the homogeneous soil. Also in Table 12.1, coefficients have
been included for both pin-headed and fixed-translating headed piles. For ~r-...,
0.71----+--f""";;::-
Values of
2
8
'o-
pin-headed pile, 1;1 gives translation stiffness and fx 1 = 0 (i.e., k~ = O): The
1
stiffness and damping of pin-headed piles are much less than for fixed
(translating) head piles.
It was found, as in case of vertical vibrations, that the frequency 0.6~-"""-::::-::::=1~---t--t--14
"'N~
dependence of stiffness and damping can generally be ignored, and that the r-·. . .
important parameters are (1) the ratio of shear wave velocities in the pile ' . . . . . t'.....
and soil and (2) the slenderness ratio l/r0 • •
0.51---_!_-1--+:-=,~,.............
-=+........_--55-t-----J
As for vertical vibrations, the stiffness and damping for a group of piles is
'~ ---~--
given by ----·-----·-···--·--··----··-····........................ .
(f~~d o. 4 f--~-t- Direction of load ' ~-- r--
head) O:::::;IJ · r- _
(12.52)
'0
_-'-'---+-"'~-+--t---j
0.31--.==_c+

c;= -~~--
n

2: c; _.!_ ""'
25
---- :-....._ I - ......... ......_
(12.53) 0 2~ 2ra;;_-.;~'0·
·o.5 -.,..-.:...2,1--_
(faL)
-~ ~-1--
· · v =
I
- - KR = 10 (stiff pile)
.
(EJ)pile

in which aL is the displacement factor for lateral translation and may be

I---+
O.lt- ("
c I
_!'--+--t
,I .
KR =
(EI.,;, l
4

adopted from Fig. 12.17. ""':'- ...... Kn = 10-5 (flexible.

,\ L 1 1pile)! . (l ~ pile length)
Again, as for vertical vibrations, the spring constant and damping due to
pile cap translation are, respectively, ~-L_~1~0~~20~~30~~40~~5~0~6~0~7~0~8:,0~90
Departure angle (3 (degrees)
Figure 12.17. Graphical solution for at. (After Poulos, 1971.)
(12.54)
and
For rocking vibrations, the effect of pile groups_ and the pile cap is
(12.55) accounted as for sliding and equations have been wntten m SectiOn 12.4.
in which The use of these equations has been illustrated in example 12.5.
The soils very near the surface control the load deformation propertie~ of
h = depth of embedment the pile. Also, a gap may often form behind a later~ loaded_ll!.!!'c
• r 0 = equivalent radius of the cap Therefore, the value of Q.QL.!',JQ be used f~teral Pil~lli!.IYJ.!~j~ __sm~!ler
G, and P, = the shear modulus and total mass density of the backfill tfiiiiitllevafueusecl !9£verJiS!/c!J?lL~l'.!'_~lr~.\~ This is true for static as well as
dynamic analysis. . .
Sx 1 and Sx, =constants in Table 11.2. The effect of stat.i,E load was investigated and was found to be stgmficant
--~---------~
only with extremely il!competent soils. Most stiffness and dampmg parame-
Equation (12.54) is obtained by letting<£, =O)n Eq. (11.27), and Eq. ters were reduced by the presence of axial load, but the dampmg caused by
(12.55) IS obtamed by lettmg Cx 2 = 0 m Eq. \I128). The total stiffness and rotation was increased.
total damping values are sums of Eqs. (12.52) and (12.54) and Eqs. (12.53)
and (12.55), respectively.
12.3 ANALYSIS OF PILES UNDER TORSION
Total (kg) = kg+ ktX
X X (12.54a)
Total (cg) = cgX + cf Novak and Howell (1977) proposed an analysis for torsional vibrations of a
X X (12.54b) pile. The mai~, ·assumptions in this analysis are
 522
MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ON PILES
ANALYSIS OF PILES UNDER TORSION 523
1. The pile is vertical, elastic, end bearing, circular in cross section, and
IS perfectly connected to the soil.
in wbich the stiffness parameter
2. The soil is modeled by a linear viscoelastic medium with frequency-
mdeptndent matenal dampmg of the hysteretic type. (12.58)
3. The local soil reaction of this medium acting per unit length of the pile
IS assu~ed to be equal to that denved for plane strain conditions, i.e., and the damping parameter
for umform rotatwn of an infinitely long pile. 4
4. The excitation is harmonic and the motion is small. s,,,,(ao) = J' + y' (12.59)
l l

in which
In Fig. 12.18, the vertical pile undergoes a complex harmonic rotation
Eq. (12.56), about its vertical axis. ' a0 = r0 w/V8
r 0 = the pile radius
.P(z, t) = ,P(z)e'w' (12.56) V, = -,fG!p = the shear wave velocity
in which G = the shear modulus of soil
p = the soil density
.P(z, t) =complex amplitude of the pile rotation at deptb z .T0 (a 0 ), 11(!z0 ) =Bessel functions of the first kind of order zero and one,
w =circular frequency of excitation ' · respectively
t =time Y 0 (a 0 ), Y1 (a 0 ) =Bessel functions of the second kind of order zero and
one, respectively .

. The motion of th~ pile is resisted by a torsional soil reaction acting on
p1le element dz, wh1ch can be wntten as (Novak and Sachs, 1973, Novak
and Howell, 1977)
Gr~(S1, 1 + iS.,)(</l(z, t)) dz
For noncircular piles, r 0 should be the equivalent radius of the possible
slip circle around the pile and not its cross-sectional area.
The material damping can be included by the addition of an out of phase
component to the soil shear modulus, which then becomes
(12.57)
G*=G 1 (1+itan8) (12.60)

---..M in which
..........
tan a= G 2 /G 1
' GP G 2 =real and imaginary parts, respectively, of the complex soil shear
modulus G*
8 = loss angle

Thus, G* replaces O.,jn Eq. (12.57) and enters Eqs. (12.58) and (12.59)
G,p through a0 • ··
Op
The effect of hysteretic material damping is to significantly increase the
damping parameter, s,, by an almost constant amount, equal to 47T tan 8 at
low frequencies, and to reduce the stiffness parameters.,, slightly at higher
frequencies. Experiments have shown that material damping may be neglec-
ted for other vibration modes but is essential for torsion (Novak and
'l'}?;;~~~??,!?;;~~~m/ Figure 12.18. Vertical pile and notation for torsion.
Howell, 1977).
They have fur!her shown that the displacement of slender piles quickly
 524 ANALYSIS OF PILES UNDER TORSION 525
MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ON PILES

diminishes with increasing depth and varies, to a lesser degree, with Timber
frequency. The effect of the tip conditions is less significant for the more
_ fT, 2 (tan 0 = 0)
slender pile, in which case the tip is fixed by the soil. The degree of this
fixity, of course, depends on pile slenderness and the stiffness of soil (wave III II II - --- fr, 2 {tan 5 ~ 0.1)
- fTl {tan 5 ~ 0.1)
velocity ratio, V;JVP). I I ,
1ll \ .--
Stiffness and damping constants
given by
k:,
and c~ for fixed tip single piles are
11\' f, ......_ _ _ _ - - - Vs
l
\ T,I - > 20-= 0.1
II 'o - Vp
1 GPJ I I \
k o/ =-t
r (12.61) I \
I
T,t
0
I h,l ' . . . . . __ _...-
and 0.3 II I
.;:
(12.62) ~
E

in which
•
ro
Q.

0.2

GP = shear modulus of pile material

J = polar moment of inertia of the pile cross section
r 0 = effective radius of one pile and
V, = shear wave velocity of soil
;T,l} =parameters which have been plotted for dimensionless input
r.z parameters in Fig. 12.19 for timber piles and Fig. 12.20 for
reinforced concrete piles. In these figures, VP is shear wave
velocity of pile \}GP/pP
~1-~-L-L~o~.5~_j~L-~l~.o~_j~--~l.~
It can be seen from these figures that damping parameter fr 2 varies with a0 = wr0 JPiG
frequency much more than the stiffness parameter fr. 1 • ' Figure 12.19. Torsional stiffness and damping parameters of timber piles (p/pP = 2). (After
The marked effect of material damping may be seen from the broken Novak and Howell, 1977.)
lines in Figs. 12.19 and 12.20, ·which were calculated with tan o = 0.1, a
representative value for soils. The effect of the material damping of the soil
is to increase significantly the total torsional damping of the pile, particularly point, these moments are composed ?f (1)a part that twists the pile and (2)
at low frequencies, and to make the equivalent viscous damping constant a part that induces translation ?f 1t. ~~t~ reference to F1g. 12.15, the
somewhat less frequency dependent than it is with tan o = 0 (for higher torsional stiffness constant of a p!le-footmg 1s
frequencies). The effect of material damping on the torsional stiffness of the ~~"
pile is negligible. (12.63)

and the torsional damping constant is

Stiffness and Damping Constants of Footing
The torsional stiffness and damping constants of a pile have been obtained c• = L; [c~ + c;(x; + y~)] (12.64)
in the above analysis as moments that correspond to unit rotational dis-
placement and velocity respectively, For a pile located beyond the reference The summation is extended over all the piles. In Eqs. (12.63) and (12.64),
 MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ON PilES ANAlYSIS OF PilES UNDER TORSION 527

Concrete
- - fT,2 (tan 0 = OJ
- - - fT.2 (tan 0 = 0.1)
- - fr,l {tan 0 = 0.1)
torsion diminishes quickly with the ratio Rlr0 • Therefore, the torsion of the
piles will be more important for footings supported by a small number of
0.12 large diameter piles than for footings supported by a large number of
slender piles spread far from the reference point. The maximum effect of
0.11 twisting will occur if the foundation is a caisson, which may behave as one
pile.
0.10 In case the position of the centroid of the footing coincides with the
elastic center of the piles in plan, the excitation moment, M, cos wt,
0.09 produces pure torsional response of the footing, A.,, given by

0.08
(12.65)
0.07
N

0.06 "',•
2
E
in which M m• is the mass moment of inertia of the footing about the vertical
axis .
A reasonably accurate estimate of the frequency-independent constant k~
ro
0.05 "-
may be obtained by using parameters from Figs. 12.19 and 12.20.
In order tiJ express the respoifs~ in a dimensionless form, because of an
excitation of an unbalanced mass me, whose eccentricity is em and whose
horizontal distance from the footing centroid is r", the dimensionless
amplitude of rotation is a.,= A1>Mm,/(m,emre).
Novak and Howell (1977) have computed the torsional response of the
footing, shown in Fig. 12.15.
Total weight of the machine is 20,000 lb (9 072 kg). Torsional excitation is
caused by rotation of an unbalanced mass m,. Values of m,, em and r" are
0.02 not required, as the results have been given in dimensionless form.
0 0 The footing is of reinforced concrete with a density of 150 pcf (2 650 kg/
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
m 3 ) with plan dimensions as shown in Fig. 12.15.
ao = wr0 ../PiG Depth of the footing is 8ft (2.4 m) with no soil contact.
Figure 12.20. Torsional stiffness and damping parameters of reinforced concrete piles The equivalent radius for torsion, determined from the polar moment of
(p/pP =0.7). (After Novak and Howell, 1977.)
inertia, r0 = 7.41 ft (2.26 m).
Soil data are as follows:

k~ .and c!, are stiffness and damping constants, respectively, of a pile Bulk density= 100 pcf (1 767 kg/m 3 )
subjected to torswn and are given in Eqs. (12.61) and (12.62), and and c e 1
Shear wave velocity V, = 220 fps (67 m/sec)
are. stiffness and damping constants, respectively, of a pile subje~ted t~
Poisson's ratio v = 0,25.
~onzontal transla!!on and are given by Eqs. (12.46) and (12.47), respec- ....
tively.
The backfill has mass density p, = 0.75p and shear modulus G, = O.SG.
It is obvious from Eqs. (12.63) and (12.64) that the contribution of the
translation components increases with the square of the distance from the
~eference point, ~ = Yx; y;.
+ Therefore, in a practical situation, the
Timber Piles
Importance of torswn of each pile depends on the ratio of the torsional
stiffness to the stiffness caused by horizontal translation. Computations were done with eight timber piles with the following speci-
Novak and Howell (1977) have shown that the contribution of the pile fications:
528
MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ON PILES DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR A PILE-SUPPORTED MACHINE FOUNDATION 529
3
Density= 48 pcf (848 kg/m );
The response of footing with concrete piles is also plotted in Fig. 12.21
Pile length= 35ft (10.7 m);
with and without twisting of piles.
Effective radius r 0 = 5 in (127 mm); For a group of piles, the effects of pile twisting and soil material damping
Young's modulus EP = 172.8 x 10 6 psf (8.28 x 10' kN/m') are not very pronounced. With single piles, such as piers and caissons, these
Shear modulus GP =54 x 10 6 psf (2.59 x 10 6 kN/m 2 ) and effects are essential (Novak and Howell, 1977}.
P1le shear wave velocity VP = 6,020 fps (1835 m/sec); The analysis presented above may require some corrections based on
experiment because of
With these parameters, total mass m = 9 813 kg sec'lm (6 584 slugs) and
total mass moment of inertia about the vertical axis M = 24 433 k 2· 1. The dependence of the transmission of the torque into the soil by
(176 893slugft }, the response curves of the foo;ingm'on timber ~~:e~s
2
shear.
pl~tted m F1g. 12.21. This figure also shows the effect of ignoring pi! ' 2. The possibility of slippage.
tw1stmg. e
3. The variation of shear modulus of soil with depth, and
4. Other factors.
Concrete Piles

Computations were done with six reinforced concrete piles with the fol-
lowing specifications: 12.4 DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR A PILE-SUPPORTED MACHINE
FOUNDATION
Density= 150 pcf (2650 kgim')
Pile length= 35ft (10. 7 m) Based on the analysis presentect"fJi? the previous sections, a design procedure
Effective radius r0 = 12 in (305 mm) of piles under (1) vertical vibrations, (2} horizontal vibrations, and (3)
Young's modulus EP = 552 x 106 psf (26.4 x 10' kN/m') torsion will now be described.
The following soil and pile properties and dimensions must be deter-
Shear modulus GP = 200 x 10 6 psf (9.58 x 106 kN/m') anil
mined.
~lie she".r wave velocity VP = 6 525ft/sec (1 989 m/sec); four of the piles
ave R-6.5ft (1.98m); the remaining four have R=2.5ft (0.76m).
Soil Properties
Shear modulus G, and G6 , Poisson's ratio v, and unit weight y, for the
Ignoring twisting 8 Timber piles 10 in diameter
Including twisting soil both around the pile and below its tip respectively.

Pile Properties and Geometry

Pile length, cross section, and spacing in tbe group, unit weight y of pile and
pile cap and Young's modulus of pile material.
Based upon the above information, (1) v; and VP shear wave velocity in
soil and pile respectively and (2} V, compression wave velocity in pile are
computed.
Vertical Vibrations .,.
6 Concrete piles 24 in diameter
Including twisting 1. Compute spring stiffness and damping of single pile
Ignoring twisting

(12.37}
Frequency (Hz) diameter

Figure 12.21. Torsional response of piled fooling. (After Novak and Howell, 1977.) (12.39)
530 MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ON PILES DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR A PILE-SUPPORTED MACHINE FOUNDATION 531

The values of functions fw 1 and fwz are obtained from Figs. 12.12 and 12.13
for fixed tip and floating piles, respectively.
(12.53)
2. Compute spring stiffness and damping of pile group k! (piles only)
n

k' =
2: k~
_1_ _.
w n (12.42) in which "Lis taken from Fig. 12.17.
3. Compute stiffness and damping due to pile cap.
2: "·
1
and f- - (12.54)
kx- G,hSx 1

(12.43)
Values of sx1 and Sxz are listed in Table 11.2.
4. Total stiffness and total damping are then sum of stiffness and
damping values computed in steps 2 and 3, respectively.
in which "• is taken from Fig. 12.14.
'
3. Determine spring stiffness and damping due to side friction e w
Rocking
(12.44a) 1. Compute stiffness and damping of a single pile in both rocking as well
(12.44b) as for coupled motion.

Values of S1 and S2 are listed in Table 11.1. 1 EPIP

k"' = -r- fq,1 (12.48)
4. Compute total spring stiffness and total damping 0

Total (kg)=
w k'w + ew (12.45a) 1 EPIP
c•= V t., (12.49)
Total (c')
w
= c'w + cfw (12.45b) '
Translation 1 EPIP (12.50)
kx<f> = -,- fx<f>1
ro
1. Compute stiffness and damping of a single pile
1 EPIP . (12.51)
1 EPIP ex<!>= r v fx<J>2
kx = -,- fx1 (12.46) 0 '
ro
EPIP
Values off parameters are listed in Table 12.1.
1
ex= r2V fxz (12.47) 2. Compute stiffness and damping of pile group (piles only )(Novak,
0 ' 1974) ..,,
in which fx 1 and fxz are given in Table 12.1.
2. Compute stiffness and damping of the pile group (of piles only) g = ..S [k
1
+ kw
1 1 2
x'r + k x 1
Zc - 2Zcxc[>
k ] (12.66)
k <P.L.Jct>
1
n
2: k1 (12.67)
kg= x
_1_ _
x n (12.52)

in which
 532 MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ON PILES

x, =horizontal distance of pile from C. G. (Fig. 12.15) spacing of piles ~--------:sm--------~

Z, = height of the center of gravity of the pile cap above its base (Fig.

I
12.15) and A;\ 8• Co Do Eo
!
o=hlr 0 11m
F• Go H• I• J.

6m
3. Compute stiffness and damping of pile cap. Letting

l
K• L• M• No 0•

h
c<ll = cx1 = c.2,;, ex,,= 0 and o=- and zc=L, P• a• R• S• T•
i I 'o
in Eqs. (11.72) and (11.75) \\le get ~
1.5 m
figure 12.22a. Arrangement of 5 x 4 pile group for Example 12.5.1.

(12.68)

(12.69)

4. Total stiffness and total damping are then the sum of stiffness and t4m
damping values computed in steps 2 and 3, respectively. 1m I m
j_
12.5 EXAMPLES
T
4m
D D Im
+ I m

EXAMPLE 12.5.1
1_1_ D D
T .
Structural column vertical
static load gQO tons
Estimate the (a) stiffness and (b) damping in vertical vibrations of' a 20 pile 0.6

~1.3
• group in sand (Fig. 12.22a). The concrete piles are 45 em in diameter and
20m long. The following soil and pile properties may be assumed 2m
_i_
Soil Properties

G, = 4000 t/m 2 throughout 50cmx50cm

concrete piles
Also Medium
30m
stiff lean
clay
y,, = 1.59 g/ cm 3

Pile
3
l'p =2.4g/cm

EP = 2.5 X 10 6 t/m 2 Figure 12.22b. Pile foundation Example 12.5.2.

533
 534
MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ON PILES EXAMPLES 535
Solution
Pile Ref Pile A B c F G H
A 1.0 0.60 0.45 0.60 0.53 0.43
1=20m
B 0.60 1.0 0.60 0.53 0.60 0.53
.~ 'o = 22.5 em c 0.45 0.60 1.0 0.43 0.53 0.60
S= 1.50m D 0.38 0.45 0.60 0.38 0.43 0.53
E 0.33 0.38 0.45 0.30 0.38 0.43
'Yp = 2.4 gi cm 3
EP = 2.5 X 106 t/m 2 F 0.60 0.53 0.43 1.0 0.60 0.45
1r G 0.53 0.60 0.53 0.60 1.0 0.60
A= 4 (0.45 m) 2 = 0.159 m 2 H 0.43 0.53 0.60 0.45 0.60 1.0
1r I 0.38 0.43 0.53 0.38 0.45 0.60
4
IP = (0.45) = 2.013 X 10- 3 m 4 1 0.30 0.38 0.43 0.33 0.38 0.45
64
6
V = {!!_ = /2.5 X 10 _ K 0.45 0.43 0.40 0.60 0.53 0.43
' Y-p Y2 .4 i 9 .81 -3196.7misec L 0.43 0.45 0.43 0.53 0.60 0.53
M 0.40 0.43 0.45 0.43 0.53 0.60
v, = yI 1. 40oo _ N 0.33 0.40 0.43 0.38 0.43 0.53
59 9 81 -157 misec
i .
0 0.29 0.33 0.40 0.30 0.38 0.43
EP 2.5 X 10 6
G, = 4000 = 625 p 0.38 0.38 0.33 0.45 0.43 0.40
I 20
Q 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.43 0.45 0.43
ro = 0.225 = 88.89 = 90 R 0.33 0.38 0.38 0.40 0.43 0.45
s 0.30 0.33 0.38 0.33 0.40 0.43
Vertical Vibrations T 0.29 0.30 0.33 0.29 0.33 0.40
8.58 9.31 9.53 9.14 10.01 10.25
fw, = 0.037 (Assume floating piles) (Fig. 12.13) 2: "·
fw 2 = 0.068 (Fig. 12.13) Average value offa, = 9.47.

e =EPA 6
- (2.5 X 10 t/m 2 )(0.159 m 2 )
From Table 11.1
w r0 fw,- (0.225 m) (0.037) = 65,384.4 tim i/
6
c' = EPA f. = (2.5 X 10 tim 2 )(0.159 m 2 ) x 0.068 ·
s, =2.7, s, = 6.7
w V, w, 157 = 172.16 t secim k~ = G,hS, = 4000(2)(2. 7) = 21,600 tim
f- -
cw-hrOS2 vc:;;,
GsPs
~~~: 1is~~d ~ \~!h:o~~~:goia~: i;:;r:~i~;;a~~";s1 ;I,:o~ :~.the piles have
1

r 0 = (8x6r
--:;;- =3.9m
Use l: "• = 9.47. c~ = (2)(3.9)(6.7)V4000 X 1.59 i9.81- 1330.64 ti(misec)

k' = 2: k~- 20(65,384.4) Total Stiffness and Damo,!ng Values

w L "• - 9 .47 = 138,087.4!/m Total k~ = 138,087.4 tim+ 21,600 tim= 159,687.4 tim
Total c~ = 363.97 + 1330.64 = 1694.63 ti(misec)
c' = L c~ _ 20[172.16]
w L "· - 9 .47 = 363.59 ti(misec) EXAMPLE 12.5.2
Determine the damping and stiffness constants in vertical and horizontal
direction for the pile group shown in Fig. 12.22b. Assume Novak's fre-
Assume a pile cap 8 m x 6 m x 3 m thick is embedded 2m into the soil.
quency-independent solution.
 536 537
MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ON PILES EXAMPLES

The data that has been made available for soils and piles is as follows:
m,= ( 40 X 1000 + 4 X 4 x \~~0106 x 2.5) /981
Soil Properties
4
= ( 4 X 10 4 + 10.4 X 10 ) /981
2
Lean clay G, = 300 kg/ em' = 147 kg sec /cm
v=0.4 0 5
50 X 50) '
y, = 1.8 g/ cm 3 r0 = ( 7T = 28.22 em
Backfill G, = 400 kg/em'
Mm =mas moment of inertia of m, about C. G. of block
y, = 2 g/cm 3 2 2
Mm = [4 X 104 X (300) 2 + 10.4 X 10 4 X ( 400 + 260 ) /12] /981
= 5.68 x 106 kg em sec
2
Piles and Pile Cap
(assuming the 40-t mass to have a radius of gyration equal to 3m)
Rigid cap 'Yc = 2.5 g/cm'
[ 30 X 100
Piles EP = 2 x 10' kg/ em' ro = 28.22 = 106.3
3
'Yp = 2.5 g/ cm
From Fig. 12.13a, for Epilo/G,oil = 667 and llr0 = 106.3
Other dimensions of the pile group are shown in Fig 12 22b The ff f fw, = 0.03(\,,?·;'0: fw 2 = 0.065
vertical load of the static column load vibrating with th~ piie capem:cy tbve
assumed to be 40 t. e Vertical vibrations

Assume floating piles 1. k~ = E;: fw, (12.37)

5
=(2x10 x50x50) 36
Solution 28.22 o.o
Vertical vibrations = 6.378 x 105 kg/ em

Shear wave velocity in the soil 1

cw= vEPA fw2 (12.39)
v =
' 'J-;:
ro; '
2 X 105 X 50 X 50
0 065
P, 127.8 X 100 X ·
= ~300 1000 X 981
X = 2541 kg sec/em
1.8
= 127.8 m/sec 2. To consider the group effect, assume any pile in the group as
reference pile. With r0 = 28.22 em, the value of Sl2r 0 for adjacent piles is
Compression wave velocity through the pile 3.54 (=200/56.44) and for the diagonally opposite pile is 5.01 (=283/56.44).
v, =VE;TP;, From Fig. 12.14,
ll2r0 = 3000/56.44 = ~.15
= .J2 X 10
5
X1000 X 981 aa = 1 for reference pile
2.5
a,= 0.57 for adjacent corner piles
= 280 X 10 3 em/ sec
a,= 0.51 for the opposite corner pile
= 2800m/sec
v; 127.8 :S a,= 1 + 2 X 0.57 + 0.51 = 2.65
V, = 2800 = 0.0456
Combined stiffness of piles
 538 MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ON PILES EXAMPLES 539

n
Referring to Table 12.1, for v, = 0.4, the stiffness and damping parame-
.2: k~ ters are
F=-1,_
w n (12.42)
fxl = 0.0237 , fxz = 0.0563
L aaI 1. For a single pile
4 X 6.378 X 105 k! = (EPIP!ri)fxl (12.46)
_ = 9,63 x 105 kg/em
2 65 =
5
(2 X 105 X 5 X 10 /(28.22)
3
] X 0,0237
n 6
= 0.105 x 10 kg/em
Lc~
cc= _I_ c! = (EPIP/r~V,)fxz (12.47)
w n (12.43) 3
L aa = {2 X 105 X 5 X 10 /((28.22) 5 2
X 9.16 X 10 ]}(0,0563)
I = 0.77 x 10 3 kg sec/em
= 4 X 2541/(2.65)
= 3.83 X 103 kg sec/em 2. Letting the departure angle (3 = 0 and from Fig. 12.17,
3, k~ = G,hS1 (12.44a) aL = 1.00 for reference pile and assuming flexible pile,
= 400 X 200 X 2.7 = 2.16 X 105 kg/em aL= 0.45 for adjacent corner piles (S/2r0 = 3.54)
r 0 (cap) = ( 400 x 400/7r) 0 ' 5 = 225.67 em aL = 0.30 for op65',iite corner pile (S/2r 0 = 5.01)

L aL = 1.0 + 2 X 0.45 + 0.30 = 2.2

(12.44b)
F = --
.2: k! (12.52)
=
200 x 225.67 (/400X2)
'V 1000 X 981 6,7 = 0.86 x 104 kg sec/em X 2: ()(.L
5
4. Total (k!) = 9.63 X 105 + 2.16 X 105 = (4 X 0.105 X 106 ) + 2.2 = 1.91 X 10 kg/em
5
= 11.79 x 10 kg/em
c• =
2: c! (12.53)
Total (c!) = 3.83 X J0 3 + 8.6 X 10 3
= 1.243 x 10 4 kg sec/em w (.2: aL)
<K = c~l2(k• m )II' = (4 X 0.77 X 10 3 )/2.2
!:> w w w- c

= 1.243 X 104/2(11.79 X 10 5 X 147)0 · 5 = 0.472 = 1.40 x 103 kg sec/em

3. For pile cap
. The pile cap is seen to produce more damping than the piles. For a single f- -
p1le · kx- G,hSxl (12.54)
~~ = c~nl) k~(mJ4) = 2541 /2(6.378 x 10 x 147 /4) 0 5 = 0.26
5 = 240 X 200 X 4.1 = 1.97 X 10 5 kg/em
c[=hr0 (YG,y,lg)Sx 2 (12.55)
Translation 3 0
""'- = 200 X 225.6(240 X 2/981 X 10 ) ·'(10.6)
~et the reduced values of G, be 240 kg/ cm 2 for the backfill and 154 kg/ 4
em for the lean clay = 1.06 X 10 x kg sec/em

5 4. Total stiffness
2 X 10
EP/G,oil =
154
= 1298
f (k~) = 1.91 X 105 + 1.97 X 105 = 3.88 X 10 5 kg/em
/154 X 1000 X 981 Total damping
V, = 'I LS = 9.16 x 10 3 em/sec (c!) = 0.140 X 10 4 + 1.06 X 10
4

V,IV" = 0.03271, pJpp = 1.8/2.5 = 0.72 = 1.20 x 10 4 kg sec/ em

J
 540 MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ON PILES COMPARISON OF MEASURED AND PREDICTED PILE RESPONSE 541

Damping factor (; may be computed as

Sx 1 = 4.1 , Sx 2 = 10.6, Sq, 1 = 2.5 , S.; 2 = 1.8
(;
c8
X
+ c1 X Also, the height of the center of gravity of the dynamic force above base
= 2\jk'fmc of pile cap: Z, = 130 em and coordinate x, = 100 em
f z- z -
= 1.2 X 10 4 7 2(3.88 X 10 5 X 147) 0 5 2 2
kq, = G,r 0 hS<t> 1 + G,[Q.WB /3) + (Z)r 0 ) - 8(Z)r0 )]Sx 1 (12.68)
2
= 0.794 = 400(225.6) 2 X 200(2.5 + ((0.8865) 2/3 + (130/225.6)
The pile cap contributes a very large share of the damping in the whole - 0.8865(130/225.6)](4.1)}
system. = 40.7 x 108 (2.5 + 0.34) = 115.6 x 108 kg cm/rad

Rocking motion cq,f = 8r 0··~ -

y G,-y,/g{Sq, 2 + [8 /3 + (Z,Ir 0 ) - 8(Z)r 0 )]Sx 2 }
2 2 - (12.69)
4 05
1. Stiffness and geometric damping constants for single piles. = 0.8865 X (225.6) (240 X 2/981 X 1000) (1.8 + 0.88)
= 1.36 x 10 8 kg em sec/rad
k~ = (EP9ro)f.;, (12.48)
5 5
= [2 x 10 x 5 x 10 /28.22](0.37) = 13.4 x 10 8 kg cm/rad 4. Total stiffness and damping values are:
8
Total stiffness k! = (469.1 + 115.60)10
c! = (EPIP!V,)f.;2
5 5
(12.49)
= 584.7 x 10 8 kg cm/rad
= [2 X 10 x 5 X 10 /127.8 X 6
100](0.26) = 2.06 x 10 kg em sec/rad
8
Total damping'c'f= (1.90 + 1.36)10
k~.; = (EPJP/r~)fxq,, (12.50)
5 5 = 3.26 x 10 8 kg em sec/rad
= (2 X 10 X 5 X 10 /(28.22) 2](-0.068) = -8.6 X 10 6 kg/rad
Overall damping factor (;
c!.; = (EPIPiroV,)fx.;, (12.51)
~--------~
5 5 (12. 70)
= (2 X 10 X 5 X 10 /(28.22 X 127.8 X 100))( -0.099) !;! = c!i2V k!Mm 8 6
= -2.76 x 10 4 kg sec/rad = 3.26 X 10 12'1) (584.7
8
X 10 X 5.68 X 10 )

Stiffness and damping parameters were obtained from Table 12.1, = 0.287

[q,, = 0.37 [.; 2 = 0.26 The stiffness, damping, and masses have been established in the preced-
ing computations. The response of the pile group may now be determined
fx<P! = -0.068 fx.;z = -0.099 from principles of vibrations described in Chapter 2.
2. Stiffness and damping due to pile group (only).
k'<P -- 2: [k'1> + k' X w
2
'
+ kx1 Z c2 - 2Z,kx<t>J
' (12.66) 12.6 COMPARISON OF MEASURED AND PREDICTED PILE
8 5
= 4(13.4 X 10 + 6.378 X 10 X (100) 2 + 1.05 X 105 X (130) 2 RESPONSE
+ 2 X 130 X 8.6 X 10 6] = 469.1 x 108 kg cm/rad Several dynamic tests on single as well as groups of piles have been
Cg-
.; -
2:[ c<t>1 + cwx,
1 2 1z2
+ex ' -
2Z,cx<t>l
1
(12.67) -performed on small scale as well as full-sized piles to check if the predicted
6 2 response tallied with the measured response (Gle, 1981; Novak and El-
= 4[2.06 X 10 + 2541 X (lOW+ 770 x (130) + 2 x 130 x 2.76
Sharnouby, 1984; No~ak and Griggs, 1976; Woods, 1984, and Ting, 1987).
X 10 4) Fifty-five steady-state lateral vibration tests were performed on 11 pipe
= 1.90 x 108 kg em sec/rad piles 14 in in outside diameter witb wall thickness of 0.188 .or 0.375 in at
three sites in Southeastern Michigan (Woods, 1984). The piles were end
3. Stiffness and damping due to pile cap. bearing and 50 to 160ft in length.
8 = hlr0 = 200/225.6 = 0.8865 Figure 12.23 shows response curves for the pile GP 13-7, 157ft long in
soft clay. All piles were excited in steady-state oscillation using an eccentric
Fr~m Tables 11.2 and 11.3, frequency-independent constants for the side weight vibrator (Lazan oscillator) attached to the head of the pile, and their
resistance on the embedded pile cap are: response was monitored by two velocity transducers and recorded on a strip
 542 MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ON PILES COMPARISON OF MEASURED AND PREDICTED PILE RESPONSE 543

Response curves
Site: Belle River
Pile: GP 13-7 Dynalic respLe _
w-6 9

~-·-~v
=
Lazan(fl): 2.5-15 deg

~
Comment: W/K-KRETE 200F solution S ::
~

....E' = f?
--
- 9
Field data
l, 9 b -
3 - 'b 0
~ ~ -
-1l

"'.1' w-s
0.
-

%8
8

/
v ----. X
r::::::- I--
Dynamic response
-

=
;::: ,/. /
predicted with
PI LAY solution =
:
r- -
r- -
r- -
4
10-5 10 15 20 30 45 50 55
25 35 40
~ Frequency (Hz)
~ ~5--~~I0~~-1~5~--,2~0,---~2~5----,3~0----~35~---4~0~--~4~5~--~5h0----5J.5 Figure 12.24. 'Typical response curves -p,r.edicted by PI LAY superimposed on measured pile
Frequency (Hz) response. (After Gle and Woods, 1984.) ·

Figur; 12.2_3. R~sponse curves show a decrease in resonant frequency with increasing
a~pl~tudes m horrzontal vibrations. (From R. D. Woods, Lateral interaction between soil and
'?·
prle, m E;, Beskos, Theodore Kranthammer, and I. Vardoulakis, eds., "Dynamic Soil-Structure
Interaction, 1984, A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam.)
chart recorder. At the conclusion of the first steady-state test, the eccen-
. tnc1ty of the Lazan oscillation was increased to increase the oscillating force
and the test was repeated. To cover the range of lateral displacements
covered by most machine foundation, four or five increasing eccentricities
were used. It was observed that the frequency of maximum response
decreased as the force level increased, indicating nonlinear response. Woods
(1984) used PILAY computer program to determine stiffness and damping
elements (Novak and About-Ella, 1977). PILAY is a continuum model
accommodating a multilayered soil based on the elastic -side layer approach
of B~rano: (1967). However, PILAY as~umes that the soil surrounding the
pile m a giVen layer Is the same at all distances from the pile.
A dy_nam1c response curve with PILAY solutions is shown in Fig. 12.24
along w1th the field data. The poor correlations between predicted curve and
measured response is obvious. In all tests, computed response based on
stiffness and damping from PILAY and measured response showed that the
amplitudes of motion were greater than predicted and the frequency of
mrunmum response was lower than predicted.
In an attempt to match the measured response with the computed
response, two approaches were adopted.
1. Only a fraction of the rocking and translation stiffness computed by
PILAY had been used in predicting the response. It was seen that even with
wide variation in rocking stiffness, the observed amplitudes in the frequency
range just above the horizontal translation peak is still higher than predic-
ted. The observed increase is more likely due to change in soil parameters
caused by pile driving.
A better handle on the disturbed soil zone had been obtained by
replacing the original soil with sand fill around the pile up to 4ft in depth.
2. Because of the poor correlation achieved in the initial attempt, a
second correlation with the analytical procedure, PILAY 2, was attempted.
PILAY 2 permits an inclusion of a "softened" or "weakened" zone sur-
rounding the pile, simulating the disturbance to the soil caused by pile
installation (Novak et al. 1981).
A good match of the measured and predicted response could be obtained
by a considerably reduced soil modulus in the softer zone (one-tenth to
two-tenths of the oftginal value) and the extent of the softened zone
(one-half to one times the pile radius). A loss of contact of the soil with pile
for a short length close to the ground surface also improved the predicted
response.
El-Sharnouby and Novak (1984) performed dynamic tests on a 102 steel
pipe piles group. The length of the piles was 106 em, with outside diameter
of 26.7 mm and inside diameter of 20.93 mm. The slenderness ratio of piles
was greater than 40 and the pile spacing about three diameters. The pile
544 MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ON PILES COMPARISON OF MEASURED AND PREDICTED PILE RESPONSE 545

group was placed in a hole made for its placement in the ground and then
backfilled with a specially prepared soil mixture. The pile cap was 6 em
above the ground level. The pile group was excited by a Lazan oscillator at
frequencies of 6-60Hz in the vertical and horizontal directions and in
torsional mode. Free vibration tests and static tests had also been perform-
ed. The measured response curves were very linear for small amplitudes and
indicated relatively small nonlinearity at amplitudes of 0.2 mm. The test
results of Gle (1981) and Woods (1984) show definitely nonlinear behavior
of insitu piles.
Novak and El-Sharnouby (1984) analyzed the data presented earlier by
the following methods:
I. Using static interaction factors by Poulos (1971, 1975, 1979) and
Poulos and Davis (1980).
2. Concept of equivalent piers.
3. Using dynamic interaction factors by Kaynia and Kausel (1982).
4. Direct dynamic analysis of Waas and Hartmann (1981).
Analysis with Static Interaction Factors
Using Poulos' charts the theoretical response curves based on static interac-
tion factors are shown, together with the experimental curve, in Fig. 12.25.
Three theoretical curves are plotted against the experimental one: Curve A
represents the group response without any interaction effect, curve B was
calculated using a static interaction factor for both stiffness and damping,
(~ a. = 23) while the interaction effect has been considered for the stiffness
only in curve C. It is seen that the full value of static interaction coefficient
cannot be applied for damping. A much lower value of interaction factor for
damping is needed in order to obtain a better estimate of response of the
group.
A theoretical response curve with interaction factors of 40 and 2.4 for
stiffness and damping constants respectively is shown in Fig. 12.26. How-
ever, Fig. 12.26 shows that even if the match between the theoretical and
experimental curves is achieved near the peak, the experimental dimen-
sionless response curve at higher frequencies approaches about 0.5 instead
of unity. This may indicate that the apparent vibrating mass may differ from
the true mass of the foundation. The apparent vibrating mass determined
from the experimental response curve using the technique described by
Novak (1971) was found to be about 2.3 times the foundation mass and
about 1.3 times the total mass, which comprises the mass of the foundation
and the mass of the piles with the soil enclosed between them.
With the apparent vibrating mass used instead of the foundation mass,
better fit was, obtained (Fig. 12.2].)"A still better fit had been obtained with
interaction factors of 16 and 2.4 'Ior stiffness and damping, respectively.
Since arbitrary correction factors are applied to stiffness and damping
constants, the static interaction factors may not be used for dynamic
analysis.
Equivalent Pier Method
The theoretical analysis of the test foundation indicated that the vertical
motion of pile tips is almost the same as the motion of the heads. (The

Group of 102 piles .20 plates

Vertical excitation
B

Symbol N-M
0 0.1932 Symbol N-M
... 0.0966 0 0.1932
... 0.0966
E
~eetle~e

r ill~~~~~~c~~~::~~J
O~ ~ 10 20 30 40 50 A 60
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 12.25. Experimental response curves and theoretical curves calculated with static
interaction factors: A, no interactions; B, interaction factors applied to both stiffness and Frequency (Hz)

damping; C, interaction factors applied to stiffness only; and f, experimental data (After Novak Figure 12.26. Experimental reSponse curve and theoretical curve with interaction factors of 40
and EI-Sharnouby, 1984.) and 2.4 for stiffness and damping, respectively. (After Novak and EI~Sharnouby, 1984).
546 MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ON PILES FINAL COMMENTS 547

Group of 102 piles .20 plates

Vertical excitation

-1l
..§
c_
E Symbol N-M
•~ 00.1932
.'!'

·~
0
0
• 0.0966
__ .... ____ _
E 0~~~~~~~
i5

o_~~~~~~lllluy~~~~~~Ull~ o~~~~~~Ullllll~~~llllilli~~~~
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
Figure 12.27. Experimental response curve and theoretical curves calculated with apparent Figure 12.28. Experimental response curve and theoretical curve based on equivalent pier
mass: A, with Poulos static interaction factors for stiffness and interaction factor of 2 for concept: A, true stiffness and damping: and B, modified stiffness and damping. (After Novak
damping; and B, with interaction factors of 16 and 2.4 for stiffness and damping, respectively and EI-Sharno~.by, 1984).
(After Novak and EI-Sharnouby, 1984.) ,

difference is less than 2 percent suggesting a pier action.) The added mass
effect, indicated by the factor of 1.3, appears to result from the high rigidity
of the piles and may not be needed for more compressible piles, especially
when they are end-bearing.
The equivalent pier properties for the· foundation test model were
established using the material characteristics of both the steel piles and the
soil enclosed. The behavior of the layers below the pier tip was considered
up to a depth of 3 times the pier length. The stiffness and damping constants
of the equivalent pier were calculated using the same concept used for the
single pile and the computer program PILAY2. The dimensionless vertical
response curve based on the equivalent pier approach is plotted in Fig.
12.28. It can be seen that both damping and stiffness were moderately
overestimated (curve A).
A better match of the theoretical curve with the experimental one was
achieved when both stiffness and damping were modified by factors of 0.5
and 0.6, respectively (Fig. 12.28, curve B).
The concept of equivalent pier may be applicable only to closely spaced
piles.
Novak and El-Sharnouby (1984) have also described comparison of the
theoretical and measured vertical response by the dynamic methods of
Kaynia and Kausel (1982) and Wass and Hartmann (1981). Also, a com-
parison of the theoretical and measured response both in horizontal and
torsioual modes by several methods have been presented by the authors.
The preceding discussion points to the fact that dynamic interaction is
very complicated, and further theoretical and experimental research is
needed in the dynamic behavior of piles and pile groups.
12.7 FINAL COMMENTS
Machine foundation (block) may be supported on piles especially if the
bearing capacity of soils at shallow depths is poor. Depending upon the
nature of exciting forces, the pile-foundation may be subjected to (1)
vertical oscillations, (2) horizontal translation and rocking, and (3) torsion.
Simple solutions for single piles in all the preceding modes of vibrations
have been included in this chapter. Also the effect of group action on the
behavior of the total system as compared to that of the single pile has been
included. An effort has been made to present as complete an analysis as
possible, but there are certain definite gaps in the present (1988) under-
standing of "single pile" and "pile group" action under vibrations.
Initial analyses by Barkan (1962) and Maxwell et a!. (1969) have been
shown to have only limited application.
For vertically vibrtting piles, Novak's (1977) analysis for single piles is
reasonable and uses rational soil and pile properties. However, in the case
of groups, recourse has been taken to group effect, as in the case of static
loads (Novak and Grigg, 1976). Sheta and Novak (1982) developed an
approximate theory for vertical vibrations of pile groups. This has been
discussed in Section 12.1.2. Nogami (1983) and Nogami and Liang (1983)
have also obtained solutions for pile groups in vertical vibrations and have
shown that the concept of the Winkler soil model could be applicable to pile
groups problems for frequency range higher than the fundamental natural
frequency of the soil deposit. It was further found that:
548 MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ON PILES
1. A dynamic group effect can be strongly frequency dependent, and
depends upon the ratio between the pile spacing and the wavelength
propagating in the soil. This is due to the phase shift between the
directly induced pile motion and the transmitted motion. Thus, the
frequency-dependent behavior of pile groups is controlled by the type
of predominant waves induced in the soil, frequency, and pile spacing.
The effect of material damping of the soil is primarily a reduction of
the amplitude of the motion.
2. A dynamic group effect is more pronounced in pile groups with stiffer
piles and with a larger number of piles.
3. Under the dynamic load, the group effect may increase or decrease
the values of the stiffness and damping parameters per pile in a group
compared to the values for a single pile, though it always decreases the
stiffness value under a static load.
On the basis of comparison of predicted and measured response of 102
pile group in vertical vibrations, Novak and El-Sharnouby (1984) concluded
that: · accounted fo,r in any theory, an~,Way affect the comput~d values.
1. Correction for the apparent mass may be necessary, particularly for
rigid floating piles.
2. The static interaction factor provided quite a good estimate of the
group stiffness but the group damping could not be predicted.
3. The equivalent pier concept provided a reasonable agreement with the
experimental data if the theoretical damping constant was reduced by
about 50 percent.
Novak and El-Sharnouby (1983) presented solutions for soil modulus
variation with depth and effect of frequency on the group action.
The solutions are by no means simple in their present form. Therefore,
more research is needed to solve the problem completely and put it in a
form which can be easily used by the practicing engineer.
Horizontal vibrations of piles have been investigated by considering the
piles as an equivalent cantilever, a beam on elastic foundation (Tucker,
1964; Prakash, 1981), and also by an approximate method developed by
Novak (1974). Equivalent cantilever method does not consider realistic
soil-pile behavior. The solutions of beam on elastic foundations need be
developed further to put them in readily usable forms.
Novak's solution for single pile and that for pile groups for horizontal
vibrations is subject to the same limitations as for vertical vibrations.
Also, the static group effect differed considerably from dynamic group
effect in horizontal vibrations in tests of Novak and El-Sharnouby (1984 ).
However, the equivalent pier concept predicted the stiffness well, but not
the damping in that particular case.
FINAL COMMENTS 549
For single piles also, Woods (1984) found that softened zone around the
pile alters the behavior and needs to be considered in a realistic analysis.
For torsional vibrations of vertical piles, Novak and Howell's (1977)
solution is a good tool.
The dynamic stiffness and damping in torsion depend on soil-pile
interaction in terms of dimensionless parameters (1) shear wave velocity
ratio (ratio of soil shear wave velocity to pile shear wave velocity), (2)
slenderness ratio (ratio of pile length to effective radius), (3) mass ratio
(ratio of specific mass of the soil to specific mass of the pile), ( 4) dimen-
sionless frequency, and (5) material damping ratio.
For a group of piles, the contribution from torsion to the total stiffness
and damping decreases with the relative distance of the pile from the
centroid of the footing. Pile foundations can have smaller natural frequen-
cies in torsion than shallow footings, but the increased damping generated
yields lower resonance amplitudes. This contrasts with other vibration
modes. Comparison with experiments is desirable since pile slippage, to-
gether with other effects such as method of installing the piles are not
The approach throughout in thts:chapter has been to dtscuss sttffness and
damping constants in terms of basic soil and pile properties and geometry of
the system. Assuming the mass of the pile cap and the superstructure
(machine) and knowing the unbalanced forces, natural frequencies and
amplitudes of motion are determined from principles of vibration analysis
given in Chapter 2. The soil has been considered to be isotropic, homoge-
neous, and elastic: Nogami (1980) has considered pile vibrations in non-
homogeneous soils. Layered soil has also been considered by Nogami
(1983). Soil modulus variation as a quadratic parabola has been considered
by Novak and El-Sharnouby (1983) for vertical and lateral vibrations.
The interaction of pile cap with soil affects the dynamic response of the
system. This can be accounted for in all modes of vibrations on the basis of
principles defined in Chapter 11.
Based on the approximate solutions presented in this chapter, a step-by-
step design procedure has been listed. Solved problems have been included
to illustrate the listed design procedure.
The soil properties used in defining the stiffness and damping parameters
are (1) shear wave velocity V, or shear modulus G and (2) Poisson's ratio.
Their values are dete\'?ined from principles and procedures described in
Chapter 4. ··
Another solution technique for pile groups has been reported by Aubry
and Postel (1985) who considered the soil-pile system as a fiber reinforced
composite material. The technique of homogenization of composite ma-
terials was used to compute equivalent modulus which was used to compute
the seismic response of the equivalent foundation at the soil surface. The
method has been shown to be particularly useful for very large numbers of
piles beneath a foundation. This method may be regarded as a complimen-
tary solution to Novak's equivalent pier concept.
 551
550 MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ON PILES PRACTICE PROBLEMS

Gazetas and Dobry (1984) proposed a method to compute response of
single fixed head pile under horizontal excitation at its head. The method
consists of estimation of (1) deflections of the pile under static lateral load,
(2) dashpots attached to the pile at selected elevations, (3) dashpot at its
head, and ( 4) variation of spring coefficient and damping ratio with fre-
quency. The applicability of the proposed method has been illustrated in
three linearly hysteretic soil deposits: (a) homogeneous deposit with mod-
ulus constant with depth, (b) inhomogeneous deposit with modulus increas-
ing linearly with depths, and (c) layered deposit.
The philosophy and methods described in this chapter will need a change
as the understanding of the dynamic pile behavior improves. There is an
urgent need for more theoretical and experimental research.
ted on the pile cap. Pile response was measured through inductance
type accelerometers and ink writing recorder. The oscillator could
generate a force of 93 kg at 10 cps at full eccentricity. Tests were
conducted at two different eccentricity values up to a maximum speed of
35 cps. Typical representative displacement amplitude versus excitation
frequency curves for a single pile are plotted in Figs. 12.29a and b.
Estimate the design parameters for use in Novak's analysis and list
them properly.
2. Estimate the (a) stiffness, (b) damping, (c) natural frequency, and (d)
amplitude of motion of an 8-pile group in vertical, horizontal, and
torsional vibrations.

10
PRACTICE PROBLEMS

1. For design of a group of piles to support a turbogenerator, the following 8

'E
in situ tests were performed: .s
0
0
(a) Cross Hole Wave Propagation test, ~ 6
(b) Free horizontal vibration tests on piles, .,.
D

'l5
(c) Vertical pile resonance tests, and •
u 4
(d) Horizontal pile resonance tests. :E
The piles were 45 em diameter 20m long bored cast-in-situ R.C.C. "
E
"" 2
piles.
The soil at site consisted of clayey to fine sand with traces of silt and
ground water table was at 2.0 m depth. The soil above water table had a 0
0 10 20 30
moist density, y, of 1.70t/m3 with a saturated density, 'Y,., of 1.91 t/m 3• Frequency (cps)
Poisson's ratio v of the soil may be taken as 0.35. The dynamic elastic (a)
modulus of pile material was obtained as 2.5 x 106 t/m 2 with a density
of 2.4 t/m 3 The shear wave velocity had been measured as 125m/sec at 0.6
a depth of 3 m below ground level in the cross bore hole test.
The piles tested in the free vibration tests as well as the resonance 0.5
tests were provided with a pile cap 0.7 m square and 0.5 m deep made of 'E
the same grade of concrete as the piles. For free vibration tests, one pile
' .s 0 0.4
0
was pulled against another horizontally using a 10 t capacity chain-pulley ~
block. Also a specially designed sudden-release clutch and a load cell .,.
D
0.3
were attached in series with the pulling device tomeasure the pull. Two 'l5
piles tested under free vibrations yielded identical natural frequencies. •
u
0.2
0
:E
From the test data, the natural frequency of pile with cap under "E
horizontal vibration is obtained as 12.5 cps and the damping factor of 7 "" 0.1
percent.
0
Pile Resonance Tests. In all, four piles under two turbogenerator foun- 0 10 20 30 40
dations were tested by exciting them into steady-state forced vibrations Frequency (cps) Figure 12.29. Resonance tests on 45-cm diam-
using a mechanical oscillator. The motor-oscillator assembly was moun- (b) eter piles: (a) horizontal 1 (b) vertical.
552 MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ON PILES
The exciting forces are
vertical 8 sin 1007Tf (t)
horizontal 4 sin 1007Tf (t)
torsional 2 sin 1007Tf ( tm)
The superimposed load is 50 !I pile. Assume suitable values of data
needed but not supplied,·
3. Check the stiffness and damping parameters of the pile group in
Example 12.5.2 if the piles were end bearing.
REFERENCES
Aubry, D., and Postel, M. (1985). Dynamic response of a large number of piles by homogeni-
zation. Proc. 2nd. Int. Conf. Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng., Queen Elizabeth II, 4-105 to
4-119.
Barkan, D. D. (1962). "Dynamics of Bases and Foundations." McGraw-Hill, New York.
Baranov, V. A. (1967). On the calculation of excited vibrations of an embedded foundation (in
Russian). Vopr. Dyn. Prochn. 14, 195~209.
Beredugo, Y. 0., and Novak, M. (1972). Coupled horizontal and rocking yibration of
embedded footings. Can. Geotech, J. 9(4), 477-497.
Bycroft, G N. (1956). Forced vibration of a rigid circular plate on a semi-infinite elastic half
space on elastic stratum. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 248, 327-368.
El~Sharnouby, B., and Novak, M. (1984). Dynamic experiments with groups of pile. I.
Geotech. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 110(GT~6), 719-737.
Gazetas, G., and Dobry, R. (1984). Horizontal response of piles in layered soils. I. Geotech.
Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. UO(No. GT-1), 20-40. ·
Gle, D. R. (1981). The dynamic lateral response of deep foundations, Ph.D. Dissertation,
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Gle, D. R., and Woods, R. D. (1984). Predicted versus observed dynamic lateral response of
pipe piles. Pap. presented to World Conf. Earthquake Eng., 8th, San Francisco.
Kaynia, A. M., and Kausel, F. (1982). Dynamic behavior of pile groups. Int. Conf. Numer.
Methods Offshore Piling, Austin, TX, pp. 509-532.
Madhav, M. R., and Rao, N. S. V. K. (1971). Model for machine pile foundation soil system.
J. Soil Mech. Found. Eng. Div. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 97(SM-1), 295-299.
Maxwell, A. A., Fry, Z. B., and Poplin, J. K. (1969). Vibratory loading of pile foundations.
ASTM Spec. Tech. Pub!. STP 444, 338-361.
Nogami, T. {1980). Dynamic stiffness and damping of pile groups in inhomogeneous soil. Proc.
Dyn. Response Pile Found Anal. Aspects, Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., Hollywood FL 1980, 31-52.
Nogami, T. {1983). Dynamic group effect in axial responses of gro.uped piles. J. Geotech. Eng.,
Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 109(No. GT-2), 220-223.
Nogami, T., and Liang, H. (1983). Behavior of pile groups subjected to dynamic loads. Proc.
Can. Conf. Eq. Eng., 4th, Vancouver B.C. 414-420.
Novak, M. {1971). Data reduction from non~linear response curves. J. Eng. Mech. Div., Am.
Soc. Civ. Eng. 97(EM~4),_ 1187-1204.
Novak, M. (1974). Dynamic stiffness and damping of piles. Can. Geotech. J. 11(4), 574-598.
Novak, M. (1977). Vertical vibration of floating piles. I. Eng. Mech. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng.
103(EM-1), 153-168.
REFERENCES 553
Novak, M., and Aboul~Ella, F. (1977). "PILAY-A Computer Program for Calculation of
Stiffness and Damping of Piles in Layered Media," Rep. No. SACDA 77~30.
University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.
Novak, M., and Beredugo, Y. 0. (1972). Vertical vibration of embedded footings. J. Soil
Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 98(SM~12), 1291-1310.
Novak, M., and El-Sharnouby, B. (1983). Stiffness and damping constants of single piles. J.
Geo{ech. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 109(GT~7), 961-974.
Novak, M., and El-Sharnouby, B. (1984). Evaluation of dynamic experiments on pile group. I.
Geotech. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 110 {GT-6), 738-756.
Novak, M., and Grigg, R. F. (1976). Dynamic experiments with small pile foundation. Can.
Geotech. J. 13(4), 372-395.
Novak, M., and Howell, J. F. (1977). Torsional vibrations of pile foundations. J. Geotech.
Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 103(GT-4), 271-285.
Novak, M., and Sachs, K. (1973). Torsional and coupled vibrations of embedded footings. Int.
I. Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn. 2(1), 11-33.
Novak, M, Aboula~Ella, F. and M. Sheta (1981). "PILAY 2-A Computer Program for
Calculation of Stiffness and Damping of Piles in Layered Media," Rep. No. SACDA
81-100. University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.
PoulOs, H. G. (1968). Analysis of the settlement of the pile groups. Geotechnique 18(4),
449-471. ,,,,,,~
Poulos, H. G. (1971). Behavior of·laterally 1~aded piles. II Pile groups. J. Soil Mech. Div.,
Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 97(SM-5), 733-751.
Poulos, H. G. (1975). Lateral load deflection prediction for pile groups. J. Geotech. Eng. Div.,
Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. lOl(GT-1), 19-34.
Poulos, H. G. (1979). Group factors for pile~deflection estimation. J. Geotech. Eng. Div., Am.
Soc. Civ. Eng. lOS(GT-12), 1489-1509.
Poulos, H. G., and Davis, E. H. (1980). "Pile Foundation Analysis and Design," Wiley, New
York.
Prakash, S. (1981). "Soil Dynamics." McGraw~Hill, New York.
Puri, V. K., Bhargava, S., Nandakumaran, P., and Arya, A. S. (1977). Evaluation of dynamic
soil-pile constants from in-situ tests. Int. Symp. Soil-Struct. Interact., ·Roorkee, India,
349-354.
Richart, F. E., Jr. (1962). Foundation vibrations. Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 127, Pt. 1,
863-898.
Richart, F. E., and Whitman, R. V. (1967). Comparison of footing vibration tests with theory.
J. Soil Mech. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 93(SM-6), 143-168.
Richart, F. E., Hall, J. R., and Woods, R. D. (1970). "Vibrations of Soils and Foundations."
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Sheta, M., and Novak, M. (1982). Vertical vibrations of pile groups. I. Geotech. Eng. Div.,
Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. lOS(GT-4), 570-590.
Ting, J. M. (1987). Full scale'YJ\rnamic lateral pile response. J. Geotech. Eng. Div., Am. Soc.
Civ. Eng. 113(1), 30-45.
Tucker, R. L. (1964). Lateral analysis of piles with dynamic behaviour. Proc. Conf. Deep
Found. Mexico City, Vol. 1., 157-171.
Waas, G., and Hartmann, H. G. (1981). Pile foundations subjected to dynamic horizontal
loads. Eur. Simul. Meet., Model. Simul. Large Scale Struct. Syst., Capri, Italy, p. 17; also
Conf. Struct. Mech. ReactOr Tech. SMIRT, Paris.
Woods, R. D. (1984). Lateral interaction between soil and pile. Proc. Int. Symp. Dyn. Soil
Struct. Interact., Minneapolis, 47-54.

13
Case Histories
Long-term satisfactory performance of a machine foundation depends upon
the interaction of the machine, foundation, and the supporting soil system.
It is of utmost importance that a machine should give trouble-free service
for a long time. There have been many occasions when a plant had to be
operated at less than its rated capacity because performance ofits machine
foundations was not up to the required standards. It should be stressed here
that the poor performance of a machine may be due to:
1. Machine-related parameters, such as faulty design, installation and
commissioning, and inadequate information about machine unbal-
ances,
2. Foundation-related parameters, such as faulty design or construction,
and
3. Soil-related parameters, such as inadequate geotechnical information
that leads to unrealistic soil data used in estimating foundation re-
sponse.
Malfunctioning of any installation that is due to foundation-related
problems can mostly be avoided by conducting well-planned geotechnical
site investigations and using realistic soil properties in the design of the
foundation. The analytical theories for computing the response of different
types of foundations for reciprocating machines, hammers, and turbo-
generators have been discussed in chapters 6-8, and embedded and pile-
supported foundations were discussed in Chapters 11 and 12, respectively.
These methods should be expected to yield reasonable results only if all
relevant machine data has been procured and soil data has been rationally
interpreted for determination of dynamic soil properties.
It is a matter of common observation that once machines are commis-
sioned, not much attention is given to the performance of their foundations
554
CASE HISTORIES
555
unless some unsatisfactory behavior is noted or there is some distress to the
foundations. The authors are of the opinion that a periodic check on
performance will not only help one to obtain a better understanding of
foundation behavior, but will also provide an insight into the source of
potential trouble. Because analyses of machine foundations are based on
simplifying assumptions, an evaluation of a machine foundation's perform-
ance will enable its designer to identify and correct the inadequacies of
design which may subsequently result in the development of more rational
design procedures.
The opportunities for comparing performance of prototype machine
foundations with predicted performance are rare. Such observations are
helpful in more than one respect, as shown in the following examples.
Richart and Woods (1982) made vibration measurements on a pile-
supported auto shredder foundation under operating conditions and obser-
ved vertical vibrations at a frequency of 48Hz. According to the data
supplied by the shredder manufacturer, the expected vibration should have
been in the rocking mode at about 12Hz. This shows a need to improve the
methods of 111easuring or estimatfp~ impact forces.
Madshus et al. (1985) monitored the performance of two undertuned
compressor foundations during test runs and observed unexpected and
unsatisfactory behavior. Careful observations revealed that the design as-
sumptions had not been realized in construction of the foundation. Impro-
per clearances and joints that had got filled with concrete had resulted in
undesirable mechanical contacts between different units of the foundation.
Corrective measures were taken to establish the assumed design conditions
and subsequent observations indicated a qualitatively good agreement be-
tween the design and performance of the foundations. The observations
highlighted the fact that the construction aspects play a very important role
in the performance of the machine foundation.
Prakash and Kumar (1984) and Kumar et al. (1985) reported the results
of field observations on block-type compressor foundations located in poor
subsoil conditions. During the first two years following the construction, the
block foundations settled up to 60 mm, showed excessive tilt, and posed
serious misalignment problems for the compressors. The stability of the
foundation and even the strength of the soil was in doubt. A series of tests
under static and dynamic loading conditions were planned to assess the
future performance of t)Je foundation and to provide remedial measures if
necessary. The results rndicated that the settlements had practically stabil-
ized and only 4.0 mm of settlement had occured in the last 12 months. This
was further confirmed by preloading tests on one of the foundation blocks
which, on being preloaded to 44 percent over the normal working loads,
showed a negligible settlement of 0.4 mm. Test runs were then obtained
with the compressors running at "no load" and at "full load." A tilt of 1 in
6000 was noted during the first few runs at no load. However, subsequent
runs with "no load" and "full load" operating conditions did not result in
 CASE HISTORY OF A COMPRESSOR FOUNDATION 557
556 CASE HISTORIES

further tilt or settlement. The vibration amplitudes were well below the
permissible values as specified by the machine manufacturers. These obser-
vations on performance of the foundation provided answers to a very crucial
question on the long-term stability of the machine foundation in question.
The preceding cases clearly bring out the importance of monitoring the
performance of a machine foundation. In general, the investigations for
studying the response of a machine foundation can be divided into two
types:
in strain levels for these two conditions had a significant effect on the
relevant soil properties. The methods used to analyze the above two
conditions were the elastic half-space and the linear spring method. For each
case the computed amplitudes and frequencies of the foundation were
compared with the observed amplitudes and frequencies. .
The purpose of the evaluation was to determme whether remedtal
measures were to be taken to reduce the foundation's vibration amplitudes
to permissible levels or to redesign the foundation completely.

1. Postdesign, in which the amplitudes of vibration under normal operat- Machine and Foundation Data
ing conditions are observed to exceed permissible values thereby
necessitating a critical evaluation and possible alteration or redesign of The plan of the foundation is shown in Fig. 13.1a, and its cross section in
the foundation, and Fig. 13.1b. The reference axes are also indicated in these figures.
2. Postmonitoring, in which the vibration response of the foundation is
monitored after commissioning, but before it is put into operation so
as to ensure uninterrupted, satisfactory, long-time performance.
N = location of obse!Vation
Two cases histories that illustrate these two types are presented below. The points ;';
first concerns the study of a reciprocating compressor foundation (Prakash
and Puri, 1981, 1984), which, in vibrating beyond its permissible limits,
endangered the stability of an entire system. The second involves the y
vibration response of a hammer foundation (Prakash and Gupta, 1970).
lk. of compressor
c
13.1 CASE HISTORY OF A COMPRESSOR FOUNDATION

General 23~
!50
12
A four-stage, reciprocating air compressor, which had been installed in an
industrial plant, was supported on a concrete block foundation that had 490
been constructed to conform to dimensions suggested by the supplier of the
machine. When the machine was placed in operation, the foundation
vibrated excessively. The amplitudes of vibration at the operating speed
were measured, and the natural frequency was monitored by conducting
+
490

free vibration tests. The dynamic properties of the supporting soil were
determined using in situ tests. The design of the foundation was checked to

23~
0 ~c~~~
determine one of two possible conditions; 230

1. Postdesign. The foundation was designed before· the monitored per-

formance of the machine was known, and 50

2. Postmonitoring. It was designed with knowledge of the machine's

monitored performance.
~~
230 50
85o 85o 'b I • •I
150 230
(a)
The two sets of computation proved to be similar except that the shear
strain levels in the soil for the two conditions were different. The difference Figure 13.1. Layout details of the compressor foundation: (a) plan; (b) section.
558 CASE HISTORIES CASE HISTORY OF A COMPRESSOR FOUNDATION 559

z Soil Data
y <t of Cornpr<,sor fly wheel
In situ tests consisting of block vibration, cyclic plate load, and standard
penetration tests were conducted at the site (Prakash and Puri, 1984). The
block vibration and cyclic plate load tests were conducted at a depth of
4.0 m below ground level. The standard penetration tests were conducted up
to a depth of 14.0 m below ground level. A detailed discussion about the test
~ of Motor pulley data and its interpretation is given in Example 4.9.3 (Chapter 4) and is not
repeated here. The variation of dynamic shear modulus vs. shear strain at
the base of the foundation at a depth of 2.4 m is shown in Fig. 4.47, plot C.
The value of G in Fig. 4.47 corresponds to a mean effective confining
pressure 170 of 1.0 kg/ cm 2

Observations
Accelerometers were used to measure the vertical and horizontal amplitudes
of vibration at 14 points on the foundation (Fig. 13.1a). It was found that
the maximum amplitude of vibration in the Z direction was 0.1085 mm. The
maximum amplitude of horizontal ·¥i~ation at the top of the block in the Y
direction was 0.3156 mm. The foundation was excited in free vibrations in
the X direction. The natural frequency of the free vibrations was observed
to be 17.5 Hz

Lean concrete
Check of the Foundation's Design
(b)
The response of the foundation was computed for the two conditions of
Figure 13.1. (Continued).
investigations as defined earlier.

Machine Postdesign. This analysis was conducted as though the foundation were
being designed for the first time to ensure vibration amplitudes smaller than
Operating speed = 405 rpm their permissible values. The size of the foundation is shown in Fig. 13.1,
Weight of compressor and motor= 11.0 t and dynamic soil properties were obtained from Fig. 4.47, plot C, as
Horizontal unbalanced force =0 follows:
Vertical unbalanced force, P, = 0.205 t Maximum permissible amplitude= 0.0125 mm
Horizontal moment, M, · = 0.185 t m
Average width of the foundation = 2924; 1285 = . mm
Vertical moment, Mx = 2.2 t m 2104 5
(Fig. 13.1a)
Permissible vibration amplitude= 0.025 mm "':
(peak-to-peak) . .. . 0.0125 10-6
Shear stram amphtude, 'Yo= . = 5.94 X
2104 5
Foundation 6
From Fig. 4.47, plot C, the value of G at 'Yo= 5.94 X 10- and (j0 =
1.0 kg/ cm 2 is 1050 kg/ cm 2• The mean effective confining pressure at a depth
Area A =7.103m 2 equal to one-half of the width of the foundation is 0.593 kg/cm 2• The value
Weight W = 49.79 t of G for associated shear strain levels and confining pressure is given by
Depth D = 2.4 m
(4.15)
 CASE HISTORY OF A COMPRESSOR FOUNDATION 561
560 CASE HISTORIES

The value of G thus computed is 808.5 kg/ cm 2 The value of C" is then 4. Mass ratio B,
computed as 1- v m
B=----, (6.17)
C = 1.13 X 2G 1 (4.29) z 4 pro
" (1- v) v'A
B, = 1.190
The value of C" = 10.25 kg/em' for area of the compressor (v = 0.33). 5. Damping ratio ~'
0.425 (6.22)
Postmonitoring. The soil properties in this investigation were computed ~. = VB;
according to the shear strain actually induced in the soil. This shear strain
was calculated from observed amplitudes. The value of the shear strain 'Yo ~' = 0.3899
4 .
was 1.49 x 10- . The values of G and C" were computed and were found to
2 2
he G = 400 kg/cm and C" = 5.07 kg/cm for area of the compressor. 6. Amplitude of vertical vibration A,
The procedure for designing foundations for reciprocating machines was
discussed in Chapter 6 (Section 6.8). Based on this discussion, the dynamic (6.23)
response of the foundation is estimated below hy using the elastic half-space
method and the linear spring method.

A =0.0031mm
Elastic Half-Space Method z ..::.;.•:.:t;

Case 1. Postdesign: the response is calculated as though the foundation Sliding Vibrations
were being designed for a limiting amplitude of 0.0125 mm, the induced
shear strain level of 5.94 X 10- 6, and G = 808.5 kg/cm 2 Appropriate equa- 7. Spring stiffness
tions derived in Chapter 6 are used to interpret the behavior of the 32(1- v)Gr0 ,
machine's foundation. · k = (6.26)
Y 7 -8v
Vertical Vibration k, = 59890.1 tim

1. Equivalent radius r0 8. Limiting natural frequency in sliding

(6.58a) Wny = {§, (6.30)

r 0 = 1.5036 m wny = 108.62/sec

fuy = 17.2 Hz
2. Spring stiffness
9. Mass ratio B,
4Gr
k = - -0 (6.18) 7-8v m
z l-v B = -,- (6.25)
' 32(1-v) pr 0,
k, = 72711.4 t/m
BY= 1.4513
3. Vertical natural frequency
10. Damping ratio in sliding, y
(6.20) 0.285
g,= VB; (6.28)
wn, = 119.69/sec
~y = 0.239
fn• = 19.05 Hz
 562
CASE HISTORIES CASE HISTORY OF A COMPRESSOR FOUNDATION 563

Rocking Vibrations
w~ 1 = 43678.4/sec'
11. Equivalent radius "'nt = 208.9/sec
fnt = 33.26 Hz
roq,
=(41)114
71"
4
17. Amplitudes in combined rocking and sliding, A;
l=3.93m
The damped amplitudes in sliding and rocking occasioned by the exciting
roq, = 1.4956 m
moment MY are, respectively,
12. Spring stiffness, k"'
MY V(w~y) 2
+ (2/;x Wny) 2 (6.55a)
AY = Mm!J.(w) 2
8Gr~"'
k"' = 3(""1---v7)
7
(6.34a) '
_ MYV (w~Y- w ) + (21;,wnyw)
2 2 2
A
kq, = 107851.2 t m/rad. (6.55b)
•- Mm!J.(w) 2
13. Limiting natural frequency in rocking in which

"'""' = fiF- mO
(6.37)

"'no = 72.35 sec - l

fn</> = 11.51 Hz
14. Inertia ratio B • (6.56)
B = 3(1- v) _1_
<I 8 5 (6.32) Ay = 0.0071 mm
pr O<l
A 1 = 3.47 x 10- 5 rad
s. = 3.293
Ah=A;=A,+hA• (6.130b)
15. 0.15
t;<l = (1 + B
1
)Vl'f;, (6.36) A;= 0.1091 mm
= 0.0192
18. Maximum vertical amplitude A;
Combined Rocking and Sliding
A v =A*=
z A z + (a/2)A <t> (6.130a)
16. Undamped natural frequencies '"''A; = 0.06156 mm
2 2 2 2

w4 - ( Wny + Wnq.,) w 2 + wnyWnq,

=
0 Torsional Vibrations
n '}' n 'Y (6.54a)

w~ 2 = 4740.5/sec 2 19. Equivalent radius r 0 •

"'"' = 68.85 /sec roo~= (21,/71")114 (6.58c)

fnz = 10.96 Hz r,, = 1.606 m
 564
CASE HISTORIES CASE HISTORY OF A COMPRESSOR FOUNDATION 565

20. Spring stiffness k•

Table 13.1. Computed Natural Frequencies and Amplitudes by Elastic
Half-Space Method
( 6.40a) Quantity
Frequency Free
21. Natural frequency of torsional vibrations w
, "" S. No.
or
Amplitude
Postdesign
Yo ~ 5.94 X 10- 6
Postmonitoring
y0 ~ 1.49 X 10-'
Vibrations
Y, ~ 1 X 10- 6
{7<;"
Wn.p = \jM (6.41a) 1 2 3 4 5
m'
1 fnz Hz 19.05 13.43
w,, ~ 152.68 sec_, 2 !,,Hz 17.28 12.18
!,.= 24.3 Hz 3 !,, Hz 11.51 8.12
4 f, 1 Hz 33.26 23.65 58.07
22. Inertia ratio B• 5 f, 2 Hz 10.96 7.05 13.01
6 f,. Hz 24.30 17.12
B = Mmz 7 Azmm 0.0031 0.00686
• 5 ( 6.38) 8 AYmm 0.0071 0.523
P'o.p
9 A, rad 3.47 x w-' 2.42 X 10- 4
s. = 3.4388 10 A;mm 0.1091 0.785
11 A;mm O.Q§U6 0.3031
23. Damping ratio ~. 12 A• rad 1.5 x '10- 6 2.396 X 10-'

(6.42)
= 0.0635
24. Amplitude A, (daniped)
A,,= 1.5 X 10- 6 rad
The values of the frequencies and amplitudes for different modes of
vibration are listed in Table 13.1, column 3.
Case 2. Postmonitoring: The foundation response was also calculated
using the values of dynamic shear modulus corresponding to the shear strain
levels in !?e soil induced by the operation of·the compressor, i.e., Yo=
1.49 x 10 . The calculatwns for thts case are performed in the same manner
2
as for Case 1 by using G = 400 kg/ cm • The values of the natural frequencies
and amplitudes for different modes of vibration are listed in Table 13.1,
column 4.
~ computation w~s also performed to find the natural frequency of the
honzontal free vtbra!ton. This was done by using the value of G at Yo = 10- 6.
The shear strain level of Yo~ 10- 6 corresponds to the free vibration condi-
tion. These values of computed natural frequency are shown in Table 13.1,
column 5.
The amplitudes of the horizontal and vertical vibrations computed by
using the elastic half-space method for the post design-type investigation
(Table 13.1, column 3) are 0.1091 and 0.06156mm, respectively. These
amplitudes are several times greater than the permissible peak to peak
amplitude of 0.025 mm. For the post monitoring-type investigation, the
values of the computed horizontal and vertical amplitudes (Table 13.1,
column 4) are 0.785 and 0.303 mm, which are also more than the permissible
amplitudes. A computation based upon the realistic values of the soil springs
at the design stage would have indicated an unsatisfactory performance for
the machine. This would have resulted in an effort to redesign the foun-
dation before the machine was installed to avoid later interruptions.
It must , however ~be noted that the shear strain with computed values .of
amplitudes are different than the values with which the natural frequenctes
and amplitudes have been computed. In actual design of machine foun-
dations another trail may be performed.
Linear Spring Theory
The foundation response was also calculated by using the linear spring
theory and the same cases as for the computation with Elastic Half-Space
566
CASE HISTORIES CASE HISTORY OF A COMPRESSOR FOUNDATION 567

theory were considered. The appropriate equations derived in Chapter 6 5. Natural frequency in combined rocking and sliding
were used for the computations.
Frequency equation
Case 1. Post design: The foundation response is calculated as though it 2 2 ) 2 2
were designed for a permissible amplitude of 0.00125 mm, "Yo = 5.94 x 10- 6,
4 - (wny + (J)nrb w2 + wny(J)n<P = 0 (6.112)
3 wn 1' n 'Y
and C" = 10.25 kg/cm for area of the compressor.
w !2 = 2775/ sec 2
Vertical Vibrations
w" 2 = 52.68/sec
1. Natural frequency of vertical vibrations w"' fu 2 = 8.38Hz
w:, = 28709.8/sec
w"' = ~C:nA (6.63a) fu 1 = 26.90 Hz
w"' = 119.76 sec 6. Amplitude of vibration occasioned by coupled rocking and sliding
fu, = 19.06 Hz
_ C,AL M (6.127)
A,- Ll.(w2) x
2. Amplitude of vertical vibrations A, (undamped)
Ll.(w 2) = m;I~(w:,- w )(w! 2 - w )
2 2 (6.122)
P,
Az = 2 2 (6.64b) Ll.(w 2) = 9.734 X 10 8
m(wn,- w )
A y =0.1333mm
A,= 0.00322mm
2
_ C,A-mw M (6.128)
3. Limiting natural frequency in sliding, wnx A1 - Ll.(w2) x

A.p = 6.16 x 10- 5 rad

Wny = ~C:nA (6.66a) A•= A;= A, +hA.; (6.130b)
C,= 112C" A*=
y 0.1998mm
wuy = 84.68/sec A~= A,+ ai2A<I (6.130a)
fuy = 13.74 Hz A,= 0.0787 mm

4. Limiting natural frequency in rocking wu<P Torsional Vibrations

7. Natural frequeflt:y of torsional vibrations w""'

Wu<P=& (6.74c)
mO
_ ~c.I, (6.81a)
C<l = 2C" Wn.p- M
m•
/=3.93m 4 c.=0.75C"
Mmo = 20.603 t m/sec 2 wu.p = 102.309/sec
fu<l = 9.95 Hz fn;• = 16.28 Hz
 5&8
CASE HISTORIES CASE HISTORY OF A HAMMER FOUNDATION 5&9

8. Amplitude of torsional vibrations A

• type investigation, the values of the horizontal and vertical amplitudes are
0.4552 mm and 0.135 mm, respectively. These values are more than the
A - M, allowable values, thereby necessitating a redesign of the foundation. This
1>-M(z z (6.83)
m' Wn1>- W ) could have been taken care of in the beginning if realistic values of the soil
parameters had been used to evaluate the design. Use of the linear spring
A•= 2.78 X 10- 6 rad
theory yields natural frequency value for the horizontal vibration of
14.75 Hz, which is in reasonable agreement with the observed natural
. The values of the computed response are tabulated in Table 13.2, column
3 frequency of 17.5 Hz.
It can be seen that whether the elastic half-space theory or linear spring
theory is used, the final conclusions, in this case, are more or less identical.
Case 2. Postmonit?ring: The foundation response has been calculated for
Nevertheless, there is an urgent need to monitor the performance data of
the ~peratmg cond1l!o~s of the compressor. The shear strain 'Yo for this
machine foundations, but these data are meaningful only if the dynamic
cond1t1~n IS 1.49 x 10- , :nd the value of C" for the area of compressor's
properties of the supporting soil are also obtained.
foundatiOn IS 5.13 kg/em. The response for this case was calculated as in
Case 1. The computed values are shown in Table 13.2, column 4. ..
In add1l!on to computing the vibration characteristics of the foundation
for the postdes1gn an? postmonitoring-type investigations, the frequency of 13.2 CASE HISTORY OF A HAMMER FOUNDATION
honzontal free Vlbral!oll~ was also calculated by using the value of c" that
corresponds to 'Yo= 10 . The results are shown in Table 13.2, column 5. General "5.,-:.;t-
. The precedmg computations show that for the postdesign-type inves- The performance of a 1. 55 t forging hammer is reviewed here. Its foun-
l!gal!on, the amplitudes of horizontal and vertical vibrations (Table 13.2, dation was designed by Prakash and Gupta (1970), who based their cal-
column 3) are 0.1998 and 0.0787 mm, respectively. For the postmonitoring- culations on the machine data supplied by the manufacturer and the soil
data obtained by in situ tests (Prakash et al., 1966). Earlier the supplier had
suggested a foundation. size that, according to the soil conditions at the site,
was found to be inadequate. A new foundation was therefore designed,
Ta~le 13.2 Computed Natural frequencies and Amplitudes by Linear taking into account the soil conditions and permissible amplitudes of
Sprong Theory vibrations. The amplitude response of this foundation was monitored under
working conditions. The natural frequency of the foundation was also
Quantity
computed from recorded observations. These details are briefly discussed
Frequency
or
Free below along with the calculations for the design and the computed and
Postdesign Postmoni to ring Vibrations
S. No. Amplitude 'Yo = 5.94 X 10- 6
observed responses.
'Yo - 1.49 X 10-' 'Yo 1 X 10- 6 The hammer had the following specifications:
1 2 3 4 5
1 fnz Hz 19.06 13.48 Tup weight without die = 1150kg
2 fny Hz 13.74 9.53 Maximum weight of top die = 400 kg
3 fn• Hz 9.95 7.05
4 Maximum falling weight W = 1550 kg
fnl Hz 26.90 19.07
5 36.77 Maximum tup str~fe h = 900 mm
fnzHZ 8.38 5.93 105
6 fn• Hz 16.28 11.53 Supply steam pressure p = 6-8 atm
7 A .. mm 0.0032 Cylinder diameter (internal)= 410 mm
0.0075
8 AYmm 0.133 Anvil block weight without
0.340
9 A<~>
rad 6.16 X 10- 5 1.049 x w-• die holder = 22.5 tons
10 A;mm 0.1998 0.4552 Anvil weight including
11 A;mm 0.0787 0.135 hammer frame = 34:5 tons
12 A• rad 2.78 x 6
w- 7x w- 6
Base area of anvil over pad = 2.00 x 1.20 = 2.4 m
2
570
CASE HISTORIES CASE HISTORY OF A HAMMER FOUNDATION 571

The limiting amplitudes of vibration of the anvil and foundation block

I
had not been specified. The allowable amplitudes of vibration of the Silty clay, CL
foundation and anvil were selected from Table 7 .1. N value at 1.5 m = 20

A foundation = 1.2 mm
A'"'" = 1.0 mm for 1-t hammer and 2.0 mm
for 2-t hammer
2.7 m
Sandy silt, SP- SM
Soil Data N value at 3 m = 14
3.15 m
The following tests (Prakash et al., 1966) were conducted to determine the
properties of the soil at site: (1) boring and sampling, (2) standard penetra- Silty sand, SM
N value at 3.6 m = 14
tion tests, (3) cyclic plate load tests, and (4) dynamic tests. A site plan
showing the locations where the various tests were performed is given in
Fig. 13.2.
4.5 m
The soil was angered to a depth of 6.75 m below the surface. Standard Medium to coarse sand, SW
penetration tests were conducted every time there was a change in ihe N value at 4.8 m = 14
4.95 m
strata. A log of the auger test is shown in Fig. 13.3. Based upon an
evaluation of the data, the following values for the soil parameters were Sandy,$ilt, SP
N value at 5.4 m = 15
adopted for the design: Allowable bearing capacity of 31.2 tim 2 and the
corrected value coefficient of elastic uniform compression C" for a 10m 2
area was 6.10 x 103 tim 3. 6.0 m

Medium to coarse sand, SW

N value at 6.6 m = 15
6.75 m Figure 13.3. Boring log at site, Courtesy, Ind. Geot. Soc.

1.5m
Design of the Foundation

9'" t
Cyclic plate N
load test The size of the foundation adopted for analysis is shown in Figs. 13.4. The
computations for the estimated response are given below:

1. Data Assumed for Design:

3.4 m
Material of pad below anvil-hard wood
4 2
Modulus of elasticity of pad E 2 = 5 X 10 tim
Thickness of pad below anvil t = 0.4 m

T
0.6~0 Dimensions of the foundation block= 6.50 X 5.70 X 1.30 m
Auger

5 25
l~'~;:_
To o.375 m r---3 m
~r load T1.5 m
Dimensions of reinforced cement concrete walls= 0.50 m x 1.13 m
...\
all around an~il
Unit weight of reinforced cement concrete= 2.4 tim'
Unit weight of backfill= 1.76 tim 3
.lmL__0_._37_5_m
_test
_ __ J 1.5 m Coefficient of elastic uniform compression for impact loading C" =
Dynamic
6.1 x 103 tim 3
Coefficient of restitution e = 0.5
r---4.425 m---1 Coefficient, which takes into account counterpressure and frictional
Figure 13.2. Location of field tests, Courtesy, Ind. Geot. Soc. forces, or efficiency of drop '7 = 0.65
 CASE HISTORY OF A HAMMER FOUNDATION 573

2. Soil Contact Area and Weight of Foundation. The foundation area in

Expansion joint 2
filled with asphalt
contact with the soil A 1 = 6.50 x 5.70 = 37.05 m The combined weight of
Anvil the foundation and backfill was,
Floor level
3
Block= 6.50 x 5.70 x 1.30

fT
Timber pad 400 mm 48.165 m
3
Walls= 2 X 3.70 X 0.50 X 1.13 = 4.181 m
3
Walls= 2 X 1.90 X 0.50 X 1.13 = 2.147 m
54.493 m 3 x 2.40 = 130.78 tons
+2430
~-~-~--- 2100--___..;1-1--1

il
100 Backfill= 2 X 6.50 X 1.40 X 1.13 20.5660
500 300 300 500
Backfill= 2 X 2.90 X 1.40 X 1.13 = 9.1756
3
Foundation block 29.7416 m x 1.76 = 52.34 tons

r- l" ;~ ·+'r_·~-" -~=" -:-= ~;" g " _" _" _ " _z _z ':i_·~ ~:lz•=1zz4oo-1=·,!, T
22
14oo,-'"f, The total weight of the foundation and backfill W1 was equal2 to

t
r-------------6500·---------~--+1
Longitudinal section
1,1
183.12 tons. Therefore, the total mass m 1 was 183.12/9.81 = 18.65 t sec /m.

3. Naturql Frequencies of the Foundation for the Hammer System. Ap-

propriate eqhations derived in Cli'.1l"pter 7 were used for the computations.
4 2
The modulus of elasticity of the pad E 2 = 5 X 10 t/m
Thickness of the pad t = 0.4 m
2
Area of the anvil over the pad= A 2 = 2.4 m
Coefficient of rigidity of the pad k 2
level
EA 2 (7.1)
k,= -t-

k,=30X 10 4 t/m
2
The mass of the anvil and frame m 2 = 3.5 t sec /m
The limiting natural frequency of anvil on pad wn 1,

4
2 k2 30 X 10 (2.99b)
Wnt2= m2 = 3.5

1400~
2
w~ 1 , = 8.57
4
X 10 /sec
100

r------------5700--------~~
..
fn 1, = 46.6 Hz

Transverse section The limiting natural frequency of the entire system resting on the soil
(b)
wnll' 2
The area of the foundation in contact with the soil was 37.05 m , which is
Figure 13.4. Details of the hammer foundation: (a) Longitudinal section, (b) Transverse 3 3 2
section.
larger than 10m 2 Therefore, Cn = 6.1 X 10 t/m for a 10m area was
selected for the design.
Limiting natural frequency of the anvil and foundation system on soil wn 11
572
 574
CASE HISTORIES CASE HISTORY OF A HAMMER FOUNDATION S75

(2.99a)
5m EJ \---5.7
I
m--J
OPunching
k 1 = C"A
k 1 = 22.6 x 10 4 tim
(4.27)
1 4.57 m
l press

W~ 11 = 1.0203 X 10 /sec 4 2

fnll = 16.07 Hz !(A Observation

\U locations

The ratio of mass of anvil to that of the foundation !L = m,!m = 0.1875 Figure 13.5. Layout of vibration measuring points, Courtesy, Indian Geot. Soc.
1

The combined n_atural frequencies of the anvil and foundation system

Frequency equatwn: ·
(7.5b)
(2.98)
A,=0.956mm

fn2 = 15.90 Hz Monitored Response of the Foungation

,·
Wn 1 = 322.18/ sec The behavior of the foundation was carefully observed after it was installed.
There were no undesirable vibrations transmitted from the foundation to the
fn1 = 51.27 Hz adjoining area as a result of the hammer's operation. The vibratory response
Amplitudes of anvil and foundation of the foundation was monitored under normal operating conditions. Ac-
celeration transducers were used to sense the vibrations, and their output
Velocity of dropping parts Vr, was amplified through universal amplifiers and recorded by oscillographs.
Records of vibrations were obtained for the anvil and the foundation as well
I (W+pA) as for the surrounding area at locations as shown in Fig. 13.5. A typical
VTi=11y2g W n h (7.7) record obtained during the observations is shown in Fig. 13.6.
Displacement of the anvil and the foundation was obtained by integrating
Vr, = 7.63 m/sec
the recorded acceleration time history records twice. The values of the
Initial velocity of anvil motion Vn computed and observed vibration amplitudes (Prakash and Gupta, 1970) are
compared in Table 13.3.
1+e
V, = -1-V:T. (7.1la)

I
+s '
V, = 0.497 m/sec
g

Amplitude of vibration of foundation block A ~:..

'
2 2 )( 2 2
z =A= ( wntz-wnz wntz-wn 1 )V
1 ' '(' 2 (7.5a)
Wnf2 Wnl- Wnz)wn2 a

A,=0.844mm
Paper speed 125 mm/sec
Amplitude of vibration of the anvil A n
Figure 13.6. A typical vibration record.
 577
576 CASE HISTORIES REFERENCES

upta D. c. (1970). Design and performance of a 1.55 t forging hammer

Table 13.3. Comparison of Computed and P ra k as h , S ., an d G ' 9(2) 128-142
Observed Amplitudes foundation. J. Indian Nat. Soc. Soil Mech. Found. Eng. • ·
K (198 4) "Final report on Dynamic Analysis and Settlement
Prakash S an d K umar • · · · " 1 28
Amplitudes, mm Inv~sti~ations of Foundations for Air Compressor (~ffsite) at BRPL, Bongatgaon, - ·
Central Building Res. lost., Roorkee, Roorkee, Indta. . .
Location Computed Observed · y K (1981) Observed and predicted response of a machme foundatiOn.
Prakash, S. , an d Pun, · · · 1 3 269 272
Anvil 0.956 1.08 Proc. Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., 9th, Stockholm, Vo · , . - · ..
Foundation block 0.844 0.423 · y K (1984) Behavior of compressor foundattons: Predtctlons and
Prakash, S., an d P un, · · · · MO VII 4 1705-
observations. Proc. Int. Conf. Case Hist. Geotech. Eng., St. Lows, ' 0 • •

,
~-
S G
. c .
D c and Agarwal, S~ L. (1966). "Report on Beanng apactty an
d
Prakash, ., upta, · ., A 1 d t · Yamunanagar"
The computed values of the amplitude of vibration of the anvil and the Dynamic Soil Constants for Forging J:Iammer of Jamna uto n us nes, ·
observed value under normal operating conditions are of the same order of University of Roorkee, Roorkee, Indta. .
. d w d R D (1982). Foundations for auto shredders. Int. Conf. Soli
magnitude. The amplitude of vibration of the foundation block was com- Rtchart, F. E., Jr., an oo s, . ·
Dyn. Earthquake Eng., 1st, Southampton, Vol. 2, 811-824. . .
puted to be 0.844 mm, whereas its observed value was 0.423 mm. The Wan X. K. ( 1984). A case study on decreasing vibrations of ~achme foundations and
computed amplitude of the foundation block is thus greater than the ;;ructures. Proc. Int. Conf. Case Hist. (}eotech. Eng., St. Louts, MO, Vol. 2, 787-792.
observed value (Table 13.3). This was to be expected, because the damping
had not been accounted for in computing the amplitude of the foundation.
The design of the foundation in this case was adequate, and the foundation's
performance has since been satisfactory, thereby implying the adequacy of
the design for this case.

13.3 FINAL COMMENTS

The two cases of monitored performance of prototype machine foundations

that have been described in this chapter stress the importance of an
adequate design using realistic values for the soil parameters. It is necessary
to procure data on performance so that a rational evaluation of the design
procedures can be made. Such an attempt is meaningful only if data on the
dynamic soil properties is also obtained. The construction aspects have a
very important effect on the performance of the machine's foundation.
Guha (1984) published data for several block foundations, and Wang
(1984) described a case study of decreasing vibration amplitudes for ma-
chine foundations and structures. These data need to be interpreted more
realistically for one to be able to arrive at a meaningful conclusion.

REFERENCES

Guha, S. K. (1984). Vibration studies of block type foundations. Proc. Int. Conf. Case Hist.
Geotech. Eng., St. Louis, MO. Vol. 3, 1!47-1!54.
Kumar, K., Prakash, S., Dalal, M. K., and Bhandari, R. K. M. (1985). Dynamic analysis and
performance of compressor foundations. Proc. Symp. Vib. Probl. Geotech. Eng., Am. Soc.
Civ. Eng., Annu. Conv., Detroit, 286-300.
Madshus, C. F., Nadim, A., Engen, and Lerstol, A. M. (1985). Low tuned compressor
foundations on soft clay. Proc. Symp. Vib. Probl. Geotech. Eng., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng.,
Annu. Conv., Detroit, 117-136.
14
The Construction of
Machine Foundations
The proper construction of a machine foundation is very important, because
if care is not exercised during the construction, all of the effort put forth in
rigorously designing the foundation and the dollars spent in its development
will be wasted, Besides that, the commissioning of the machine may be
delayed or early unscheduled interruptions may cause a loss of production,
the value of which may far exceed the cost of the machine and its
foundation. Thus, sound construction coupled with a realistic design can
contribute significantly to long-term performance and trouble-free opera-
tion.
Some construction-related defects that can lead to the malfunctioning of a
machine are improper curing of the concrete, unrestricted height of the
pour, undesired and lengthy interruptions in pouring the concrete, neg-
ligence in building the construction joints, and imperfect alignment of the
machine frame with the foundation. Because of careless construction, the
alignment of openings and pockets may shift during concreting and a lot of
chipping may be required later. Cracks and seprations at cold joints may
cause difficulties. Thus, it can be seen that the construction of machine
foundations is a matter needing great care, and precautions in addition to
those normally observed in the construction of reinforced concrete to
achieve a well compacted, dense matrix that has a good bond with its steel
reinforcement. The standard requirements for reinforced concrete construc-
tion are given in the code ACI 318-83 (AmericanConcrete Institute, 1983),
but for the specific problems of machine foundations, additional considera-
tions are discussed below.
Machine foundations are either of the block type or frame type. Both are
discussed below. Sometimes it may be necessary to alter the size of an
existing foundation, and for this purpose the method of bonding new
concrete to old concrete is included in the discussion. The erection and
interfacing of a machine to the foundation is also described.
578
CONSTRUCTION ASPECTS OF BLOCK FOUNDATIONS 579
14.1 CONSTRUCTION ASPECTS OF BLOCK FOUNDATIONS
Concreting
1. The selection of the aggregates and proportioning of concrete mix
should be made according to specifications laid down in ACI 301 (American
Concrete Institute, 1975) or similar prevalent codes dealing with use of
concrete for general building construction.
2. The ultimate compressive strength of concrete should be in accord
with the criteria set forth in ACI 318-83 (American Concrete Institute,
1983). If no information is available, the ultimate strength of concrete
should not be less than 150 kg/cm 2 or 2.2 ksi.
3. The concreting should be done in horizontal lifts. The first pour should
be done in a 300-mm (12-in) layer and subsequent pours in 400-mm (16-in)
layers.
4. The height of the pour should be as low as possible, and one must
make sure.that the concrete does not segregate.
5. The foundation should t;'<;',';,oncreted in a single pour to avoid cold
joints. If it is necessary to have a time gap between two successive pours,
the time should be short and should not exceed 30 min.
6. Because of practical difficulties, sometimes a single pour may not be
possible, and a cold joint becomes unavoidable. In this case, it should be
considered as a construction joint and its location chosen with care. The
monolithicity of the structure at this construction joint should be ensured by
providing a suitable number of dowels and shear keys through the joint, and
quality control and supervision during the operation. The dowels should be
long enough to assure a full capacity bond. Their length beyond the joint
should be 4.0 diameters or 12 in, whichever is more. The dowels may be
made using #5 or #6 bars.
To attain an adequate joint in mass concrete construction, such as in
casting a block, one must provide shear connectors (U-bars) at the level of
the joint. A strong bond between old and new concrete can be made by
roughening or honeycombing the upper surface of the old concrete. The
upper surface should be cleaned with a hard wire brush and then covered
with a thin layer of Cfment grout before the new concrete is poured. For
specific guidelines fo?rorming a proper joint, one should follow those given
in the building codes or ACI: 318-83 (American Concrete Institute, 1983).
7. Care should be taken to avoid bulging of the concrete at offsets by
using suitably designed form work.
8. The areas around openings and pockets should be concreted with care.
9. The foundation should be properly cured. Improper curing may lead
to shrinkage cracks, which may widen after the machine is in operation.
 580 THE CONSTRUCTION OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS

Reinforcement
,-f-.s0
Reinforcement for a Foundotion Block. Massive block foundations do
~ ...•
0

not have the same structural requirements as beams or columns. Therefore, "'
N
D
~
they are provided with only minimal reinforcement to take care of tem-
perature and shrinkage effects. According to ACI 318 (American Concrete

----
Institute, 1983), the minimum steel reinforcementt should be approximately .,;
0
0.0018 times the gross concrete area in each direction. The steel bars should 0

be spaced no farther than 18 in center to center. The minimum cover of ~~ ~

<D c
concrete for protection of reinforcement should be 75 mm (3 in) at the ....~
~

bottom and 50 mm (2 in) on the sides and tops. Details for a typical block "'
.,;
e
foundation, which was provided to support a compressor unit of medium "'"'
N
i:'
capacity, are shown in Figure 14.1a, and b. Q

t:
The reinforcement details for the foundation block of an impact machine ••
are similar to those discussed above except for the top portion of the block a'6
below the anvil where additional reinforcing bars are required to take care
of stresses occasioned by impact. The spacing of the bars in this part of the
~~ ·~c
0 Q
block is usually kept on 100-mm ( 4-in) centers. Typical reinforcement details J. 0 ~

for a hammer foundation are shown in Figure 14.2a and b. "' g

l-- L--_j· 0
,;.;
v
<D
Reinforcement around Openings and Cavities. A steel reinforcement .,; "' ~
equal to 0.5 to 0. 75 percent of a cross-sectional area of an opening or cavity
should be installed around all such features. This must be provided in the
form of a cage. In the case of circular openings, the reinforcement should
overlap for a length equal to 40 times the bar diameter or should extend
0
0
':!..
~\
lo= F==o~ ..

t.
""
c
0
t;
••
•
•• :9 '0
>
!c
v
0
v
~

t
~
_j
300 mm (12 in) beyond the point of intersection. Typical reinforcement 2 ~
details around a circular opening are shown in Figure 14.3. .,; ~-==]
~
t; ~
"0 E
--- c .5
~~ •~
0
00
E
"' •v •<
•
14.2 CONSTRUCTION ASPECTS OF FRAME FOUNDATIONS "\ •---, ··.· .ec .•<c
"- ''\.___~ ':1+g '!i ~
• •
Concreting -~ E ..
~ "' .:! -c:
The construction of a frame foundation involves the concreting of the
~ ; . =-=
base slab, columns, and deck slab. The concrete mix should be blended to
""'c
>--

ensure the strength required by the design. This can be done by following •• t ·i. !
the recommendations of ACI 301 (American Concrete Institute, 1975) or
v
D
~
other relevant building codes. In contrast to the construction. of block
foundations, flexural strength is a very important factor in the design of t~<
~ :--.-..._
~~~ .i i
'~

frame foundations and should receive the utmost consideration. 0

N
""

Concreting the Base Slab. The base slab is usually concreted in a single, N

continuous pour in the same manner as for a block foundation.

:':I -
~~ ~
t For grade 60 steel bars. 1:
581
 CONSTRUCTION ASPECTS OF FRAME FOUNDATIONS 583

12-mm diam. 200 mm c/c Opening

~
10 bars 12m~ cement
200m200
~ '.I / /
~
300 'xfX v
6 Dowels
12-mm-diam.
- t-300 lb

0-mm-diam. bars\ ~~
1-
1-300 ~ /
"'
100 mm ~/c 1- 1-250 3 ::----::

lJ
f
150
IX'!>
I/ Vi'
Figure 14.3. Typical reinforcement details
around a circular opening.

'
[\ ~ 22~Im-diam. bars-
} Concreting the Columns and Deck Slab. Although the concreting of the
base slab, columns, and deck slab in a single continuous pour is desirable, it
is usually not possible from a practical standpoint. As a result, a construc-
12-mm~iam. bars 20-mmlam. 200 mm c/c '}-mm diam. 120 mm c/c . , { tion joint is formed between the columns and the base slab. Details of a
200 mm c/c 4 bars 12 mm
250 mm c/c typical construction joint formed between the columns and the base slab are
shown in Fig. 14.4. The concreting of the columns and the deck slab is then
completed in one pour with the necessary precautions being taken to ensure
6500 the monolithjcity of the structur~.,J:Vhen the column heights are more than
(a) 6 m (20ft) concreting of the superstructure in one pour may not be feasible,
and it may be necessary to provide a second construction joint, but generally
such a joint is not recommended.
12-mm diam. 200 The provision of a construction joint in the top part of a column near the
200 mm c/c
\
1-H 200 deck will aid in the construction and reduce the height of the pour, thereby
10 bars 12 mm~r.==rn=~F't;:=r=r=;=or=;=ililr==;r reducing the chances of the concrete becoming segregated. A construction
10-mm-diam. bars 100 mm 1-~~~ joint is a weak plane from the standpoint of shear strength, and in
c/c
4 bars 12 mm diam.
n~ 1-
300
2'mm c/c t- 250
~ d. Main column
reinforcement

v
?Dowels

I 20-mm diam.
200 mm c/c
~- --22-mm diam. bars
20 mni diam. 120 mm c/c
1
12-mm diam. bars
p.--- iY -column

Dowels 12-mm diam. (spacing) 200 mm c/c

vshear key
L'
i------------5700--------4 "
(b)

Figure 14.2. (a) Reinforcement details for a hammer foundation: (a) longitudinal section; (b) Base slab ~c-
cross section. (After Prakash and Gupta, 1970.)
lJ u._
Figure 14.4. Typical details of a base slab~column joint (other reinforcement details not shown
for clarity).
582
584 THE CONSTRUCTION OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS
CONSTRUCTION ASPECTS OF FRAME FOUNDATIONS 585

structural considerations alone. The reinforcement in the base slab is

generally set at a minimum with regard to anticipated temperature changes
and shrinkage. This minimum for block foundations is 0.0018 of the
concrete area in all three directions as set forth by the ACI-318 (American
Concrete Institute, 1983) specifications and is provided in the form of 15 to
25 mm (0.6 to. 1 in) diameter bars spaced on 18 in centers in all three
directions. For the slabs, the amount of reinforcing steel should be designed
and provided according to structural requirements. A minimum concrete
cover of 100 mm ( 4 in) should be provided on all sides, Typical details of
Frame column reinforcement in a base slab of a frame foundation are shown in Fig. 14.6.
t
To base slab Reinforcement in Columns and Deck Slab. The amount of reinfor-
cement for columns and a deck slab is determined by the structural design.
(a)
The ties and stirrups should be designed to satisfy the requirements of the
building codes or ACI 318 (American Concrete Institute, 1983).
A
v The minimum diameter of the longitudinal steel for beams should be
30 I I selected so that the spacing of bars does not exceed 150 mm ( 6 in). The
~

~
0
0
u
I
I v I
I minimum amount of shear reinfor~~>ment in the beams and deck slab should
•
"' :
I
v J_ I
be as per ACI 318 (American Concrete Institute, 1983) requirements. The
steel reinforcement in the columns should be determined from structural

30
r
I
I v I
I
requirements. The minimum number of reinforcement bars in columns shall
be four when rectangular or circular ties are used and six when spirals are
~

"
u:
B
I
I
I
v I
I
I
-16 mm used. The minimum cover of concrete over the reinforcement bars should be
50 mm (2 in) on all sides for columns and pedestals and 40 mm (1.5 in) for
10 mm Stirrups beams. The vertical reinforcing bars in the columns should have adequate
I / I
embedment in the base slab to ensure their full strength in bond. A
I I 4-16 mm
schematic of the reinforcement for the components of a turbogenerator
: A : frame is shown in Fig. 14. 7.
'
(b)

Figure 14.5. Details of a typical construction joint in frame columns: (a) frame column; (b)
section of column with reinforcement; (c) plan of joint.

Dowel bars

reinforced concrete construction, such joints are placed at points of zero or

minimum shear. The shear force on the frame columns is uniform,. and if the
/(/\ Shear stirrups

provision of a second construction joint in the columns of a frame foun- v

dation is accepted in principle, its location on the columns is immaterial. A
Shear
typical joint in a column may, if necessary, be designed as shown in Fig. I-- key
14.5.
v Base slab

Reinforcement /-
Trans verse !'- Longitudinal
Reinforcement in the Base Slab. The base slab of a frame foundation ba<S bars
generally has a depth which is much greater than that required from Figure 14.6. Typical reinforcement details for base slab of a frame foundation.
586 THE CONSTRUCTION OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ERECTION AND INTERFACING OF A MACHINE TO THE FOUNDATION 587

r--b--+-b---1
I
II 1
X--- -
a
a
,--+--
0

0
I

'
0

0
- ---x

IaI (b) lei

T I
(a)

~I

Foundation Anchor bolts

(b)

(d)
(e)
Figure 14·:a. Positioning of anchor bolts.

Figure 14;7. Typical reinforcement in members of a frame foundation: (a) and (b) for cross
beam; (c) longitudinal beam with cantilever projection; (d) column; (e) becim column joint. adequate. The minimum clearance between the bolt holes and the edge of
the foundation should not be less than 80 mm (3 in), as shown in Fig. 14.9.
The length of the bolts is usually decided with regard to the bond and should
be 40 times the diameter of the bolts. In case it is not possible to provide for
14.3 ERECTION AND INTERFACING OF A MACHINE TO
the full length of the anchor bolts, an arrangement of the anchor bolts
THE FOUNDATION
similar to that shown in Fig. 14.10 should be used. The position of the
anchor bolts should invariably be fixed with reference to the axis of the
The machine, base plate, and other equipment that have precise tolerance
machine.
for alignment cannot be placed directly on the finished concrete surface. The
After the base plate has been leveled, the space under it should be
irregularities on the concrete surface and the machine base cause alignment
grouted. The grout used should be nonshrinking type and should provide
problems.
complete contact with the top surface of the concrete foundation and
After the concrete is set, steps are initiated to install a machine on the
foundation. The machine is fixed to the foundation with the help of a base
plate and anchor bolts. The concreting of the foundation is terminated at the
level of the base plate, and the gap is filled later with mortar after the base
plate is leveled. The thickness of the grout below the base plate varies from
20 to 50 mm (0. 75 to 2 in) depending upon the size of the base plate. The
base plate is fixed to the foundation by anchor bolts. The anchor bolts are
kept in position before concreting with the help of a template (Fig. 14.8),
I I

I I
I I
I

1->< 80
•~ !
1
J2000mm
I I
which is removed after the concrete is set. Alternatively, by using suitable I I I I
form work, pockets may be left in the concrete at the predetermined
positions of the anchor bolts. In this case, the bolt holes are filled with
mortar after placing the base plate and aligning the bolts. Holes for the bolts
rJ L
I
L __
U 200mm
Figure 14.9. Details of a bolt hole close to
should not be too large. A 150 mm x 150 mm (6 in x 6 in) hole is generally H+3oo+H
mm the edge.
588 THE CONSTRUCTION OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS INSTALLATION OF SPRING ABSORBERS 589

opening should be insulated to a length of at least 150 mm (6 in) from the

intersection point to avoid any stray currents occasioned by induction.

I
X
'I X Split
14.4 GAP AROUND THE FOUNDATION
half
To minimize the transmission of vibrations to adjoining structures, a gap
w=~ should be provided around the foundation as shown in Fig. 14.1. For frame
Section at YY foundations, a clear gap should be provided around the base as well as
Piece of rod around the deck slab. The gap around the foundation should be kept free
welded to split ends from debns .. ~f contact of the machine foundation with an adjoining

L[jbJ II 11
structural umt IS unavOidable, two layers of a resilient material such as felt
may be used at the interface.

II II
Plan at XX

Figure 14.10. Typical details of an anchor bolt. 14.5 BONDING OF FRESH TO OLD CONCRETE

It may be necessary to bond freSh to old concrete to repair a defective

maintain a uniform support. Cement grouts cons1stmg of expansive and
hydraulic cements and additives to compensate for shrinkage effects or
epoxy grouts with specially blended aggregates and fillers that will reduce or
eliminate shrinkage can be used. Epoxy grouts have the advantage of
chemical resistance, high early strength, and impact resistance, but are
sensitive to increase in temperatures.
Grout should be placed below the base plate without trapping air or
water. Preblended grout mixes are commercially available and a proper
choice should be made after a careful consideration of properties of the
grout mix and the specific requirements of a given job.
To prevent the concrete from spalling at the edges of the foundation, a
border of steel angle irons may be provided, as shown in Fig. 14.11. Holes
are generally left in the body of the concrete for the lugs of the angle iron.
These are subsequently grouted along with the floor finish.
For generator foundations, the reinforcement on either side of the bus
Angle corner
concrete surface brought about through an unforeseen interruption in the
concreting or as a result of a defective casting or improper curing. Also, if
for some reason the surface after concreting is loose, it would be necessary
to provide a hard surface for proper machine performance. In such cases,
the affected area should be chipped off up to 100 mm ( 4 in) and cleaned.
Shear keys should then be cut into the surface. The number and size of
shear keys depend upon the extent of the surface being repaired. A
minimum of four shear keys should be provided. The size of the shear keys
should be 75 X 75 X 600 mm (3 X 3 X 24 in). They should be thoroughly
cleaned. The surface so exposed, including the grooves for the shear keys,
may be treated with epoxy. This would consist of Araldite (100 parts),
hardener (40 parts), and filler silica (4 parts) and be applied in three thin
coats. When the last coat is sticky, rich concrete mix should be poured and
vibrated. Additional steel bars 10 mm (0.375 in) in diameter may be placed
in the grooves for the shear keys.
This process of bonding fresh concrete to old concrete is quite expensive
and is feasible for small areas only.
...:,

14.6 INSTALLATION OF SPRING ABSORBERS

The methods of installing spring absorbers for a machine foundation depend

on the type of the absorber system. There are two types of spring absorber
systems: the supported and the suspended type. These have been described
Figure 14.11. Typical detail at insert. in Chapter 10 (Section 10.1).
590 THE CONSTRUCTION OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS INSTALLATION OF SPRING ABSORBERS 591

Machine
Supported Type
Heavy Mass above the Springs Not Required. For spring-supported
foundation systems for which a heavy mass above the springs is not needed,
the machine can be directly mounted on a rigid metal frame resting on
springs (Fig. 14.12). This arrangement is used for well-balanced machines
that are essentially unaffected by the unbalanced exciting forces associated
with the high harmonics of operating frequency. The principal stages of
constructing such a foundation are as follows:
Frame beam {embedded in foundation block)
1. The base slab construction is similar to that of a block foundation. Its
thickness depends upon the machine foundation design and generally varies Upper
plates _Springs
from 0.3 to 1.2 m (1 to 4ft).
2. Before the base slab is cast, anchor bolts are placed at predetermined
locations for attaching the lower plates of the spring absorber. When the
concrete is set, the lower· plates of the absorbers are fixed at the proper
locations.
3. A rigid prefabricated metal frame (consisting of rolled s(eel sections) is
installed above the lower plates of the absorbers (Fig. 14.12.).
4. The springs are placed on the lower plates and covered at the top with Figure 14.13. Supported-type spring absorber with upper foundation block.
the upper plates, which are bolted to the upper metallic frame.
5. The upper part of the foundation (the metal frame) is leveled by
adjusting the regulating bolt. are as follows:

Heavy Mass above the Springs Is Required. A heavy mass above the
springs is required in cases where the operation of the machine induces large
unbalanced forces at higher harmonics of operating frequency. The heavy
mass is provided hy placing another concrete block above the springs, as
shown in Fig. 14.13. The principal stages of constructing such a foundation
Machine
Upper plate
lower plate
Figure 14.12. Supported-type spring absorber system with machine attached to metal frame.
1. The base slab construction is similar to the previous case. Anchors for
holding the lower plates of the absorbers are fixed in position before the slab.
is cast.
2. When the concrete is set, the top surlace of the base slab is covered
with tar paper to prevent direct contact with the upper foundation block,
which is subsequently cast over it. (Fig. 14.13).
3. The lower plates of the spring absorbers are fixed at predetermined
locations.
4. A rigid metal frame consisting of rolled steel sections is installed over
the lower absorber plates.
5. The form work for the upper foundation is then constructed, and the
foundation is cast. The beams of the metal frame are also set into the lower
part of the foundatiol'K block. Depending upon the arrangement of the
absorbers and type of frame used, cavities may be needed in the lower part
of the upper foundation block to provide access for the springs.
6. The springs are placed in position after the concrete in the upper block
is set. The tops of the springs are covered by plates, which are bolted to the
beams.
7. The upper block is leveled by adjusting the regulating bolts of the
springs.
592 THE CONSTRUCTION OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS

The spring assembly shown in Figure 10.4b can be set directly between
the lower slab and the upper foundation block. In such a case, the upper
block is cast over the spring casing, which is kept in position. The spring is Appendixes
kept compressed during construction, but is loosened afterward so that the
weight of the upper foundation block and machine is transferred to the
springs.

Suspended Type
A foundation on a suspended type absorber system (Fig. 10.4) can be
constructed along similar lines to those of supported-type systems. The
principal stages of construction are as follows:

1. The foundation below the springs (Fig. 10.4) is concreted first.

2. When the concrete has hardened, two or three layers of tar paper are
placed on the foundation slab (Fig. 10.4) and on that part where the slabs of
the absorber are to be placed.
3. A prefabricated frame of rolled steel beams is installed above the
foundation slab. The projecting sills of this frame serve as a support for the
anchor plates of regulating bolts of the absorber.
4. When the form work for the upper part of the foundation is laid,
cavities are left for each absorber. The concrete is then cast.
5. When the concrete is set, the absorbers are mounted. The springs are
placed on the lower slab of the absorbers and are covered by upper
supporting slabs, which are bolted to the girders.
6. The foundation is leveled by adjusting the regulating bolts of the
springs.
The computer programs in Appendixes 1 and 2 are included for the
convenience pf the reader. The B[OJ>;rams were written for personal compu-
ters using FORTRAN 77 Compile(: The computer program in Appendix 1
is for calculating the steady-state response of a rigid block foundation in
different modes of vibration. Similarly, the program in Appendix 2 can be
used for calculating the natural frequencies and vibration amplitudes of a
hammer foundation considering an undamped two-degrees-of-freedom sys-
tem. Some problems in the text were solved using these programs. Detailed
comments are included in the program. Additional aid may be obtained
from the solved text examples that have been listed in each of the two
appendixes to help in determining the order of input quantities.

In the preceding sections of this chapter the authors have tried to project
the salient features which need special attention during construction of a
machine foundation. However this discussion is by no means comprehensive
so far as total construction is concerned. The reader must, however follow
accepted construction/installation procedures as per relevant codes of prac-
tice in a particular country.
REFERENCES
Disclaimer for Computer Programs
The programs in Appendixes 1 and 2 are intended for instructional purpose
only. These programs are not sophisticated and are not meant to compete
with commercial programs. The authors and the publisher are not respons-
ible for any damages arising out of the use of these programs. The use of
these programs to solve problems other than those displayed in these
appendixes and correct or incorrect interpretation of the results obtained is
the sole responsibility ~f the user.

American Concrete Institute (1975). "Specifications for Structural Concrete for Buildings,"
ACI Comm. 301. ACI, Detroit, MichigaJl.
American Concrete Institute (1983). "Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Con-
crete," ACI Comm. 318-83. ACI, Detroit, Michigan.
Major, A. (1980). "Dynamics in Civil Engineering: Analysis and Design," Vol. 2.
Akademiai Kiad6, Budapest.
Prakash, S., and Gupta, D. C. (1970). Design and performance of a 1.55 t forging hammer
foundation. J. Indian Natl. Soc. Soil Mech. Found. Eng. 9(2), 129-142.
593
APPENDIX 1
Computer Program for the
Design of a Block
Foundation

This program calculates the undamped natural frequencies and damped or

undamped amplitudes of vibratio~ p.f a rigid-block-type foundation for
different mo'des of vibration usfii'if the elastic half-space analogs and
the procedure of Section 6.8.

The options available are:

.......................................................................
Case l=vertical vibrations along Z axis occasioned by a force Pz
Case 2=torsional vibrations about Z axis occasioned by a moment Mz
Case3=translation along X axis and rotation about Y axis, occasioned by
a horizontal force Px and a moment My
Case 4=translation along Y axis and rotation about X axis, occasioned by
a force PY and a moment Mx
• 0 0 0 0. 0 0 0 0 0 0 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

Option !=undamped vertical amplitude (Case 1)

Option 2=damped vertical amplitude (Case I)
Option 3=undamped amplitude of torsional vibrations (Case 2)
Option4=damped amplitude of torsional vibrations (Case 2)
OptionS=undamped amplitudes for translation along X axis and rotation
about Y axis ~Px+Mr; Case 3)
Option6=damped amplitudes for translation along X axis and rotation
about Y axis (Px+My; Case 3)
Option 7=undamped amplitudes for translation along Y axis and rotation
about X axis (Py+Mx; Case 4)
Option 8=damped amplitudes for translation along Y axis and rotation
about X axis (Py+Mx; Case 4)

595
596 APPENDIX 1 COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR THE DESIGN OF A BLOCK FOUNDATION 597

The input quantities are: IMPLICIT REAL(A-Z)

W=weight of the foundation block including weight of the machine in INTEGER I
tons CHARACTER'! Q,Y,TITLE(120)
A=area of the foundation in. contact with the soil in m2 CHARACTER'14 FILEOP
L=height of the combined center of gravity of the machine and the
DATA CASE1,CASE2,CASE3,CASE4/0.,0.,0.,0.I
foundation above the base in m DATA
& NO PI ,NOP2 ,NOP3 ,NOP4 ,NOPS ,NOP6,NOP7 ,NOPB/0, ,0, ,0. ,0. ,0. ,0. ,0. ,0.1
Lx=maximum distance of the p~int where horizontal amplitude is to be DATA YI'Y'i
calculated from the axis of rocking (this distance is to be given as WRITE(',')'IIP 0/P-DATAFILE NAME'
input when excitation is due to a horizontal force Px and moment My. READ(',915)FILEOP
Lx will be measured parallel to X axis in m, 915 FORMAT(A14)
Ly=maximum distance of the point where horizontal amplitude is to be OPEN( 2,FILE = FILEOP, STATUS= 'NEW')
calculated from the axis of rocking. (This distance is to be given WRITE(',')'IIP PROBLEM TITLE(I)'
as input when the excitation is due to a horizontal force P7 and READ(',6669) (TITLE(I),I=1,120)
moment Mx. Ly will be measured parallel to axis of Y in m. WRITE(2,6668) (TITLE(I),I=1,120)
R=maximum horizontal distance of the point from Z axis where 6668 FORMAT( lOX, 'TITLE=' ,120AI,I,I,I,72('•'),11)
horizontal amplitude occasioned by torsional vibrations is to be 6669 FORMAT(120Al)
calculated WRITE(',') 'DO YOU WANT CASE !(TRANSLATION -Z)?'
G=dynamic shear modulus in t/m 2 READ(',914)Q
v=Poisson' s ratio 914 FORMAT(Al)
IF(Q.EQ.Y) CASEI=l.O
lx=moment of inertia of the area of the foundation about an axis WRITE(',') 'DO YOU WANT CASE 2(TORSIONAL -Z)?'
passing through its centroid and parallel to x axis in m4
READ(',914)Q
ly=moment of inertia of the area of the foundation about an axis IF(Q.EQ.Y) CASE2=1.
passing through its centroid and parallel to y axi~ in m4 WRITE(',') 'DO YOU WANT CASE 3(TRANSLATION -X,ROTATION -Y)?'
lz=polar moment of inertia of the area of the foundation about a READ(',914)Q
vertical axis passing through its centroid (Z axis) in m4 IF(Q.EQ.Y) CASE3=1
M~=mass moment of inertia of the foundation and machine about an axis WRITE(',')' DO YOU WANT CASE 4(TRANSLATION -Y,ROTATION -X)?'
passing through the combined centre of gravity and parallel to X READ(',914)Q
axis in t m/ sec 2 IF(Q.EQ.Y) CASE4=1.
M~=mass moment of inertia of the foundation and machine about an axis c
passing through the combined center of gravity and parallel to Y IF(CASEl.EQ.l)THEN
axis in t m/ sec 2 WRITE(',*)'***********CASEl'***********'
~=polar mass moment of inertia of the foundation about a vertical axis WRITE(',')' DO YOU WANT THE UNDAMPED CASE?'
passing through its center of gravity (Z~axis) in tm/sec 2 READ(',914)Q
Px=horizontal unbalanced force parallel to X axis in tons IF(Q.EQ.Y)NOPl=l.O
WRITE(',')' DO YOU WANT THE DAMPED CASE?'
Py=horizontal unbalanced force parallel to Y axis in tons READ(',914)Q
Pz=vertical unbalanced force parallel to Z axis in tons IF(Q.EQ.Y)NOP2=1.0
Mx=vertical moment causing rotation about X axis in tm END IF _,
My=vertical moment causing rotation about Y axis in tm IF(CASE2.EQ.l,THEN
WRITE(* , *)'****'******CASE2************' ,
Mz=horizontal moment causing rotation about z-·axis (torsional
vibrations) in tm WRITE(',')' DO YOU WANT THE UNDAMPED CASE?
r:unit weight of soil in t/m3
READ(',914)Q
IF(Q.EQ.Y)NQP3=1.0
QPA=allowable soil pressure in t/m2 WRITE(',')' DO YOU WANT THE DAMPED CASE?'
N=operating speed of machine in rpm READ(',914)Q
h=HH=height of top of the foundation above the center of gravity of IF(Q.EQ.Y)NOP4=1.0
the system END IF
and IF(CASE3.EQ.l)THEN
Aa=permissible amplitude in mm WRITE(*,*)'***********CASE3*'**********'
 COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR THE DESIGN OF A BLOCK FOUNDATION 599
598 APPENDIX 1

WRITE(',')' DO YOU WANT THE UNDAMPED CASE?' !IX, 'POISSONS RATIO, NU=' ,F!0.3/)
READ(',914)Q END IF
IF(Q.EQ.Y)NOPS=l.O C ******TYPE2******
WRITE(',')' DO YOU WANT THE DAMPED CASE?' IF(CASE4.EQ.l.O)THEN
READ(',914)Q WRITE(',')'I/P IX'
IF(Q.EQ.Y)NOP6=1.0 READ(',')IX
END IF WRITE(',')'I/P MX'
IF(CASE4.EQ.!)THEN READ(',' )MX
WRITE(*,*)'***********CASE4************' WRITE(',')'I/P MMX'
WRITE(',')' DO YOU WANT THE UNDAMPED CASE?' READ(',' )MMX
READ(',914)Q WRITE(',')'I/P PY'
IF(Q.EQ.Y)NOP7=1.0 READ(',' )PY
WRITE(',')' DO YOU WANT THE DAMPED CASE?' WRITE(',')'I/P LY'
READ(',914)Q READ(',') LY
IF(Q.EQ.Y)NOP8=!.0 WRITE(2,1!66) IX,MX,MMX,PY,LY
END IF 1166 FORMAT(
c 11X, 'MOMENT OF INERTIA, IX=' ,F10.4,1X, 'm4. ',II,
C VARIABLE INPUT SECTION 21X, 'UNBALANCED MOMENT, MX=' ,FlO. 4, lX, 't-m. ',' ',
c 3!X, 'POLAR MASS MOMENT OF INERTIA, MMX=' ,FI0.4,1X, 't-m.sec2' ,I
C ******TYPE* ****** 4!X,'UNBALANCED FORCE, '>r'ir PY=',FI0.4,1X,'t.',//,
WRITE(2,1!44) SIX, 'MAXIMUM DISTANCE OF THE'.POINT' ,I,
1144 FORMAT(ISX,IS('•'), 'INPUT VARIABLES:',IS('''),/72('''),///) 6'FROM THE AXIS OF ROCKING(HORIZONTAL),LY=' ,F!0.4,!X, 'm,' ,I)
WRITE(',')'I/P A' END IF
READ(',')A C ******TYPE6******
WRITE(',')'l/P W' IF(CASE4.EQ.!.O.OR.CASE3.EQ.!.O) THEN
READ(',')W WRITE(',')'I/P L'
WRITE(2,11SS) A,W READ(',')L
!ISS FORMAT( WRITE(',')'I/P HH'
!IX, 'AREA OF THE FOUNDATION, A=',F10.4.,1X,'m2.',1/, READ(',') HH
21X, 'WRIGHT of THE FOUNDATION',!, WRITE(2,1!77) L,HH
31X, '(-including weight of the machine), W=' ,F10.4,1X, 't.' ,I) 117 7 FORMAT(
!IX, 'HEIGHT OF THE CENTER OF GRAVITY, L=' ,F10.4, lX, 'm.' ,1 I,
WRITE(',')'I/P GAMMA' h=' ,F10.4,tX, 'm.' ,I)
READ(',' )GAMMA 21X, 'HEIGHT OF THE TOP OF THE FOUNDATION,
WRITE(',')'I/P G' END IF
READ(',')G C ******TYPE3******
WRITE(',')'!/P N' IF(CASE3.EQ.!.O)THEN
READ(',')N WRITE(',')'I/P IY'
WRITE(',')'I/P QPA' READ(',')IY
READ(',') QPA WRITE(',')'I/P MY'
WRITE(2,1112) GAMMA,G,N,QPA READ(',')MY
1112 FORMAT( WRITE(',')'Il'P MMY'
!IX, 'UNIT WRIGHT OF THE SOIL, GAMMA~,' ,F10.4, lX, 't/m3.', 11, READ(',')MMY
2!X, 'DYNAMIC SHEAR MODULUS, G=',F10.2,1X,'t/m2.',1/, WRITE(',')'I/P PX'
3!X, 'OPERATING SPEED OF MACHINE, N= I ,FlO. 2, lX; 'RPM'' I I' READ(',') PX
41X, 'ALLOWABLE SOIL PRESSURE, QPA=' ,F!0.2,1X, 't!m2. ',/) WRITE(',')'I/P LX'
C ******TYPEl****** READ(',') LX
IF(CASEI.EQ.!.O.OR.CASE3.EQ.l.O.OR.CASE4.EQ.!.O)THEN WRITE(2,1!88) IY,MY,MMY,PX,LX
WRITE(',')'I/P NU' 1100 FORMAT(
!IX, 'MOMENT OF INERTIA, IY=' ,FI0.4,1X, 'm4.' ,II,
READ(',')NU MY=',F10.4,1X,'t-m.',l/,
WRITE(2,19SS) NU 21X, 'UNBALANCED MOMENT,
!9SS FORMAT( 31X, 'POLAR MASS MOMENT OF INERTIA, MMY=' ,F10.4, lX, 't-m.sec2', I
 APPENDIX 1 COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR THE DESIGN OF A BLOCK FOUNDATION 601

4!X, 'UNBALANCED FORCE, PX=' FlO 4 !X 't ' 11 25X, 'EQUIVALENT SPRING, KZ=' ,FlS.S,lX, 'tim.'.//,
SIX, I MAXIMUM DISTANCE OF THE POINT' I ' ' ' ) ' '
35X, 'NATURAL FREQUENCY,
6 ' FROM THE AXIS OF ROCKING(HORIZONTAL),LX='
' ' OMGNZ=' ,Fl0.3,1X, 'RAD/S' ,1,1
F!0.4 !X 'm ' /) 45X, I FNZ= I ,Fl0.3, lX, 'HZ. I ' I' I
END IF ' ' ' ' '
55X, 'VERTICAL AMPLITUDE, AZ=' , F!S. 9, !X, 'mm. ' , 1//1/)
C ******TYPE4****** 123 IF(NOP2.EQ.O) GO TO 124
IF (CASE2.EQ.l.O)THEN PIN=OMEGA/OMGNZ
WRITE(',')'I/P IZ' AAD=PZ/(KZ'SQRT((!.-(PIN)''2)''2+(2'ZETAZ'PIN)''2))
READ(',')IZ AZD=AAD'!OOO.
WRITE(',')'I/P MZ' WRITE(2,14) ROZ,BZ,KZ,ZETAZ,OMGNZ,FNZ,AZD
READ(',')MZ 14 FORMAT(///,20X,'**********DAMPED VERTICAL CASE**.********',I,!,/
WRITE(',')'I/P MMZ' 15X, 'EQUIVALENT RADIUS, ROZ=' ,F!0.3,1X, 'm,' ,II,
READ(',' )MMZ 25X 'MASS RATIO, BZ=',F!0,3,1,1
WRITE(',')'I/P R' 35X,' 'EQUIVALENT SPRING, KZ=' ,F15.5,1X, ' tim ' ,II,
READ(',') R 45X 'DAMPING FACTOR, ZETAZ=',F10.3,1,/
WRITE(2, 1100) IZ ,MZ,MMZ,R 55X,' 'NATURAL FREQUENCY(UNDAMPED), OMGNZ=' ,F!0.3,1X, ' RAD/S ' ,1,1
1100 FORMAT( 65X I FNZ=' ,F10.3,1X, 'HZ. I ,I ,I
l!X, ,'MOMENT OF INERTIA, IZ =,
' FlO •4,IX, ' m4. ' ,11, 75X:'VERTICAL AMPLITUDE, AZD=' ,F15.9,1X, 'mm.' ,IIIII)
2!X, , UNBALANCED MOMENT, MZ=' , FlO • 4, !X , 't- m. ' , 11 , c...................................................................... .
3 C ............. , .. CASE TWO .............................. ,,,, ........... ,
!X,,POLAR MASS MOMENT OF INERTIA MMZ=' ,F!0.4,1X, 't-m.sec2',/
41X, MAX. HORIZONTAL DISTANCE(TORSION) R=' F!0.4 !X 'm ' f) C ....... ,,, .. TORSIONAL VIBRA~J,Q!i ABOUT Z·AXIS
END IF ' ' ' ' . ' C ..•........ NOPT=3 UNDAMPED:AMPLITUDE
C******TYPES****** C ........... NOPT=4 DAMPED AMPLITUDE
IF (CASE!.EQ.!.O)THEN 124 IF(CASE2.EQ.O) GO TO 126
WRITE(',')'I/P PZ' ROSI=(2'IZ/ZZ)''0.25
READ(',')PZ KSI=(!6.'G'ROSI''3.)/3,
WRITE(2,!11!) PZ OMEGA=2'ZZ'N/60.
1111 FORMAT( OMGNSI=SQRT(KSI/MMZ)
FNSI=OMGNSI/(2'ZZ)
!!X, 'UNBALANCED FORCE, PZ=' ,F10.4,1X, 't. ',I) IF(NOP3.EQ.O) GO TO 125
END IF
ASI=MZ/(KSI'(l.-(OMEGA/OMGNSI)''2.))
-cc..................................................................... .. WRITE(2,15) ROSI,KSI,OMGNSI,FNSI,ASI
. · ........ , .. , .. CASE ONE, .. , .. , .. , ..
C .. · ....... TRANSLATION ALONG Z·AXIS . . ........ , . " .......... ,.,,., .. '. 15 FORMAT(///,20X, '***********UNDAMPED TORSIONAL CASE***********',!,
C .•........ NOPT=! UNDAMPED AMPLITUDE ll,i5X,'EQUIVALENT RADIUS, ROSI=',F!0.3,1X,'m.',i/
C ...•...... NOPT=2 DAMPED AMPLITUDE 2 5X,'EQUIVALENT SPRING, KSI=',F!5.5,1X,'tim',//
GA=9.8! 3 SX, 'NATURAL FREQUENCY, OMGNSI=' ,F!0.3,1X, 'RAD/S',
ZZ=3.14!592654 4/ /5X,' FNSI=' ,F!0.3,1X, 'HZ.' ,II
IF(CASE!.EQ.O) GO TO 124 5 5X, 'TORSIONAL AMPLITUDE, ASI=' ,F!5.9, 'rad.' ,Ill)
ROZ=SQRT(A/ZZ) 125 IF(NOP4.EQ.O) GO TO 126
KZ=4.'G'ROZ/(1.-NU) BSI=MMZ'GA/(GAMMA'ROSI''S)
OMGNZ=SQRT(KZ'GA/W) ZETASI=O.S/(1.+2.'BSI)
ASID=MZ/(KSI'S~T((l,-(OMEGA/OMGNSI)''2)''2
FNZ=OMGNZ/(2'ZZ)
OMEGA=2'ZZ'N/60. + (2.'ZETASI'OMEGA/OMGNSI)''2.))
BZ=(l.-NU)'W/(4.'(ROZ''3)'GAMMA) WRITE(2,!6) ROSI,BSI,KSI,ZETASI,OMGNSI,FNSI,ASID
16 FORMAT(///,20X, '***********DAMPED TORSIONAL CASE**********' ,1,1,
ZETAZ=0.425/SQRT(BZ)
IF(NOP!.EQ.O) GO TO 123 115X, 'EQUIVALENT RADIUS, ROSI=' ,F10.3,1X, 'm.' ,II
AA=PZ/(KZ'(l.-(OMEGA/OMGNZ)''2)) 2 SX 'INERTIA RATIO, BSI=' ,F!0,3,1,1
AZ=AA'!OOO. 3 SX,' 'EQUIVALENT SPRING, KSI=' ,F!S.S,!X, ' tim ' ,II
4 5X 'DAMPING FACTOR, ZETASI=',F!0.3,i,/
WRITE(2,!3) ROZ,KZ,OMGNZ,FNZ,AZ
5 SX,' 'NATURAL FREQUENCY (UNDAMPED),OMGNSI=' ,F10.3,1X, ' RAD/S ' ,II
13 FORMAT(I!J,20X, '***********UNDAMPED VERTICAL CASE**********'/ ; 1 6 sx I FNSI=',F10.3,1X, 'HZ.',!,!
15X, 'EQUIVALENT RADIUS, ROZ=' FlO 3 !X • • 11 ' ' 7 SX,' 'TORSIONAL AMPLITUDE, ASID=' ,F15.9,1X, ' rad. ' ,II )
' . ' ' m. ' '
 602
APPENDIX 1. COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR THE DESIGN OF A BLOCK FOUNDATION 603
C , , , ............. CASE THREE .... ,,, ... ,,, .......... , ... ,,., .. , ...... , .. .
C ... , , ..... TRANSLATION ALONG X-AXIS and ROTATION ABOUT Y-AXIS 127 IF(NOP6.EQ.O) GO TO 128
C .......••. NOPT=S UNDAMPED AMPLITUDE BX=((7-8'NU)'W)1(32'GAMMA'(ROX''3)'(1-NU))
C .......... NOPT=6 DAMPED AMPLITUDE ZETAX=.27BSI(SQRT(BX))
126 IF(CASE3.EQ.O) GO TO 131 ZIPHIY=O.l51((1.+BPHIY)'SQRT(BPHIY))
ROX=SQRT(AIZZ) Ul=(ONPHIY''2+0MGNX''2 -4.'ZIPHIY'ZETAX'OMGNX'ONPHIY)IRIY
ROPHIY=(IY'41ZZ)''0.25 U2=(0MEGA''4-0MEGA''2'Ul+OMGNX''2'0NPHIY''21RIY)''2
MMOY=MMY+((WIGA)'L''2) U3= (ZETAX'OMGNX'OMEGA'(ONPHIY''2-0MEGA''2)1RIY)
BPHIY=(3.'(1.-NU)'MMOY'GA)I(8'GAMMA'ROPHIY''5) U4= ZIPHIY'ONPHIY'OMEGA'(OMGNX''2-0MEGA''2)1RIY
RIY=MMYIMMOY U5=4'(U3+U4)"2
KX=32'(1-NU)'G'ROXI(7-8'NU) DELTE=SQRT(U2+U5)
KPHIY=(8'G'ROPHIY''3)1(3'(1-NU)) M=WIGA
OMGNX=SQRT(KX'GAIW) PIN=(PXIM'MMY)'((-MMY'OMEGA''2+KPHIY+L''2'KX)''2+4'0MEGA''2'(ZIPHI
ONPHIY=SQRT(KPHIYIMMOY) !Y'(SQRT(KPHIY'MMYO))+L''2'ZETAX'SQRT(KX'M))''2)''0.2SIDELTE
W3=SQRT( ( (OMGNX' '2+0NPHIY' '2) IRIY)' '2) I RIY)' '2, -4, ' ( OMGNX' '2)' MUR=(PX'LIMMY)'SQRT(OMGNX''2+4'ZETAX'OMEGA''2)'0MGNXIDELTE
(ONPHIY''2,)/RIY) AXX=(MYIMMYO'(SQRT(OMGNX''4+4'ZETAX''2'0MGNX''2)1DELTE)+PIN
W6=(0MGNX''2+0NPHIY''2)1RIY AXD=AXX'IOOO.
X7=(W6+W3)12. APHIDI=(MYIMMY)'(SQRT((OMGNX''2-0MEGA''2)''2+(2'ZETAX'OMGNX'OMEGA)
X8=(W6-W3)12. 1''2)1DELTE)+MUR
ONI=SQRT(X7) WRITE(2,18) ROX,ROPHIY,BX,BPHIY,KX,KPHIY,ZETAX,ZIPHIY,OMGNX,
ON2=SQRT(X8) 1 ONPHIY ,ON! ,FNI·t-ON2,FN2,AXD,APHIDI
FNI=ONII(2'ZZ) 18 FORMAT(/ II ,ZOX, '*"'*'******-~'DAMPED SLIDING AND ;ROCKING CASE******
FN2=0N21(2'ZZ) 1**** 1 II 37X,' ..... X-Z PLANE ..... ',!!
OMEGA=2'ZZ'NI60. 2 SX,'EQUIVALENTRADIUS,
' ' ROX= ' ,FlO. 3 ,I X,,m.,,
' ' II
IF(NOPS.EQ.O) GO TO 127 3 SX ' ROPHIY=', FlO. 3, IX, m. , II
Y5=(0MEGA''4-(0MEGA''2)'((0NPHIY''2+0MGNX''2)1RIY)+OMGNX''2'0NPHIY 4 SX,' 'MASS RATIO, BX=,' ,F10.3, I I
1"21RIY) 5 SX 'INERTIA RATIO BPHIY= ,FI0.3,11
DELTA=YS 6 SX' 'EQUIVALENT SPRING
' KX= I ,Fl5,5,1X, I t I m,
' II
M=WIGA 7 SX ' ' ' RPHIY= I ,F15.5,1X, I t I m' , II
PINA=(PX'L'OMGNX''21DELTA'MMY) 8 SX,' 'DAMPING FACTOR, '
ZETAX=,,F10.3,11
MURA=(PXIM'MMY)'(-MMY'OMEGA''2+KPHIY+L''2'KX)IDELTA 9 SX 'DAMPING FACTOR, ZETAPHIY= ,F10.3,11
AO=(MYIMMY)'(OMGNX''21DELTA)+MURA * si. 'NATURAL FREQUENCY- OMGNX=',FI0.3,1X, 'RADIS',II
AX=AO'!OOO, $ SX ', UNDAMPED ONPHIY=' ,F10.3,1X, 'RADIS' ,I I
APHII=(MYIMMY)'((OMGNX''2-0MEGA''2)1DELTA)+PINA @ SX 'COUPLED NATURAL FREQUENCY- ON!=' ,FI0.3,1X, 'RADIS' ,II
1 SX ', UNDAMPED FNI=',F10.3,1X, 'RADIS',II
WRITE(2,17) ROX,ROPHIY,BPHIY,KX,KPHIY,OMGNX,ONPHIY,ON!,FN!,ON2,FN2
I ,AX,APHI! ~ sx', ON2=',F10.3,1X,'RAD/S',fl
17 FORMAT(II,ISX, '''''''''''UNDAMPED SLIDING AND ROCKING CASE'''''' ,& sx'• FN2=',Fl0.3,1X,'HZ.',I/
1 * • • • ', 11 ,35X, ' •... . x-z PLANE ..... ', 11, % sx' 'SLIDING AMPLITUDE AXD=',F15.9,1X,mm.' ,II
25X, 'EQUIVALENT RADIUS, ROX=',F12.3,1X, 'm. ',II, sx: 'ROCKING AMPLITUDE: APHID=' ,FIS, 9, IX,' rad.', I I I I I)
35X,' ROPHIY=',F12.3,1X,'m.',;;, 128 CONTINUE
45X, 'MASS RATIO, BPHIY=',FI0.3,11, C CASE FOUR ....... ,,,,, ..... ,,, ........... , ........... · .. •
55X,'EQUIVALENT SPRING, KX=',FI5.5,!X,'tlm',ll, c : : : : : : : : : :TRANSUTi"6N ALONG Y-AXIS AND ROTATION ABOUT X-AXIS
65X,' KPHIY=',FlS.),lX,'t/m',l/, C ,,,,,,,,,,NOPT=7 UNDAMPED AMPLITUDE
75X, 'NATURAL FREQUENCY, OMGNX=' ,FI0.3,1X, 'RADIS' ,II, C ,,,,,,,,,,NOPT=8 DAMPED AMPLITUDE
85X,' ONPHIY=' ,FIS.S,IX, 'RADIS' ,II, 131 IF(CASE4.EQ.O) GO TO 431
95X, 'COUPLED NATURAL FREQUENCY, ONI=',FI0.31X, 'RADIS' ,II, ROY=SQRT(AIZZ)
@SX,' FNl=',Fl0.3,1X,'HZ.',I/, ROPHIX=(IX'41ZZ)''0.25
:JFX, I ON2=',F10.3,1X, 'RADIS',I!, MMOX=MMX+((WIGA)'L''2)
$5X,' FN2=',Fl0.3,1X,'HZ.',II, BPHIX=(3,'(1.-NU)'MMOX'GA)I(8'GAMMA'ROPHIX''5)
%5X, 'SLIDING AMPLITUDE, AX=',F15.9,1X, 'mm.,ll, RIX=MMXIMMOX
&SX, 'ROCKING AMPLITUDE, APHI=' ,F15.9,1X, 'rad',!!l/11) KY=32'(1-NU)'G'ROYI(7-8'NU)
KPHIX=(8'G'ROPHIX''3)1(3'(1-NU))
bU4
APPENDIX 1 COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR THE DESIGN OF A BLOCK FOUNDATION 605
OMGNY=SQRT(KY'GAIW)
ONPHIX=SQRT(KPHIXIMMOX) M=WIGA
X3=((0NPHIX''2+0MGNY''2)/RIX)''2 SUK=(PY'L/MMX)'OMGNY'(OMGNY''2+4'ZETAY'OMEGA''2)''0.5
X4=((4.'(0MGNY''2)'(0NPHIX''))IRIX) SU=(PYIM'MMX)'((-MMX'OMEGA''2+KPHIX+L''2'KY)''2+4'0MEGA''2'(ZIPHIX
X5=SQRT(X3-X4) l'SQRT(KPHIX'MMXO)+L''2'ZETAY'SQRT(KY'M))''2)''0.5/DELTE
X6=(0MGNY''2+0NPHIX''2)/RIX AQD=(MX/MMX)'(SQRT(OMGNY''4+(4'ZETAY''2'0MGNY''2))1DELTE)+SU
X7=(0.5)'(X6+XS) AYD=AQD'IOOO.
XS=(0.5)'(X6-X5) APHIDE=(MX/MMX)'(SQRT((OMGNY''2-0MEGA''2)''2+(2'ZETAY'OMGNY'OMEGA)
ONI=SQRT(X7) 1''2) IDELTE)+SUK
ON2=SQRT(XS) WRITE( 2, 58) ROY,ROPHIX,BY ,BPHIX,KY ,KPHIX,ZETAY ,ZIPHIX,OMGNY,
FNI=ONI/(2'ZZ) I ONPHIX,ON!,FNI,ON2,FN2,AYD,APHIDE
FN2=0N21(2'ZZ) 58 FORMAT('l' ,20X, '***********DAMPED SLIDING AND ROCKING CASE******
OMEGA=2'ZZ'NI60, 1****',1!,37X,' ..... Y-Z PLANE •...• ',!!
IF(NOP7.EQ.O) GO TO 427 2 SX,'EQUIVALENT RADIUS, ROY=',FI0.3,1X,'m.',ll
Y4=(0MEGA''4-0MEGA''2' 3 SX,' ROPHIX=', FlO. 3, IX, 'm. ',II
(ONPHIX''2+0MGNY''2)/RIXtOMGNY''2'0NPHIX''2/RIX) 4 SX, 'MASS RATIO, BY=' ,FI0.3,11
DELTA=Y4 5 SX, 'INERTIA RATIO, BPHIX=' ,FI0.3,11
M=WIGA 6 5X, 'EQUIVALENT SPRING, KY=' ,F15.5,1X, 'tim' ,II
ATA=(PYIM'MMX)'(-MMX'OMEGA''2+KPHIX+L''2'KY)IDELTA 7 SX,' KPHIX:::',FlS.S,lX,'t!m',/1
ATAV=PY'L'OMGNY''21(MMX'DELTA) 8 5X, 'DAMPING FACTOR, ZETAY=' ,FJ0;3, II
AQ=(MXIMMX)'(OMGNY''21DELTA)+ATA 9 5X, 'DAMPING FACTOR, •;.JIETAPHIX=' ,FI0.3,11
AY=AQ'IOOO * 5X, 'NATURAL FREQUENCY· ,· OMGNY=' ,FI0.3, 'RADIS.' ,II
APHI2=(MXIMMX)'((OMGNY''2-0MEGA''2)/DELTA)+ATAV $ 5X,' UNDAMPED ONPHIX=' ,FI0.3, 'RADIS.' ,II
@ 5X, 'COUPLED NATURAL FREQUENCY· ON!=' ,FI0.3, 'RADIS.' ,II
~~;~i~:~~~I~OY,ROPHIX,BPHIX,KY,KPHIX,OMGNY,ONPHIX,ONI,FNI,ON 2 , ! SX,' UNDAMPED FNl=',Fl0.3,'HZ.',//
77 FORMAT(// lSX '**********UND + 5X,' ON2=' ,FI0.3, 'RADIS' ,II
1* * **' II 3sx : AMPED SLIDING AND ROCKING CASE**"'"'** & 5X,' FN2=' ,F10.3'HZ. ',II
' ' ' ..... Y-Z PLANE I II
2 sx, 'EQUIVALENT RADIUS, ··•·· ROY~' FlO 4 IX ' ' % 5X,'SLIDING AMPLITUDE, AYD=',F15.9,1X,'mm.',ll
3 SX ' ' • ' , m. , I I + SX,'ROCKING AMPLITUDE, APHID=',F15.9,1X,'rad.',lllll)
s sx'• ROPHIX=',FI0.4,JX,'m.' II 428 CONTINUE
' BPHIX-' Fl '
6 5X, 'EQUIVALENT SPRING, KY:',F!50.53,1/XI ' ' 431 CONTINUE
7 sx ' ' · , , t/m ·,I I c .................................................................... ..
8 5X>NATURAL FREQUENCY KPHIX:>F15.3,1X, 'tim' ,II WRITE(2, 7901)
9 5X ' ' OMGNY- ,FI0.3,1X, 'RADIS' II 7901 FORMAT( Ill, 72('' '),I, 72('' '),Ill)
' ONPHIX=' FlO 3 IX 'RA '' IF(NOP2.EQ.l.O.OR.NOP4.EQ.J.O.OR.NOP6.EQ.l.O.OR.NOP8.EQ.l.O)THEN
@ 5X,'COUPLED NATURAL FREQUENCY ON!=',FI0'3'Jx''RADDIISS',I/
* sx,
$ SX,'
I ' I ' •
FN1=,,F10.3,1X,'HZ.',II
' ' ' II C ...................... TOTAL DAMPED AMPLITUDE ......................... ..
C MAX HORIZONTAL AMPLITUDE DUE TO TORSIONAL VIBRATION
% SX ' ON2= ,F!0.3,JX, 'RADIS' ,II AHSID=ASID'R'IOOO.
& sx:'SLIDING AMPLITUDE, FN 2 ~: ,F10.3, lX, :Hz.:, I 1 C MAX.'VERTICAL AMPLITUDE DUE TO PZ and (PXtMY)
' 5X 'ROCKING AMPLITUDE AY- ,F15.9,JX, mm, ,II AVDI=AZD+LX'APHIDI'IOOO.
' • APHI=' F!5 9 IX ' d • )
427 IF(NOPS.EQ.O) GO TO 428 ' ' ' ' ra · ,Ill! C MAX VERTICAL AMPLITUDE DUE TO PZ and (PY+MX)
BY=((7-8'NU)'W)I(32'GAMMA'(ROY''3)'(1-NU)) AVD2=AZD+LY' APHID!l":1000.
ZETAY=.2785/(SQRT(ABS(BY))) · C MAX HORIZONTAL AMPLITUDE DUE TO COMBINED ACTION OF PX AND MY
ZIPHIX=O.l51((1.tBPHIX)'SQRT(BPHIX)) AMDI=AXD +APHID I 'HH'IOOO.
C MAX HORIZONTAL AMPLITUDE DUE TO COMBINED ACTION OF PY AND MX
~~=i~~~~::~~~~~:;:
_ * 2•;U)IIR+OIMXG-NY4.:~ 2IPHIX'ZETAY'OMGNY'ONPHIXIRIX
*ONPHIX**2/RIX)**2
AHD2=AYD+APHIDE'HH'IOOO.
U3- (ZETAY OMGNY'OMEGA'(ONPHIX''2-0MEGA''Z)IRIX) WRITE(2,2234) ASID,AHSID,AVDI,AVD2,AHDI,AHD2
U4= ZIPHIX'ONPHIX'OMEGA'(OMGNY'' 2-0MEGA'' 2)IRIX 2234 FORMAT(20X, '**********TOTAL DAMPED AMPLITUDE**********' ,II,
U5=4'(U3tU4)"2 @SX, 'MAX TORSIONAL AMPLITUDE, ASID=' ,FIS.9,1X, 'rad',ll
DELTE=SQRT(U2tU5) ISX, 'MAX HORIZONTAL AMPLITUDE, (TORSIONAL)AHSID=' ,FIS.9,!X, 'mm. ',II
25X,'MAX VERTICAL AMPLITUDE, (PZ,PX+MY) AVDI=',F15.9,1X,'mm,',ll
 606
APPENDIX 1 COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR THE DESIGN OF A BLOCK FOUNDATION 607
35X, 'MAX VERTICAL AMPLITUDE, (PZ,PY+MX) AVD2=' ,F15. 9, IX, 'mm. ',I I
45X, 'MAX HORIZONTAL AMPLITUDE, (PX and MY) AHDI=' ,F15.9,1X, 'mm. ',II EXAMPLE 6.9.1 (CHAPTER 6)
55X,'MAX HORIZONTAL AMPLITUDE, (PY and MX) AHD2=',F15.9,1X,'mm,',l!
611 II) Input Variables
END IF Area of the foundation A= 12.0000m'
IF (NOPI.EQ.I.O.OR.NOP3.EQ.I.O.OR.NOP5.EQ.I.O.OR.NOP7.EQ.I.O) THEN Weight of the foundation .
c ...................................................................... . (including weight of :he machlne) W= 37.1000t
C ..... , .... , , ........ TOTAL UNDAMPED AMPLITUDE, . , .. , ..... , ....... , .. , ... . Unit weight of the so1l y= 1.6500 tim'
C MAX HORIZONTAL DUE TO TORSIONAL VIBRATION Dynamic shear modulus . G= 5000.00 tim'
AHSI=ASI'R Operating speed of mach1ne N= 600.00 rpm
C MAX VERTICAL DUE TO PZ and PX+MY Allowable soil pressure QPA= 20.00t/m2
AVI=AZ+APHII'LX'IOOO, Poisson's ratio, v= 0.330
C MAX VERTICAL AMPLITUDE DUE TO PZ and PY+MX Unbalanced force P= 0. 2000 t
AV2=AZ+APHI2'LY'IOOO. '
C MAX HORIZONTAL AMPLITUDE DUE TO COMBINED ACTION OF PX and MY Damped vertical case
AHI=AX+APHII'HH'IOOO. Equivalent radius r,,= 1. 954m
C MAX HORIZONTAL AMPLITUDE DUE TO COMBINED ACTION OF PY AND MX Mass ratio B= 0.504
AH2=AY+APHI2'HH'IOOO. Equivalent spring k'=58340, 60000 tim
WRITE(2,2567) ASI,AHSI,AVI,AV2,AHI,AH2 Damping factor ,:= 0.598
2567 FORMAT(20X, '*'*'*"'"'**"'TOTAL UNDAMPED AMPLITUDE****"**"**',!/, Natural frequency(undamped) w11 z= 124, 203 rad/ sec
#5X, 'MAX TORSIONAL AMPLITUDE, ASI=' ,F15. 9, IX,' rad', I I f,= 19.768Hz
15X, 'MAX HORIZONTAL AMPLITUDE, (TORSIONAL) AHSI=' ,F15,9,1X, 'nun.', I I Vertical amplitude A= O.Q03573769mm
'
25X,'MAX VERTICAL AMPLITUDE, (PZ,PX+MY) AVI=',FI5.9,1X,'mm.',i!
35X, 'MAX VERTICAL AMPLITUDE, (PZ,PY+MX) AV2=' ,F15. 9, IX, 'mm. ',I I Total Damped Amplitude
45X, 'MAX HORIZONTAL AMPLITUDE, (PX,MY) AHI=',FI5.9,1X, 'mm. ',!! Max. .
torslonal . de
amplltu =O.OOOOOOOOOrad
00
55 X, 'MAX HORIZONTAL AMPLITUDE, (PY, MX) AH2=' ,F15, 9, IX, 'mm. ',I I horizontal amplitude (torsional) =0.0000000 mm
61!111) Max. . . d (P p +M) =0.003573769mm
END IF Max. vertlcal amphtu e '' x ' ) -0 003573769mm
Max. vertical amplit~de (P,,P,+Mxd M)
horizontal amplltude (Px an
=a·
ooooooooomm
cc "'"'"'. * ****"'*****."'. ** * * * ** **********"'** * *. * * * ** *** ***********"' * * * * * *. * * *
Max '"y - •

Max.. horizontal amplitude (P, and Mx) =O.OOOOOOOOOmm

c
QP=W/A Sol'1 pressure, QP-3
- • 0917 tim' and smaller than
2
the allowable soil pressure QPA=20.000 0 t 1m
IF(QPA.LE.QP) GO TO 4455
WRITE(2,4445) QP,QPA
4445 FORMAT(68('•'),ii, EXAMPLE 6.9.2 (CHAPTER 6)
I 5X,' SOIL PRESSURE, QP='FI0,4,1X, 'tim2. 'IX, 'and SMALLER THAN Input Variables
2', I ,5X, 'THE ALLOWABLE SOIL PRESSURE QPA=' ,FI0.4, IX, 'tim2. ',I I ,68( '3• '))
GO TO 1477 Area of the foundation A= 12.0000m'
4455 WRITE(2,4466) QP,QPA Weight- of the foundation .
4466 FORMAT(68('•'),/i, (including weight of :he machlne) W= 38.5000t
I 5X, 'SOIL PRESSURE,QP=' ,FI0.4,1X, 't/m2. ',IX, 'and MORE THAN', Unit weight of the s~ll y• 1. 6500 tlm3
25X, 'THE ALLOWABLE SOIL PRESSURE QPA=',FI0.4,1X, 'tim2. ',11,68('•')) Dynamic shear modulifil . G=6000.00t/m2
1477 STOP Operating speed of mach1ne N= 450.00 rpm
END Allowable soil pressure QPA= zo .. ootim'
Poisson's ratio . v= 0.330
Height of the center of gravlty . L= 0.9344m
Height of the top of the foundatlon h= 1.2156m
Moment of inertia I=y !6.0000m'
Unbalanced moment M,= 0.5000tm
Polar mass moment of inertia M.,= 4, 7051 t m/ sec'
Unbalanced force, Px= O.OOOOt
 609
COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR THE DESIGN OF A BLOCK FOUNDATION
bUH APPENDIX I

Damped Torsional Case

Maximum distance of the point r,.= 1. 997 m
from the axis of rocking(horizontal) Lx= 2.0000m Equivalent radius
B,= 1.018
Inertia ratio k,=254985. 30000 tim
Damped Sliding and Rocking Case Equivalent spring
.... .x-z plane ••••. Damping factor
t,= 0.165
Natural frequency(undamped)
w,,= 216.432radlsec
Equivalent radius rox= 1.954m f,,= 34. 446Hz
roq,y= 2.125m A,= 0.000002130 rad
Mass ratio B,= 0.636 Torsional amplitude
Inertia ratio B,y= 0. 281
Equivalent spring kx= 57664.06000 tlmn
Total damped amplitude
=0.000002130 rad
k"=228990. 70000 tim Max. torsional amplitude
horizontal amplitude (torsional) =0.005324474m
Damping factor tx= 0.349 Max. =0. 000000000 mm
Damping factor t,y= 0.221 Max. vertical amplitude (P.,P,+M)
vertical amplitude (Pz,Py+M,) =0. 000000000 mm
Natural frequency-undamped wnx= 121.215rad/sec Max. =0 •000000000 mm
wn¢y= 167.811 rad/sec Max. horizontal amplitude (P, and MY)
horizontal amplitude (Py and M,) =0. 000000000 mm
Coupled natural frequencyv wn 1 ::: 250.295 rad/s Max.
undamped f,,= 39.836Hz
Soil pressure, QP=3 .0000 t/m and smaller th~n
2
w, 2= 106.839 radl sec
f,= 17 .004Hz the allowable so~J,,Pressure QPA=20.0000 tim
Sliding amplitude Axi' 0.002466732 mm
Rocking amplitude A.,= 0.000002198 rad

Total damped amplitude

Max. torsional amplitude =0. 000000000 rad
Max. horizontal amplitude (torsional) =0. 000000000 mm
Max. vertical amplitude (P.,P,+M) =0.004396916mm
Max. vertical amplitude (P~,P7 +~) =0. 000000000 mm
Max. horizontal
•
amplitude (P,
~
and M)
y
=0.005139177m
Max. hor1zontal amplitude (PY and Mx) =0. 000000000 mm

Soil pressure,. QP=3. 2083 t/m 2 and smaller than

the allowable soil pressure QPA=20.0000 t/m 2

EXAMPLE 6.9.3 (CHAPTER 6)

Input Variables
Area of the foundation A= 12 .oooom'
Weight of the foundation
(including weight of the machine) W=36.0000 t
Unit weight of the soil y= !. 6500 t 1m3
Dynamic shear modulus G= 6000.00 tl m'
Operating speed of machine N= 600.00 rpm
Allowable soil pressure QPA= 20.00 tim'
Moment of inertia J~= 25.0000m4
Unbalanced moment M~= 0.5000tm
Polar mass moment of inertia, Mm~= 5.4434 tmlsec 2
Max. horizontal distance(torsion) R= 2.5000 m
 APPENDIX 2 COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR THE DESIGN OF A HAMMER FOUNDATION

CHARACTER'14 FILEIP,FILEOP
CHARACTER'! TITLE(30),YES,ASK
REAL Kl,K2,NU,MU
611

DATA YES/ 'Y' I

17 CONTINUE
Computer Program for the WRITE(',')' I/P INPUT DATA FILE NAME'
READ(',987)FILEIP
Design of a Hammer 987 FORMAT(A14)
WRITE(',')' I/P OUTPUT DATA FILE NAME'
Foundation READ(',987)FILEOP
OPEN(5,FILE=FILEIP)
OPEN(6,FILE=FILEOP,STATUS='NEW')
READ(5,l)(TITLE(I),I=1,30)
1 FORMAT(30Al)
READ(5,')Wl,W2,WO,Al,A2,B,H,AP,P,QA,QPA,C,PM,E,NU,ER,ETA,ZA,ZF
AG=9.81
This program calculates the undamped natural frequencies and amplitudes PI=3,14
of a hammer foundation soil system using the simplified model shown in
Fig. 7.4. WRITE( 6, 361) (TITLE( I), I= 1, ~-0),
Problem title WRITE(6,36)Al,A2,AP,AG,B -- -
361 FORMAT(/,/ ,lOX, 'THIS PROGRAM CALCULATES THE UNDAMPED NATURAL' ,I ,5~
C •• A1=the area of the foundation block in contact with the soil in m2
1 'FREQUENCIES AND AMPLITUDES OF VIBRATION OF A HAMMER FOUNDATION.
C •• A2=the area of the anvil in contact with the absorber pad in m2
C .. AP=AP=area of piston in m2
' ,SO('-'), II, lOX, 'TITLE=' ,30Al, I, 10X,38( ' =' ) , II )
2,/
C •• g=AG=acceleration due to gravity in m/sec 2 36 FORMAT( 20X 'THE INPUT QUANTITIES ARE .... :' ,11,2X, 'THE AREA
C •• b=B=total thickness of the absorber pad below the anvil in m 3 OF THE FOUNDA~ION BLOCK IN CONTACT WITH THE SOIL Al=' ,F10.3,1X, 'm
C .• C=Option to use either Cu or G Values 42. ',11,2X, 'THE AREA OF THE ANVIL IN CONTACT WITH,THE,ABSORBER P~D
C ••3 Cu=CUS=coefficient of elastic uniform compression of the soil in 5 A2=',F9.4,1X,'m2',1/,2X,'AREA OF PISTON,',43X, AP= ,F10.4,1X, m
t/m for !Om' area. Option C=l. 62.', II, 2X, 'ACCELERATION ON DUE TO GRAVITY,', 25X, 'g=AG=', F9. 4, lX,'
C .. E=YOUNG modulus of the pad material in t/m' 7m.!sec2',1,1,2X, 'TOTAL THICKNESS OF THE ABSORBER PAD BELOW THE
C .. e=ER=coefficient of elastic restitution (suggested value=O.S) ANVIL, I'
C ··~=efficiency of the drop (suggested value=0.65) SX, 1 b=-B= 1 ,FlO. 4, lX, 1 m. 1
)

C .• G=dynamic shear modulus of the soil in t/m 2

, Option C=2. WRITE(6,77) E,ER,ETA,H
C •. H=height of drop of the tup in m 77 FORMAT(I,/,2X, 'YOUNG MODULUS OF THE PAD MATERIAL,' ,25X, 'E=' ,F10.2,
C .. v=Poisson's ratio of the soil l,lX, 't/m2' ,//2X, 'COEFFICIENT OF ELASTIC RESTITUTION(suggested value
C .. P=steam or air pressure in t/m 2 5) ' ' ' 'e=E-R=' ' F5 3 ' I ' I ' 2X ' EFFICIENCY OF THE DROP (Suggested value.
C .. q,=QPA=allowable soil pressure in t/m'
.,65), .
'13X, 'ETA=' ,F5.3,1,1,2X, 'HEIGHT OF DROP OF THE TUP,' ,33X,
1
C .. W,=weight of the foundation block (including weight of the frame if 4 1 H= 1 ,F10.4,1X, m. 1 )
supported on the block) in t WRITE(6,9876) NU~P,QA,QPA,Wl,W2,WO
C .• W
2 =weight of the anvil in t
9876 FORMAT(I,/,2X, 'POISSONS RATIO OF THE SOIL,' ,31X, 'NU=' ,Fl0.4,/,1,2X
C •. Wo=weight of the tup (total falling weight including upper half of !,'STEAM OR AIR PRESSURE,',37X,'P=',F10.4,1X,'t/m2,',1,/,2X,
the die) in t
'ALLOWABLE
C .. Zl =Z.. =permissible amplitude of anvil vibrations in mm SOIL PRESSURE ',31X, 'qa=QA=' ,F10.4,1X, 't/m2' ,1!,2X, 'ALLOWABLE
C •• Z2 =Z£=permissible amplitude of foundation vibrations in mm STRESS IN THE' PAD BELOW THE ANVIL,' ,9X, 'qpa=QPA=' ,Fl0.4,1X, 't/m2.'
4 I I 2X 'WEIGHT OF THE FOUNDATION BLOCK,' ,27X, 'Wl=' ,F10.4, lX, 't. ',
' ' ' ' I I I
5/,1,2X,'WEIGHT OF THE ANVIL,',38X,'W2=',Fl0.4,1X, t. ,//,2X, WEIGHT
610
612 APPENDIX 2 COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR THE DESIGN OF A HAMMER FOUNDATION 613

OF THE TUP(Total falling weight including upper half of the die 3 FORMAT(3X, 'EQUIVALENT SOIL SPRING, Kl=' ,E10.
7. ) ' I ' I' 60X, I WO=' 'Fl 0. 4' lX, It. I) 14,1X, 'tim.' ,11,3X, 'EQUIVALENT SPRING FOR THE PAD BELOW THE ANVIL
WRITE(6,2110) ZA,ZF 2K2=' ,EI0.4,1X, 'tim.' ,I)
2110 FORMAT(I,2X, 'PERMISSIBLE AMPLITUDE OF ANVIL VIBRATIONS, ',IBX, 'ZA=', c *********** ••• *. * ••••••••••••• *. ******** ••••••••••••• *'*** ••• ****** •••
IFI0.4,1X, 'rom.' ,11,2X, 'PERMISSIBLE AMPLITUDE OF FOUNDATION VIBRATION C ••• CALCULATION OF LIMITING NATURAL FREQUENCIES (OMG)NLI AND (OMG)NL2
2S,', 13X, 'ZF=' ,F10.4, lX, 'mm. ',I) C , .. LIMITING NATURAL FREQUENCY OF THE ENTIRE SYSTEM OF SOIL=(OMG)NLI
IF(C.EQ.2) GO TO 611 C ••. LIMITING NATURAL FREQUENCY OF THE ANVIL ON THE PAD=(OMG)NL2
WRITE(6,54) PM OMGNLI=SQRT((KI'AG)I(WitW2))
54 FORMAT(2X, 'COEFFICIENT OF ELASTIC UNIFORM COMPR. OF THE SOIL CU=' ,F OMGNL2=SQRT(K2'AGIW2)
110.4,1X,'tlm3',i;l,80('-')) WRITE(6,435) OMGNLI,OMGNL2
GO TO 939 435 FORMAT(3X, 'LIMITING NATURAL FREQUENCY OMGNLI=' ,EIO,
611 WRITE(6,610) PM 14,1X, 'radlsec.' ,11,3X, 'LIMITING NATURAL FREQUENCY 0
610 FORMAT(2X, 'DYNAMIC SHEAR MODULUS OF THE SOIL, ',24X, 'g=',F9.4,1X, 2MGNL2= ',EI0.4, IX, 'rad/sec', /)
I 'tim2', II ,80('-' )) C ... NATURAL FREQUENCIES OF THE RAMMER FOUNDATION SOIL SYSTEM (OMG)NI
939 WRITE(6,901) and
901 FORMAT(10X,' .•••••• THE RESULTS ARE ......• ',1,80('-'),1,) C ... (OMG)N2
c *"'"'"'"" * *" ************* * * •••••••••• ***************** * * * •••• ************ MU=W2/WI
C •...... CHECK FOR SOIL PRESSURE OI=OMGNLI
Q=(W1tW2)/A1 02=0MGNL2
c * * * * ••••• *. * * * * *. * ••••••••• * * *. * •• * * ••••••• * * ••• * * * * •••••• * *. ********
* OPP=(ItMU)'(01''2+02''2)
OPF=SQRT(((ItMU)'(01''2+02''2))''2-4'(1tMU)'(OI''2)'(02''2))
C •... CALCULATIONS OF EQUIVALENT SPRINGS KI,K2
C •... K1=EQUIVALENT SOIL SPRING PIN=O.S'(OPPtOPF)
C .... K2=EQUIVALENT SPRINGS OF PAD BELOW THE ANVIL OMGNI=SQRT(PIN)
IF(C.EQ.2) GO TO 31 FNI=OMGNI/(2.'PI)
CUS=PM PINA=O.S'(OPP-OPF)
IF(A1.GE.10) CU=CUS OMGN2=SQRT(PINA)
GO TO 445 FN2=0MGN21(2.'PI)
IF(AI,LT.IO) GO TO 93 WRITE(6,41) MU
93 CU=SQRT(AI I 10.) 'GUS 41 FORMAT(3X, 'THE RATIO OF THE WEIGHT OF ANVIL AND FOUNDATION BLOCK
445 KI=CU'AI IMU='FI0.4,/)
WRITE(6,86) CUS, CU c ***** * •••••• * •• ****** ••• **********************"**** * * * ***** •••••••
86 FORMAT(3X, 'COEFFICIENT OF ELASTIC UNIFORM COMPRESSION FOR 10 SQUAR C •••. AMPLITUDES OF VIBRATION OF THE ANVIL AND FOUNDATION
E METERS AREA ',i,48X, 'GUS=' ,E10.4,11,3X, 'COEFFICIENT OF ELASTIC C .... AMPLITUDE OF FOUNDATION BLOCK=ZI
UNIFORM COMPRESSION FOR THE SIZE OF THE FOUNDATION' ,1,49X,' C •.•. AMPLITUDE OF THE ANVIL=Z2
3CU=' ,E10.4,11) C ...• VELOCITY OF TUP AT THE TIME OF IMPACT=VT
GO TO 32 C , ... VELOCITY OF THE ANVIL JUST AFTER IMPACT=VA
31 G=PM VT=SQRT( (2, ;AG'H' (WOtP' AP) IWO)) 'ETA
RO=SQRT(AII PI) SU=W2/WO "·
.
K1=(4'G'RO)I(I-NU) VA=((I.+ER)/(I.+SU))'VT
WRITE(6,87) RO WRITE(6,5) VT,VA
87 FORMAT(3X, 'EQUIVALENT RADIUS OF THE FOUNDATION, RO=' ,E10. 5 FORMAT(3X, 'VELOCITY OF THE TUP AT THE TIME OF
13, 'm.' ,I) IMPACT,' ,ISX, 'VT=',EI0.4,1X, 'misec' ,11,3X, 'VELOCITY OF THE ANVIL
32 K2=(E/B)'A2 IMMEDIATELY AFTER IMPACT, VA=',EI0.4,1X, 'm/sec',i/80('''),/)
WRITE(6,3) K1,K2 SUR=(OI)"2
 614 APPENDIX 2 COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR THE DESIGN OF A HAMMER FOUNDATION 615

SURA=(02)"2 605 FORMAT( lOX, 'NATURAL FREQUENCY,' ,12X, '(OMG)Nl=' ,FI0.4,1X,'rad/sec'

Zl=ABS( ( SURA-PINA)' (SURA-PIN) 'VA/ ( (PIN-PINA) • SURA 'OMGN2)) !,II ,lOX, 'NATURAL FREQUENCY, FNI=' ,FlO. 4,1X, 'HZ.'
Z2=ABS( (SURA-PIN) 'VA/ ( (PIN-PINA) '0MGN2)) 2,fi,!OX, 'NATURAL FREQUENCY, (OMG)N2=' ,FI0.4,1X, 'rad/sec
c * *' ********* * * * * * ********** * ** * *.'' ********"' * *' * *' ******* ** * *' * ******* 3,' ,II, !OX, 'NATURAL FREQUENCY, FN2=' ,FlO .4,1X, 'HZ.'
C.••..... COMPARISION OF AMPLITUDES OF MOTION WITH PERMISSIBLE VALUE 4,/)
C WRITE(6, 74) ZMI=IOOO. 'Zl
C 74 FORMAT(80('•')) WRITE(6,88) ZMI
C IF(Zl.LE.ZF) GO TO 193 88 FORMAT( lOX,' AMPLITUDE OF THE FOUNDATION BLOCK Zl=',EI0.4,1X,'mm.'
C WRITE(6,476) I, I)
C476 FORMAT(5X, '! .... ,THE AMPLITUDE OF THE FOUNDATION VIBRATION (Zl) IS ZM2=1000. 'Z2
C IMORE',i,5X,'THAN THE PERMISSIBLE VALUE .... UNSAFE.',/,1) WRITE(6,111) ZM2
C GO TO 194 Ill FORMAT( lOX, 'AMPLITUDE OF THE ANVIL Z2=' ,EI0.4,1X, 'mm.'
C!93 WRITE(6,466) I, I)
C466 FORMAT(5X, '! ..••• THE AMPLITUDE OF THE FOUNDATION VIBRATION (Zl) IS c ..................................................................... .
C !LESS' ,1,5X, 'THAN THE PERMISSIBLE VALUE ••• ' ,1,1) WRITE(6, 761)QP
C194 CONTINUE 761 FORMAT( lOX, 'THE COMPRESSIVE STRESS IN THE PAD BELOW THE ANVIL IS Q
C IF(Z2.LE.ZA) GO TO 198 IP=',F9.4,1X,'tim2',/i,80('•'),//)
C WRITE(6,874) IF(Q.LE.QA) GO TO 107
C874 FORMAT(5X, '2 .... THE AMPLITUDE OF ANVIL VIBRATION (Z2) IS BIGGER WRITE(6,!2) Q,QA
C !THAN' ,1,5X, 'THE PERMISSIBLE VALUE ... UNSAFE. ',1,1) 12 FORMAT(3X, 'THE SOIL PRESSURE IS Q=' ,EI0.4,1X, 'tim2' ,2X, 'and IS
C GO TO 121 !MORE THAN' ,1,3X, 'THE ALLOWABLE SOIL PRESSURE
C198 WRITE(6,873) QA= • ,ElO. 4, lX, 't/m2 ....
C873 FORMAT(5X, '2 ••.•.. THE AMPLITUDE OF ANVIL VIBRATION (Z2) IS SMALLER 2.,,, .. UNSAFE!!!' ,II)
C !THAN' ,1,5X, 'THE PERMISSIBLE VALUE ... ' ,1,1) GO TO 533
Cl21 WRITE(6,75) 107 WRITE(6,207) Q,QA
C 75 FORMAT(82('•')) 207 FORMAT(3X, 'THE SOIL PRESSURE IS Q=' ,EI0.4,1X, 't/m2.' ,2x, 'and ISLE
c * ******'. * * * ******** * * * * * ** ''********** *. * * * *. * ******* * * * * * * * * * ******* ISS THAN' ,1,3X, 'THE ALLOWABLE SOIL PRESSURE QA=' ,EI0.4,1X, 't/m2, ',
C••••.... STRESS IN THE PAD BELOW THE ANVIL qp=QP 2'., .. , .SAFE!' ,II)
QP=(K2'(Zl-(-Z2)))/A2 533 IF(ZMI.LE.ZF) GO TO 193
C WRITE(6,761) QP WRITE(6,476) ZMI,ZF
C761 FORMAT( lOX, 'THE COMPRESSIVE STRESS IN THE PAD BELOW THE ANVIL IS Q 476 FORMAT(3X, 'AMPLITUDE OF THE FOUNDATION VIBRATION IS Zl=' ,EI0.4, 'mm
C l=',FI0.4,/,80('-')) I.' ,1,3X, 'and IS MORE THAN THE PERMISSIBLE VALUE ZF=' ,EI0.4,1X, 'mm.
C IF(QP.LE.QPA) GO TO 555 2..... UNSAFE!!!' ,I,/)
C WRITE(6,554) QP GO TO 194
C554 FORMAT( lOX, 'THE COMPRESSIVE STRESS IN THE PAD BELOW THE ANVIL IS Q 193 WRITE(6,466) ZMI,ZF
C l=',EI0.4, 'AND IS BIGGER THAN THE PERMISSIBLE VALUE' ,I,) 466 FORMAT(3X, 'AMPLITUDE OF THE FOUNDATION VIBRATION IS Zl=',EI0.4, 'mm
C STOP I. ',1,3X, 'and IS LESS THAN THE PERMISSIBLE VALUE ZF=',EI0.4,1X, 'mm.
C555 WRITE(6,553) QP 2.,,,, .SAFE!' ,II)"'·
C553 FORMAT( lOX, 'THE COMPRESSIVE STRESS IN THE PAD BELOW THE ANVIL' 1 194 IF(ZMZ.LE.ZA) GO TO 198
C 15X, 'IS QP=',E!0.4, 'AND IS SMALLER THAN THE PERMISSIBLE VALUE',;,;) WRITE(6,874) ZM2,ZA
c •••• * * * * •••••••• ** * ** ••••••••••••••• * * * * •••••••••••• * * * * * * * * * ••••••••• 874 FORMAT(3X, 'AMPLITUDE OF ANVIL VIBRATION IS Z2=' ,EI0.4,1X, 'mm. and
WRITE(6,2) Q liS MORE THAN' ,1,3X, 'THE PERMISSIBLE VALUE ZA=' ,EI0.4,1X, 'mm .. , .UN
2FORMAT(IOX, 'THE SOIL PRESSURE, Q=',F!0.4,1X, 'tim2 ZSAFE! ! ! ! ' ,II)
!. ',I) GO TO 121
WRITE(6,605) OMGNl,FNl,OMGN2,FN2 198 WRITE(6,873) ZM2,ZA
 616
APPENDIX 2
COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR THE DESIGN OF A HAMMER FOUNDATION 617
873 FORMAT(3X, 'AMPLITUDE OF ANVIL VIBRATION IS Z2=',E10.4,1X, 'mm and
liS LESS TRAN' ,1,3X, 'THE PERMISSIBLE VALUE ZA=' ,E10.4,1X, 'mm ... SAFE Weight of the tup (total falling weight including
2! ',I I) upper half of the die.), W,= 2.0000t
121 IF(QP.LE.QPA) GO TO 555 Permisible amplitude of anvil vibrations Z2= Za= l.SOOOm
WRITE(6,994) QP,QPA Permissible amplitude of foundation vibrations Z1= Zt= 1. 2000mm.
994 FORMAT(3X, 'THE COMPRESSIVE STRESS IN THE PAD BELOW THE ANVIL IS QP Dynamic shear modulus of the soil G= 4600.0000t/m2
l=',E10.4,1X, 'tim2. ',! ,3X, 'and IS MORE TRAN THE PERMISSIBLE VALUE QP The results are:
2A=' ,E!0.4, !X, 'tim2 •.. UNSAFE!!!!', I ,80( '•'))
STOP Equivalent radius of the foundation r 0 =3.91m
555 WRITE(6,553) QP,QPA Equivalent soil spring k,=0.1074x 10 6 t/m
553 FORMAT(3X, 'THE COMPRESSIVE STRESS IN THE PAD BELOW THE ANVIL IS QP Equivalent spring for the pad below
1=' ,E10,4,1X, 'tim2. ',I ,3X, 'and IS LESS TRAN THE PERMISSIBLE VALUE QP the anvil k,=O. 3333 x !0 6 tim
2A=' ,E!O. 4, !X,' t/m2. . ... SAFE!', I I ,80(' • ')) Limiting natural frequency w," =0. 5807 x 102 rad/ sec
WRITE(',') 'CONTINUE? ENTER EITHER A"Y" OR A "N".' Limiting natural frequency wn 12 =0.2681 x 10 3 rad/sec
READ(',S12) ASK Ratio of the weight of anvil and
IF(ASK.EQ.YES) GO TO 17 foundation block ~=0.1705
512 FORMAT(Al) Velocity of the tup at the time of
STOP impact V,=6.056m/sec
END Velocity oFthe anvil immedfateJ.yr
after impact VA=0.382Sm/sec
Soil pressure q= 6.5079t/m2
EXAMPLE 7.4 (CHAPTER 7) Natural frequency w,,=29!.0662 rad/ sec
Natural frequency f,= 46.3481Hz
The input quantities are: Natural frequency w,,= 57.8632 rad/sec
Natural frequency f,= 9.2139Hz
Area of the foundation block in contact Amplitude of the foundation block Z,= 0.9954mm
with the soil A,= 48.000m2
Amplitude of the anvil Z2 = 1.044mm
Area of the anvil in contact with the Compressive stress in the pad
absorber pad below the anvil q,=169.9560t/m2
A,= 4.0000m'
Area of piston A,= 0.1400m2
Acceleration due to gravity, g=AG= 9.8100m/sec' The soil pressure is q=6.508t/m2 and is less than
Total thickness of the absorber pad below the allowable soil pressure q,=25. 00 t/m2 .... ,,. Safe!
the anvil b=B= 0. 6000 m Amplitude of the foundation vibration is Z,=0.9954mm
Young modulus of the pad material E=SOOOO.OO tim' and is less than the permissible value Z,=1.200mm ....... Safe!
Coefficient of elastic restitution (suggested Amplitude of anvil vibration is Z2=1.044mm and is less than
value .5), e=ER= 0.500 the permissible value Z,=l.SOOmm ... Safe!
Efficiency of the drop (suggested value .65),
~· 0.650 The compressive stre~ in the pad below the anvil is q,=0.1700xl0 3 t/m2 •
Height of drop of the tup H= 0.7500m and is less than the permissible value q,,=O. 4000 x 10 3 tim'. .. .. Safe!
Poisson's ratio of the soil v= 0.3300
Steam or air pressure p= 70.0000 tim'
Allowable soil pressure q,=QA= 25.0000 tim' CASE HISTORY OF THE HAMMER FOUNDATION IN CHAPER 13
Allowable stress in the pad below the anvil, q,,=QPA= 400.0000 t/m 2 (SECTION 13.2)
Weight of the foundation block The input qUantities are:
W,= 266.8800 t
Weight of the anvil Area of the foundation block in
W,= 45.5000 t
contact with the soil A,= 37.050m2
618 APPENDIX 2 COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR THE DESIGN OF A HAMMER FOUNDATION 619

Area of the anvil in contact with The soil pressure q= 5.8737tim

2

the absorber pad A,= 2.4000m2 Natural frequency w01 =321. 7216 radisec
Area of piston A=
p 0.1320m2 Natural frequency [ 01 = 51.2295Hz
Acceleration due to gravity g=AG= 9.8100misec 2 Natural frequency W112 = 99.8921 rad/sec
Natural frequency f 02 = 15.9064 Hz
Total thickness of the absorber pad
below the anvil Amplitude of the foundation block Z1= 0.8465mm
b=B= 0.4000m
Amplitude of the anvil Z2= 0. 9586 mm
Young modulus of the pad material E=50000.00 tim' Com·pressive stress in the pad
Coefficient of elastic restitution below the anvil is q,= 225.6349 tim'
(suggested value .5), e=ER= 0.500
Efficiency of the drop (suggested The soil pressure is q=5.874t/m2 and is less than
value .65), ~= 0. 650 the allowable soil pressure Q8 =31. 20 t/m 2 • • • , , •• Safe!
Height of drop of the tup H= 0.9000m Amplitude of the foundation vibration is Z1=0.8465mm
Poisson•s ratio of the soil v= 0.3300 and is less than the permissible value Zt=1.200mm • •..... Safe!
Steam or air pressure P= 79.8800 tim 2
Amplitude of anvil vibration is Z2 =0.9586mm and is less than
Allowable soil pressure q,=QA= 31.2000 tim' the permissible value Z,=2.000mm .•• Safe!
Allowable stress in the pad below
the anvil q,,= 400.0000 t/m 2
The compressive stress in the pad below the anvil is qP=O. 2256 X 10 3 t/m2
and is less ,than the permissibl~;/Yllue Qpa=0.4000xl0 3 t/m2 • • • • • Safe!
Weight of the foundation block W1= 183.1200t
Weight of the anvil W,= 34.5000 t
Weight of the tup (total falling weight
including upper half of the die) W,= I. 5500 t
Permissible amplitude of anvil
vibrations Z,= 2. 0000 mm
Permissible amplitude of foundation
vibrations Z,= I. 2000 mm
Coefficient of elastic uniform compression
of the soil C.,= 6100.0000 tim'

The results are:

Coefficient of elastic uniform

compression for 10=m2 area Gus= 0.6100x 10 4 tim3
Coefficient of elastic uniform
compression for the size of the
foundation C= 0.6100X10 4 tim 2
Equivalent soil spring, ' 0. 2260 x 10 6 tim
kl=
Equivalent spring for the pad below
the anvil k,= 0.3000X 10 6 tim
Limiting natural frequency - {t)nll = 0.1009 x 10 3 radi sec ""'
Limiting natural frequency Wn12= 0.2921x 10 3 radisec
Ratio of the weight of anvil and
foundation block ~= 0.1884
Velocity of the tup at the time of
impact VT= 7.630misec
Velocity of the anvil immediately
after impact VA= 0.492lmisec

APPENDIX 3 The group action of piles is generally (1988) accounted for in the program
Brief Description of Some
Available Computer
Programs
PILAY 2
The computer program PILAY 2 can be used to calculate the dynamic
stiffness, damping, internal forces, and displacements for a vertical pile
undergoing vibrations in any mode. The theoretical basis for this program is
provided by the published works of Novak and Aboul-Ella (1978a,b),
Novak and Howell (1978), Novak and Sheta (1980), and Novak et al.
(1978). The program can be used for a pile embedded in a uniform soil layer
or in a layered soil medium. The pile may have a constant cross section or a
stepwise variabl~ cross section and may have a fixed or pinned head. The
pile can project above the ground level. The pile is considered to be
perfectly bonded to the soil, and void elements are used to simulate any
separation between the pile and the soil. The degree of fixity of the pile tip
as well as the damping of the pile material are also considered.
The program can take into account up to 30 different horizontal soil
layers, each of which is assumed to be linearly elastic. Soil properties
required to characterize a layer are the shear wave velocity v;, unit weight
y, Poisson's ratio v, and the material damping (;. The complex modulus
approach has been used to define the amount of material damping in the
soil.
The variation of soil properties in a deep homogeneous deposit is
accounted for by subdividing the deposit into several layers of . small
thickness, each with different but constant characteristics. The change in the
pile section is considered by introducing auxiliary interfaces. The soil below
the pile tip is defined by its shear modulus G •.
The effects of soil remolding, nonlinearity or pile separation are accoun-
ted for by considering a weakened (or stiffened) zone around the pile.
The program can also be used for embedded rigid-block-type foun-
dations.
620
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF SOME AVAILABLE COMPUTER PROGRAMS 621
by using static interaction factors. The soil reactions on the sides of the pile
cap are also taken into consideration in evaluating the performance of the
pile group.
For further details, reference may be made to the users' manual (Novak
et al., 1981).
REFERENCES
Novak, M., and Aboul~Ella, F. (1978a). Impedance functions for piles embedded in layered
media. J. Eng. Mech. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 104 (EM-3), 643-661.
Novak, M., and Aboul-Ella, F. (1978b). Stiffness and damping of piles in layered media. Proc.
Earthquake Eng. Soil Dyn., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., Spec. Conf., Pasadena, CA, Vol. 11,
704-719.
Novak, M., and Howell, J. F. (1978). Dynamic response of pile foundations in torsion,
Geotech. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 104 (GT-5), 535-552.
Novak, M., and Sheta, M. (1980) Approximate approach to contact effects of piles. Proc. Dyn.
Response P;ile Found.: Anal. Aspea,..g-.J'i._.,A.m. Soc. Civ. Eng., Hollywood, FL, 53-79.
Novak, M., Nogami, T., and Aboul~Ella;<F. (1978). Dynamic soil reactions for plane strain
case. J. Eng. Mech. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 104 (EM~4), 953-959.
Novak, M., Aboul~Ella, F., and Sheta, M. (1981). "PILAY2-A Computer Program for
Calculation of Stiffness and Damping of Piles in Layered Media", Rep. No. SA CDA
81-10. University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.
STRUDL-11
STRUDL II is a multipurpose program capable of solving a wide variety of
problems involving linear elastic, static frame analysis, finite element analy-
sis, nonlinear analysis, frame optimization, dynamic analysis, and propor-
tioning and design of reinforced concrete structures. The capabilities of
STRUDL for conducting static and dynamic analysis of linear elastic
structures undergoing small displaGements make it a very important tool in
the design of frame foundations for supporting turbogenerator units. The
frame can be analyzed as a plane or a space frame.
The static stiffness <Walysis can provide forces in the frame members and
also the displacementi'at the joints due to a superimposed load.
STRUDL can be used to perform dynamic analysis of systems that can be
represented by equilibrium equations of the form:
[M]{i} + [C]{i} + [K]{x} = F(t) (1)
in which [M] is the mass matrix of the system, [ CJ is the damping matrix,
[K] is the stiffness matrix, and F(t) is the time-dependent load function.
 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF SOME AVAILABLE COMPUTER PROGRAMS &23
&22 APPENDIX 3

{x}, {x}, and {i} are the time-dependent displacement, velocity, and REFERENCES
acceleration vectors respectively.
The equation of motion (1) can be solved in two ways, by direct ADINA (1984a). "Theory and Modelling Guide," Rep. No. AE 84-4. ADINA Engineering,
integration or by modal analysis by transforming the system to a new Inc., Watertown, Massachusetts.
ADINA (1984b). "Users Manual," Rep. AE 84-1. ADINA Engineering Inc., Watertown,
coordinate system to yield uncoupled linear equations. The results of modal
Massachusetts.
analysis yield eigen values and mode shapes. The response may then be
Bathe, K. J. (1982). "Finite Element Procedures in Engineering Analysis." Prentice~Hall,
determined by modal superposition. The results of response analysis are the Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
dynamic displacements and forces. The dynamic loads can be specified in
the form of initial conditions,. time histories, or response spectra. An
approximate frequency analysis can be carried out by Rayleigh's method.
The soil effects can be modeled with equivalent springs. The results of static
and dynamic analysis may then be combined to obtain the design conditions.

REFERENCES

ICES STRUDL II (1979a). "Engineering Users' Manual," Vol. 1. Frame Analysis. School of
Civic Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
ICES STRUDL II (1979b). "Engineering Users' Manual," Vol. 2. Additional Design and
Analysis Facilities. School of Civil Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, Massachusetts.

ADINA

ADINA is a finite element program for computing the static and dynamic
displacements and stresses induced in solids and structural systems. Both the
linear and nonlinear problems can be solved. ADINA provides the facility
of using a variety of element configurations such as two-dimensional plane
strain and plane stress elements, three-dimensional truss elements, three-
dime.nsional plane stress elements, three-dimensional solid elements and
isoparaffietric beam elements, etc.
The nonlinearity in behavior may be induced by large displacements,
large strains, and material property. Material model used may be linear
elastic, nonlinear elastic, elastoplastic, curve description model, etc.
The linear dynamic analysis can be used to determine the frequencies of
the system and the response is evaluated by using mode superposition
method or by direct time integration using the Newmark or Wilson method,
or central difference method.
The nonlinear analysis is performed by using an incremental approach.
The soil behavior can be represented using Drucker Prager-Cap model.
Tension cutoff may be provided if desired. The output can be asked at any
point.
Further details of this program may be obtained by referring to the users'
manuals.
 COMPUTATION OF MOMENT OF INERTIA 625

APPENDIX 4 Mass moment of inertia

Shape of
the Element Figure Mm,
Formula for
Mmy Im,

Computation of Moment
of Inertia
Rectangular
block
'

Th
1
rrFxy
I

CG.
I I
j?' b
m(b'+h')
12
m (a '
12 + h' ) m (a '
12 + b' )

~a~:_j

r ....._'
Circular
'--
--- X T h m ed'
12 4 +h'
) m ed' ') md'
block
1- ~ 12 4+h 8

/ ---,
y '-----"
l '"·~:'·
f-d~

Illustration of Calculation of Mass Moment of Inertia

Moment of inertia of area Given Data
Shape of Formula for
the Area Figure
1. Concrete block as shown in Fig. (A-4-1)
I, I, I, 2. Machine mounted symmetrically on the block
3. Weight of machine Wm
Rectangle ab' ba' ab(a' + b') 4. Height of machine CG above the top of the block h 1
12 12 12 5. Unit weight of concrete y.

Required

Circle Solution
Divide the concrete ~lock into three parts as shown in Fig. (A-4-1)

Mass m 1 ~ (ax 1 )(a, 1 )(a>~) I

g
Hollow
64 (d'-
.!:_ d') Mass m 2 ~ m3 ~ (ax 2 )(a, 2 )(a, 2 ) -'Y
circle 0 ;
g
Mass of the machine m 4 ~ Wm
g
624
626 APPENDIX 4 COMPUTATION OF MOMENT OF INERTIA 627

M = mass moment of inertia of mass m 1 about an axis parallel to y-axis

rnyl and passing through its own centroid + transfer to parallel axis
about the common centroid of the system

(a) Elevation
Similarly
mz 2 2
Mrnyz = Mrny3 = J2 (ax,+ a,,)

+ m,[ (a, + az, - L )' + (axz- X)

1
2
]

2
Mm 4 = m 4 (0) +"'iii,(a, +a,,+ h 1 - L)

M = mass moment of inertia of the foundation and machine about an axis

myo parallel to y-axis and passing through center of gravity of the base
contact area
X M = M + mL 2 in which m = m 1 + m 2 + m 3 + m 4
(c) Plan M myO= Polar
my
mass moment of iner!la '
of the mach'me f ound at10n
. sys t em
m' about an axis parallel to z-axis and passing through the combined
Figure A~4.1. Layout of block and machine.
center of gravity
= Mmz1 + Mmz2 + Mmz3 + Mmz4
Coordinates of Combined Center of Gravity = Mmzl + 2Mmz2 + Mz4 , .
M =polar mass moment of inertia of mass m 1 about an axis parallel to
Because of symmetry of the system X= ax 1 12; Y = aY 1 /2, and only i mz1
z-axis and passing through its own centrm'd + any trans f er moment
needs to be calculated
of inertia to the z-axis through the combined centroid
- !m.z.
Z=L=--'-'
!m,
m 1 a, 1 /2 + 2m 2 (a, + a, 2 /2) + m 4 (a, 1 + a, 2 + h 1 )
m 1 +2m 2 + m 4

Mass Moment of Inertia

Mrny =mass moment of inertia of foundation and machiue about an axis
parallel to y-axis and passing through the common centroid of the
system
Mmy = Mmyl + Mmy2 + Mmy3 + Mmy4

= Mrnyl + 2Mrny2 + Mrny4

628
APPENDIX 4

Similarly

M mz2 =Mmz3 -_m

12
2 (
ax2
2
+ ay2
')
APPENDIX 5
+m,[ (az, -X)'+ (a~, - y) ']
_ mz z
-12 (ax,+ ay2 2 )
+ m,[ ( a, _ az 1 ) ' + ( a~ 2 a~ 1 ) ' ]
2 _

_ mz z
-12 (ax,+ ay 2 )
2

+ m2 (ax2- ax1)' Conversion Factors

2 2 To Convert from To Multiply by
and
Length
inches (in) '"":';millimeters (mm) 25.4
-
M m''- m, (O' + O') + m, (a2xi
12 -X-)' inches (in) meters (m) 0.0254
feet (ft) meters (m) 0.3048
=0 Area
square inches (in ) 2
square centimeters (cm 2 ) 6.4516
square feet (ft') square meters (m2 ) 0.0929
square yards (yd 2 ) square meters (m 2 ) 0.8361
2
square miles (mile') square meters (m ) 4047
square kilometers (km') 2.59
Volume
3
cubic inches (in. ) cubic centimeters (em 3 )
cubic feet (ft') cubic meters (m 3 )
Mass
pounds (lb) kilograms (kg) 0.4536
tons (ton) kilograms (kg) 907
Force
one pound force (J4lf) newtons (N) 4.4482
one kilogram force (kgf) newtons (N) 9.8066
Pressure or Stress
pounds per square foot (psf) kilonewtons per square meter 0.0479
(kN I m 2 ) or kilopascals (kPa)
pounds per square inch (psi) kilonewtons per square meter 6.895
(kN lm') or kilopascals (kPa)
kilogram force per square kilonewtons per square meter 98.066
centimeter (kgflcm') (kN I m 2 ) or kilopascals (kPa)

629
630 APPENDIX 5

Convers!on Factors
To Convert from To Multiply by
Notation
Liquid Measure
gallon (gal) cubic meters (m 3 ) 0.0038
acre-feet (acre-ft) cubic meters (m 3 ) 1,233
Quantity of Flow
gallons per second (gal/sec) cubic meters per second (m 3 /sec) 0.0038
cubic feet per second (ft' I sec) cubic meters per second (m 3 /sec) 0.0283
Mass Density
pounds per cubic feet (pcf) megagrams per cubic meter 0.0157
(Mgim')

Symbol Definition Unit

A foundation bas~Atfea in contact with the soil L'

cross-sectional area of the joint between the
condenser and the turbine exhaust L'
AD Aim
A in Eq. (4.39) L'
Mm
A, area of the foundation L'
A, area of the pad in contact with the anvil L'
A, cross section area of the beam L'
A< cross-section area of the column L'
Ah maximum horizontal amplitude L
A;(r) amplitude of ith mass in mode shape "r"
AP net area of the piston L'
Ar vertical area of the trench perpendicular to
direction of wave propagation L'
A" maximum amplitude in vertical vibrations L
Ax maximum amplitude of vibrations in horizontal
direction L
Ax! horizontal displacement occasioned by rocking L
A"' maximum horizontal amplitude of vibrations of an
emb~llded foundation L
A, maximum amplitude in vertical vibrations L
Azl' Az2 amplitudes of vertical vibration of two-degrees-of-
freedom system L
Au maximum amplitude of vertical vibrations of an
embedded footing L
A• maximum amplitude in rocking
A•, maximum amplitude of the embedded foundation
in rocking

631
 NOTATION 633
632 NOTATION

Symbol Definition Unit

Symbol Definition Unit

A,, maximum amplitude of vibrations in yawing c, coefficient of elastic resistance of pile FL-'
c," pile stiffness at resonance FL-'
(torsional vibrations)
C, coefficient of elastic uniform shear FL - 3
A,l,e maximum amplitude of the embedded foundation
in torsional vibrations L c,, equivalent value of coefficient of elastic uniform
shear for an embedded footing FL - 3
a. A,1,Mm)(meemre) =dimensionless amplitude of
torsional vibration with quadratic excitation c., coefficient of elastic uniform shear on the sides of
the footing FL _,
a length of foundation L
c. coefficient of elastic nonuniform compression FL- 3
one-half of the depth of the beam for a frame
without haunches L c<~>l' c.P2 frequency-dependent functions of the elastic half
horizontal distance from Y axis of rotation L space for rocking vibrations
a, r0 (w!V,) ~ r,(w!Vb) ~ r,wyPTG ~dimensionless c~l, c</>2 frequency-independent values of c</>1 and c</>2
frequency factor c,, equivalent coefficient of elastic nonuniform
compression for the embedded foundation FL - 3
at2• at3 coefficients in the flexibility matrix
aJ distance of jth mass from the mass center L c., coefficient of elastic nonuniform compression for
side layers FL- 3
a, dimension along x axis L
c. coefficient of elastic nonuniform shear FL- 3
a, dimension along y axis
a, dimension along z axis L c>frl' co/12 frequency dependent elastic half space stiffness
Vertical acceleration LT-' and damping pat~eters for torsional vibration
B width of trench L c"ll' coJ>2 frequency indepen"dent values of c>/11 and co/12
width of foundation L c., equivalent coefficient of elastic nonuniform shear
of embedded foundation FL- 3
B, modified mass ratio in sliding
B, modified mass ratio in vertical vibrations c,, coefficient of elastic nonuniform shear on the
sides of the foundation FL- 3
B• inertia ratio in rocking vibrations
inertia ratio in torsional vibrations c coefficient of internal damping FL-'T
B• damping constant
b width of foundation L
mass ratio cc critical damping FL-'T
thickness of pad L c, damping parameter
I
one-half of the column width for a frame without cw constant of equivalent viscous damping of one pile
haunches L in vertical vibrations FL-'T
c numerical base shear coefficient c~ constant of equivalent viscous damping of pile cap
[C] damping matrix in vertical vibrations FL-'T
c~ damping coefficient of pile group FL-'T
cr, cz integration constants
frequency-dependent parameters of vertical c, damping coefficient in H-sliding FL-'T
vibrations c~ damping constant of single pile in H-translation FL-'T
Cr, Cz frequency-independent parameters for vertical c; constant of equivalent viscous damping of pile cap
vibrations in translation
FL _, c;' damping constant of pile group in H-translations FL-'T
c" coefficient of elastic uniform compression
equivalent value of coefficient of elastic uniform ex. cross coupled damping factor for coupled rocking
c"' FL - 3 and s'Tfding (see Eq. 11.40a)
compression for an embedded footing
c", coefficient of elastic uniform compression for the c,.
I
cross damping constant of a single pile Fr 1
FL _, c, damping coefficient in vertical vibrations FL-'T
side layer
C,ot, C, 2 dimensionless parameters of half space c'X equivalent geometric damping ratio for pile group
frequency-dependent parameters for horizontal in vertical vibrations FL- 1 T
cxl' cx2
translation c. damping in rocking mode FL-'T
frequency-independent parameters for horizontal c' damping constant of single pile in rotation FLT
cx1' cx2
translation
t
c. damping coefficient of pile cap in rocking FLT
634 NOTATION
635
NOTATION

Symbol Definition Unit Symbol Definition Unit

c•" critical damping in rocking FLT F, frequency functions

damping constant of piles or footing in torsion FLT centrifugal fOrce in the direction of X F
ct Fx
c, constant of equivalent viscous damping of one pile force in the direction of X
in torsional vibrations FLT F'X primary component of Fx F
D distance between .centerlines of pistons L F"X secondary component of Fx F
D~ geometric damping ratio for a single pile Fxi unbalanced force in the x direction due to
d diameter of the wire of a helical spring L operation of ith cylinder F
dN!dt rate of change of speed y-' F, centrifugal force in the direction of z axis F
E Young's modulus FL- 2 unbalanced force in the direction of z axis due to
Fzi
E, bulk modulus FL - 2 operation of ith cylinder F
constrained modulus FL- 2 y-'
E" f frequency (in Hz)
Ep Young's modulus of pile FL - 2 displacement functions for vertical vibrations
f, !2 y-
E. total strain energy, area under the hysteresis loop natural frequency
e eccentricity L f" two natural frequencies of coupled rocking and
U"n)" (!",,), y-
eccentricity of unbalanced mass L sliding of an embedded footing
horizontal distance of point of rotation of mass me natural frequency in horizontal sliding y-'
from the center of gravity of footing L
f"x natural frequency of sliding vibrations of
fnxe y-'
e base of natural logarithms embedded found,at!on
coefficient of elastic restitution natural frequency'' in vertical vibrations y-'
voids ratio
f"x natural frequency of vertical vibrations of
fnze y-'
em eccentricity of rotating mass L embedded foundation
F natural frequency in pure rocking
y-'
exciting force, maximum value F
displacement function
f". natural frequency of rocking vibrations of
fn<f>e y-'
lateral force due to earthquake F embedded foundation
y-'
compliance function f •• natural frequency in yawing
Fo force transmitted, maximum value F fmf'e natural frequency of torsional vibrations of
Ft, Fz modified displacement function embedded foundation
F' primary force F fn,rz torsional stiffness and damping parameters,
F" secondary force F respectively
FA unbalanced force due to rotation of mass lumped fwl> fwz vertical stiffness and damping of pile
at the crankpin F horizontal (sliding) stiffness and damping
f~l' ~~2
FAX centrifugal force in the direction of x axis acting parameters of a pinned head pile
at the crankpin F cross stiffness and cross damping parameters
fx</>l' fx</>2
FB force due to translation of mass lumped at the parametrs of a pinned head pile
piston head F rocking stiffness and damping parameters of a pile
f.,t.2 FL - 2
FT thermal load F G shear modulus of soil
shear modulus at limiting strain 'Yr FL-'
Fr(A) complex torsional stiffness parameter G,
FL- 2
F, dynamic compliance function (a= G2 shear modulus beyond the limiting strain 1',
z, x, y, 1/>, 1/J, xrf>, yi/>) G*=G 1 +iG2 complex shear modulus of soil
Fol> Fa2 real and imaginary components of Fa Gt,z real and imaginary parts of complex shear
F" centrifugal force due to rotation of equivalent modulus of soil
shear modulus of soil beneath the pile tip FL- 2
mass Ma 1 of crank rod F G,
Fd force of damping F maximum value of shear modulus
Gmax FL-2
Fp inertia force due to translatory motion of the Gp shear modulus of pile
piston F G, shear modulus of the soil on the sides of the
FL- 2
F, force transmitted to the support or foundation F embedded footing
F, vertical soil reaction on the sides F
636 NOTATION NOTATION 637

Symbol Definition Unit Symbol Definition Unit

g acceleration due to gravity LT-' transverse frame FL

H height of the foundation block, equivalent spring of the pad below the anvil
thickness of the elastic layer L kequ equivalent spring FL-'
FL _,
depth of trench L k, lateral stiffness of all frames (Eq. 8.19)
Hz Hertz T-' kh< combined stiffness of all the frames in bending FL- 1
h effective height of column L kij stiffness coefficient FL- 1
distance of top of foundation above its center. of total vertical spring stiffness FL- 1
k"
gravity L kw stiffness of pile in vertical direction
drop of the tup L k~ stiffness constant of one pile in vertical direction FL- 1
depth of embedment L k: stiffness constant of pile cap in vertical direction FL-'
h, height of the column from the top of the base k'w stiffness constant of pile group in vertical
slab to the center of the frame beam L direction FL- 1
h, clear height of the column L kx stiffness constant for translation along x axis
I moment of inertia of the base contact area about equivalent spring constant of the soil in horizontal
the axis of rotation L' X direction
moment of inertia of pile cross section L' k' spring constant of single pile in translation FL-'
impulse in Eq. (2.65) FT k{' spring constant of pile cap in translation FL-'
importance factor k; stiffness constant of pile group in translation
I, 3.46 II Mmo in Eq. ( 4.39) kx• cross coupled stiffness factor for coupled rocking
I, moment of inertia of the beam L' and sliding
Ic moment of inertia of the column L' k~<l> cross spring stiffness of single pile F
Ia coeffi,cient of shear modulus increase with time FL-' k, stiff constant for translation along y axis
Ip polar moment of inertia of the area FL_,
L' k, spring constant in vertical vibrations
IR impedance ratio equivalent spring constant of the soil in vertical
I, moment of inertia of the area about the x axis FL _,
L' direction
I, moment of inertia of the area about the y axis L' kt spring constant in rocking vibrations FL
I, polar moment of inertia of the area L' spring constant of single pile in rocking FL
k1
Vi k, spring constant of pile cap in rocking
lo, lt Bessel functions of first kind of order 0 and 1, k' spring constant of pile group (piles only) in
respectively • rocking
J, polar moment of inertia of the base contact area L' complex stiffness of soil-pile system
kt
K relative stiffness factor k. torsional stiffness of footing stiffness constant of
Impedance function one pile in torsion FL
l'!G(EPA) ~dimensionless constant L distance of center of gravity of the system from
factor in Eq. (12.15) the base L
[K] stiffness matrix length of the spring
K, coefficient of earth pressures at rest length of trench L
K,(w) frequency dependant impedance function, a= x, length of pile,
y, z,x</>,y</>, </>1/1 thl'&ness of soil layer L
Kal> Ka2 real and imaginary parts of Ka effective span L
K' EpA. E distance from centerline L
G/10
b r,
q. (12.30)
length of connecting rod L
KW kilowatts any distance L
k spring constant FL _, l, center-to-center distance between adjacent
k, spring constant of soil for hammer foundation FL - I columns L
k, total vertical stiffness of both columns of a I, clear distance between columns L
 638
NOTATION NOTATION 639

Symbol Definition Unit Symbol Definition Unit

distance of crankpin from center of gravity of M~ secondary moment about X axis FL

connecting rod unbalanced moment about Y axis FL
I, M,
distance of piston head from center of gravity of M,(t) time-dependent applied moment inducing rocking
connecting rod about Y axis FL
M L
moment primary moment about Y axis FL
M'
M= M 0 cos wt
M"'y
excitation moment secondary moment about Y axis FL
[M] mass matrix FL
M, unbalanced moment about Z axis
M, mass of eccentric [or 50% of crankshaft mass (see FL
M; primary moment about Z axis
Table 9.1)] secondary moment about Z axis FL
M~
M 0 = meemrcw 2 amplitude of moment M for quadratic excitation mass of footing
m
Ml moment due to displacement of center of gravity mass of pile and static load on pile
FL
MA total mass lumped at the crankpin FL -IT2 FL -IT- 2
m, rotating mass
M'A total mass lumped at the crankpin for cylinder i FL - 1 T 2 ml mass of the main shaft including mass of crushing
M,, moment of soil reaction at the sides due to C FL -tT2
FL cone [Eq. (9.2a)]
M-. moment of soil reaction at the sides due to c""s mass of foundation block
FL
ML magnification factor !/Is
mass of pile per unit length
MR moment due to soil reaction mass of camshaft, gears, and counterweights [Eq.
FL m,
M•• moment of the soil reaction at the base due to C (9.2b)] FL -IT 2
MW FL
megawatts "' mass of anvil
M,l equivalent mass of crank rod lumped at the mass of the cap plus machinery or portion of the
m.
crankpin FL - 1 T 2 structure vibrating in phase with the cap FL -IT- 2
M., mass of the connecting rod lumped at A FL -ty2 unbalanced rotating mass
m,
M,, mass of crank rod lumped at piston head FL-IT' eccentric mass
MB total mass lumped at piston head FL -tT2 m, jth mass
mass of moving (crushing) jaw (see Table 9.1) N dynamic factor
MBi total mass lumped at the piston head for magnification factor
cylinder i FL -IT2 operating speed in rpm
M, mass of the connecting rod lumped at B T_,
FL -tT2 speed
M. mass of connecting rod (Table 9.1) standard penetration value
mass of the crank acting at center of gravity FL - 1 T 2 NG normalized shear modulus increaSe with time
M"' mass of the connecting rod FL - 1 T 2 dynamic horizontal soil reaction at the base
Nx(f)
Md total mass of counterweights (see Table 9.1) FL - 1 T 2 N(z) axial force in the pile
M, moment due to inertia force, torque F
FL N,(t) dynamic vertical reaction along the sides
Mm mass moment of inertia about an axis through the resisting moment due to soil reactio!l at the sides FL
N•(t)
center of gravity of the system FLT' N,(t) moment of the resistiv~ force on the sides of the
MmO mass moment of inertia of the machine and foundation about z axis FL
foundation about the horizontal axis passing n degrees of freedom of a multidegree system
through the contact area of the base FLT' IlJ,l;mber of cycles
Mmx polar mass moment of inertia of the system number of cylinders
FLT'
Mp mass of piston, piston rod and crosshead FL - 1 T 2 number of vanes in the impeller
M,, short-circuit moment
OCR overconsolidation radio
MStf! moment of soil reaction at the sides due to C FL p concentrated load F
Mw moment due to displaced position of center o't load on pile F
gravity of machine-foundation system FL sum of loads due to machine, condenser, pipes,
Mx unbalanced moment about X 'axis F
FL and normal torque
M'X primary moment about X axis
FL P, vertical load F
PA power transferred by coupling A KW
 641
640 NOTATION NOTATION

Definition Unit
Symbol Definition Unit Symbol

PB power transferred by coupling B KW r, distance between center of gravity of the main

shaft and crusher cone from the axis of crusher L
Pc power transferred by coupling C KW
PI plasticity index distance from axis of rotation to center of gravity
of counterweights or crank L
P, horizontal dynamic force F
px horizontal component of resultant inertia force r, distance between crusher axis and center of
gravity of the camshaft L
(Table 9.1) F
horizontal (shear) force on a plane F r1,2 frequency ratios
horizontal exciting force F lever arm for rotating mass
r' crarik radius of ith cylinder L
P, load due to vacuum in condenser F r, L
P, maximum unbalanced force in vertical direction F equivalent radius in slidin_g . .
fox•'oy L
vertical component of resultant inertia force F equivalent radius for vertical vibrations
r "' equivalent radius in rocking vibrations L
P,(t) time~dependent vertical force F r,_
FL _, equivalent radius in torsional vibrations L
p vertical stress r,.
distance between geophones L
vertical soil reaction along a pile FL-' s
PP P2 air pressure FL -z parameter depending on soil type in Fig. 4.8
atmospheric pressure FL _, frequency-dependent parameters of the side layer
p"
FL_,
sl, sz
Pc vacuum pressure in condenser for vertical .:vfQration
Q vertical exciting force F sl> s2 frequency-i~de-_pendent parameters of side layer
Q, vertical maximum force F for vertical vibration
q uniformly distributed load per unit area FL _, clear distance between adjacent piles L
R radius of plate
s" frequency dependent dimensionless parameters of
L sw1,w2
V x~ + y~ = distance from pile to centroid of vertical resistance of soil along a vertical pile
footing F frequency-dependent parameters of the side layer
sx1' sx2
soil reaction acting at pile tip F for horizontal sliding
Ro distance from source of vibration to centerline of sx1' sx2
frequency-independent parameters of side layer
trench L for horizontal sliding
R, vertical soil reaction at the base F s<f>l> s<~>z .
frequency-dependent parameters of the side layer
Ri lateral reaction of jth frame F for rocking vibrations
R, horizontal resisting force F s<f>l' Sq, 2 frequency-independent values of s<f>l' and s<f>2
R,(t) time-dependent horizontal soil reaction along x- frequency~dependent side layer parameters for
sl/>1' s,,,z
axis F torsional vibrations
R,(t) time dependent horizontal soil reaction in the sl/>1' s,,,z frequency-independent values of SIJ1 1 and S,,_ 2 for
direction of y-axis torsional vibrations
R,(t) time-depen~ent vertical ·soil reaction at the base F s constant in Eq. (2.24)
R,(t) time~dependent resisting moment due to soil ratio of W2 /W, in Eq. (7.11b)
reaction at the base elastic settlement L
FL s,
R<(t) time~dependent moment of the resistive force at s(z, t) time~dependent soil reaction per unit length on
the base of the footing about Z axis FL .q,'!>rtical side of the footing F
r crank radius tiine period T
L T
horizontal distance torque FL
L
eccentricity L torque due to high pressure (H.P.) turbine FL
TA
radius of gyration VM) m torque due to intermediate pressure (J.P.) turbine FL
L TB
radius of rotor in Eq. (8.5) torque due to low pressure (L.P.) turbine FL
Tc FL
frequency ratio wlwn, flfn r, torque due to generator
T
r, effective radius of one pile T" natural period
equivalent radius L Tc transmissibility
radius of circular contact area L T,(t) time dependant soil reaction for rocking vibrations
642 NOTATION NOTATION 643

Symbol Definition Unit Symbol Definition Unit

T•(t) time dependant soil reaction for torsional XC distance of stiffness center from end L
vibrations xcj
distance of centerline of frame j from the end L
time T X, projection of all external forces acting on the
thickness of vibration absorbing pad L foundation on the x-axis F
u displacement amplitude of pile L force in the direction x-axis F
displacement function X axis of x
u displacement in x direction L X horizontal displacement or distance L
u velocity in x direction LT- 1 x, displacement at the base L
v velocity LT- 1 xP displacement of the piston in the direction of x
v, initial velocity LT- 1 axis L
v1 velocity of rebound of the tup LT- 1 velocity of the piston in the direction of x axis LT- 1
.i;p
vl, v2 volume [in Eq. (10.6)) L' ip acceleration of the piston in the direction x axis
VR Rayleigh's wave velocity LT- 1 x, coordinate of pile
Vn initial velocity of the tup LT- 1 y axis of Y
v. velocity of the anvil LT- 1 Yo, Yt Bessel functions of the second kind of order 0
v, VG,Ip, =shear wave velocity of soil beneath pile and 1, respectively
tip LT- 1 Y, force in the direction of y axis F
v: longitudinal or compression wave velocity in y displacement ~~•..:-:."- L
infinite medium LT- 1 maximum value of y L
Yo
vc VEP/pP =longitudinal wave velocity in pile LT- 1 Y, horizontal coordinates of pile
vp shear wave velocity of pile LT- 1 z axis of Z,
V, longitudinal wave propagation velocity in rod Lr' maximum amplitude of simple L
v, shear wave velocity LT- 1 {Z} displacement vector L
\[GTjJ =shear wave velocity of soil adjacent to z, initial displacement L
pile LT- 1 maximum amplitude of hammer foundation L
z1
v displacement in y direction L z, maximum amplitude of the anvil or absorber,
w weight, total load, weight of machine minus the amplitude L
moving crosshead F z, vertical soil reaction F
w, weight of the tup F zc height of center of gravity of pile cap above its
w. weight of the transverse beam F base L
WL load transferred by the longitudinal beams to the z, projection of external forces on the z axis F
columns F maximum amplitude L
zmax
WT total weight of deck slab and machine F Z, amplitude of frequency w, (see Fig. 4.41)
w. weight of anvil F Z, static deflection
we weight of the two columns constituting a (Z,), static deflection of an elastic layer L
transverse frame F z displacement in vertical direction L
wm weight of machine and bearing F displacement of simple harmonic motion L
LT- 1
W, rated capacity of turbogenerator unit in megawatts i ve~~ity
w vertical displacement L {i) veloCity vector
LT-'
weight per unit length FL - t ii acceleration
w, amplitude of vertical vibration of footing {ii) acceleration vector
L-1
w1.2 real and imaginary parts of displacement IX coefficient of attenuation
ww displacement in Z direction coefficient in Fig. 8.6
w(z) complex amplitude of pile vibration at depth z crank angle
w(x, t) complex pile displacement function at depth z 1 + e'!r' [see Eq. (8.40)]
X axis of X L phase angle
distance of mass center from the end L a, correction factor
X, horizontal soil reaction F at, O'z terms defined by Eqs. (!1.65) and (11.66)
 644
NOTATION NOTATION 645

Symbol Definition Unit Symbol Definition Unit

ex. axial displacement interaction factor for a typical €1,2 terms defined by Eqs. (11.69) and (11.70),
reference pile in a group respectively
ex. phase angle, a= x, y, z, t/J, 1/J
Ex longitudinal strain in x direction
exL lateral displacement 'interaction factor for a typical e, longitudinal strain in y direction
reference pile in a group e, longitudinal strain in z direction
ex,, horizontal seismic zone coefficient ,., efficiency of the drop
ex, crank angle for the ith cylinder degree of absorption
{3 soil foundation factor v Poisson's ratio
{3, {32 terms defined by Eqs. (11.67) and (11.68) g normal coordinates (dimensionless)
'Y weight density or unit weight FL-' damping factor
Mm/ Mrno in Eq. ( 4.39) gx damping factor in horizontal sliding
'Y, unit weight of concrete
y,
g, damping factor in vertical vibrations
unit weight of soil FL-' g. damping factor in rocking
'Yxy shear strain in the xy plane g, damping factor in torsional vibrations
'Yn shear strain in the xz plane p mass density of the soil adjacent to pile FL _,T 2
'Y,, shear strain in yz plane. mass density of the soil FL _,T2
y, shear strain ratio of amplitudes Ax!A<I>
0 angle of twist p, . mass density of'Soit beneath pile tip FL -4T2
any angle mass density of pile material FL _,T 2
B Pp
displacement mass density of the soil on the sides of the
P,
logarithmic decrement embedded footing FL- 4 T 2
BL loss angle [see Eq. (4.48b)] FL- 2
0' principal stress
5stat static deflection L u, normal pressure FL- 2
a,, specific damping capacity for decaying vibrations effective all-around stress FL - 2
<To
a" specific damping capacity for steady-state 0'1 major principal stress FL - 2
vibrations
0'2 intermediate principal stress FL- 2
dE. area enclosed under the hysteresis loop FL-2
u, minor principal stress
a, change in thickness L stress in the pad FL-2
a, change in volume L'
O'p
normal stress in x direction FL- 2
a, vertical deflection L
O'x
normal stress in y direction FL - 2
u,
dz1 vertical deflection due to concentrated load FL- 2
L 0', normal stress in z direction
dz 2 vertical deflection due to distributed load L vertical pressure below the base FL- 2
.6.z3 vertical deflection due to shear time for which a square pulse acts T
L
az, vertical deflection due to axial compression in
T

Txy, Tyz, Tzx shear stresses FL- 2

column angle of internal friction
L
A Lammes' constant
wavelength
FL- 2
L
"' phase angle
rotation (rocking) of a footing
eigen value T-2 apparent angle of internal friction
AR
IL
wavelength of Rayleigh waves
coefficient of friction
"'</>,,
w
· aver~ rotation of a flexible contact area
angular velocity
m 2 1m 1 = W2 1W1 circular frequency T-1
A complex frequency parameter of a pile T-1
operating frequency
Al,A2 real and imaginary parts of A, respectively operating speed in rad I sec
Ao real frequency parameter of pile circular natural frequency T-1
A, w.
dimensionless parameter first and second natural circular frequencies T-1
lt)n1 • lt)n2
€ longitudinal strain T-1
• Ex+ Ey + Ez
Wnd
w.,
natural frequency of damped vibrations
natural frequency of the embedded foundation
 646
NOTATION

Symbol Definition Unit

wnh

wnll' wn/2
natural frequency of horizontal vibrations
limiting natural circular frequencies Author Index
(wnll)e, (wnl2)e two natural circular frequencies of the embedded
footing in coupled rocking and sliding
average natural circular frequency in vertical
vibrations
natural circular frequency in horizontal sliding
natural circular frequency of sliding vibration of
embedded foundation
natural circular frequency in vertical vibrations
natural circular frequency of vertical vibrations of
embedded foundation
natural circular frequency in pure rocking
natural circular frequency of embedded footing in
rocking vibrations
natural circular frequency in torsional vibration
Abdel-razzak, K.G., 113, 187 Beredugo, Y.O., 438, 439, 440, 443, 444,
natural circular frequency of embedded
Abel, J.F., 437 445, 446, 447, 448, 449, 450, 451, 452,
foundation in torsional vibrations 454, 455, 471, 488, 489, 490,-491, 492,
Aboui-Ella, F.,'542, 553, 620, 621
"'1' o/2 real and imaginary parts of .p( z) 515, 552, 553 .
Adiar, A., 400, 436
% torsional amplitude of footing Afifi, S.E.A., 112, 183 Bernhard, D.L., 8, 9, 10
resonant amplitude of pile rotation Agarwal, S.L., 577 Beskos, D.E., 420,436, 542
"''
"''''
I.P,,,I
complex amplitude of pile rotation at elevation z
real torsional amplitude of pile at elevation z
American Concrete Institute, 9, 578, 579,
580, 585, 592
Bhandari, R.K.M., 576
Bhargava, S., 553
American Society of Civil Engineers, 337, Biot, M.A., 117, 183
363 Bishop, A.W., 99, 183
American Society For Testing Materials, 144 Bjerrum, L., 128, 183
Anandakrishnan, M., 438, 490 Black, W.L., 104, 105, 112, 117, 184
Anderson, D.G., 106, 110, 111, 113, 114, Blake, R.L., 6, 7, 8, 10
115, 116, 117, 126, 183 Bolt, B.A., 419, 437
Annaki, M., 133, 134, 183, 188 Brooker, E.W., 159, 178, 183
Arango, 1., 187 Bycroft, G.N., 219, 224, 225, 234, 236, 237,
Arnold, R.N., 224, 225,236, 239, 303 238, 303, 441, 446, 457, 491, 506, 552
Arya, A.S., 553
Arya, S.D., 363, 374 Carrier, W.D., 439, 491
Aubry, D·., 549, 552 Castellani, A., 217, 304
Castro, G., 133, 183
Babcock, F.M., 437 Chae, Y.S., 236, 303, 438, 491
Balakrishna, R.H.A., 258, 302, 303 Cho, Y., 131, 132, 183
Ballard, R.F., Jr., 139, 183 Christian, J.T., 188, 439,491
Baranov, V.A., 438, 439, 44~, 488, 490, 503, Christiano, P., 491
542, 552 ... Chung, R.M., 187
Barkan, D. D., 3, 10, 89, 93, 121, 122, 144, Crandell, F.J., 6, 10
150, 154, 177, 183, 240, 258, 260, 302, Crede, C.E., 409, 437
303, 312, 314, 328, 329, 339, 349, 350, Crockett, J.H.A., 400, 437
374,382,388,398,400,414,428,436, Cunny, R.W., 177, 183
439,459,471,490,494,499,547,552 Curran, J.W., 185
Barnett, N.E., 437
Bathe, K.J ., 623 Dalal, M.K., 576
Baxa, E., 400, 409, 436 Dasgupta, B., 236, 303, 436, 439, 491
Baxter, R.L., 8, 9, 10 Davis, E.H., 544, 553

647
 ••• AUTHOR INDEX
AUTHOR INDEX 649
Day, S.M., 439, 491
Hardin, B.O., 81, 84, 93, 104, 105, 106, 112, Kranthammer, T., 542 Novak, M., 302, 303, 304, 310, 311, 318,
Demello, V.B.F., 145, 183
117, 131, 148, 149, 150, 155, 156, 179, Krishnaswamy, N.R., 438, 490 328, 329, 438, 439, 440, 443, 444, 445,
Dietrich, R.J., 124, 187, 188
180, 184
Dobry, R., 236, 303, 488, 489, 491, 550, 552 Krizek, R.J., 489, 491 446, 447, 448, 449, 450, 451, 452, 454,
Harris, C.M., 409, 437 455, 456, 458, 471, 488, 489, 490, 491,
Doebelin, E.O., 138, 184 Kuhlemeyer, R.L., 238, 304, 489, 491, 492
Hartmann, H. G., 544, 546, 553 492,499,502,503,504,507,508,509,
Dolling, H.J., 414, 436 Kumar, K., 555, 576, 577
Harwood, M., 329 510, 511, 512, 514, 515, 516, 517, 518,
Dominguez, J., 439, 491
Hatheway, A.W., 113, 188 519, 521, 522, 523, 525, 526, 527, 528,
Drnevich, V.P., 118, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, Ladd, R.S., 132, 180, 185
Haupt, W.A., 419, 437 529,531,541,542,543,544,545,546,
131, 132, 149, 155, 156, 179, 180, 184, Lamb, H., 85, 90, 93, 215, 234, 304
Hayashi, K., 240, 304
205, 211 Lambe, T.W., 178, 185 547, 548, 549, 552, 553, 620, 621
Henkel, D.J., 99, 183
Drweyer, R., 363, 374 Landra, A., 128, 183
Heteyni, M., 240, 304 Oh-Oka, H., 131, 132, 188
Dutko, P., 180, 185 Lawrence, F.V., 107, 188
Hoar, R.J .. , 135, 187
Dyvik, R., 181, 184 Lee, K.L., 133, 134, 183, 188 O'Neill, M., 374
Horst, W.D., 304
Lee, P.C.Y., 437
Hausner, G.W., 217, 304 Palacios, A., 146, 186
Ebisch, R., 400, 409, 436 Lee, S.H.H., 187
Howell, J.F., 521, 522, 523, 525, 526, 527, Leonards, G.A., 98, 99, 185 Park, T.D., 133
Ehlerchritof, O.M., 302, 303 528, 529, 549, 553, 620, 621
El Hifnawy, L., 328, 329 Leontovich, V., 345, 375 Parmelee, R.A., 491
Hsieh, T.K., 220, 221, 258, 302, 304 Lerstol, M., 576 Parthasarathy, T., 437
Elorduy, J., 234, 303 Hudson, W.R., 186
Li, S., 131, 185 Pauw, A., 258, 302, 304
El-Sharnouby, B., 511, 512, 518, 519, 541, Humphries, W.K., 183
Liang, H., 547, 552 Peacock, W.H., 128, 129, 130, 186, 187
543, 544, 545, 546, 547, 548, 549, 552, Hurty, W.C., 363, 374
553 Liao, S., 422, 423, 437 Peck, R.B., 145, 186
Hvorsley, M.J., 128, 184 Pincus, G., 374
Engen, A., 576 Lodde, P.J., 113, 116, 117, 185
Lord, A.F.~·;Jr., 126, 185 ,~;,~;.:?' Poplin, J .K., 552
Epstein, R.I., 491 ldriss, I.M., 109, 187
Espana, C., 183, 184 Luco, J.E., 491 Postel, M., 549, 552
!ida, K., 124, 184, 185 Poulos, H. G., 498, 514, 521, 544, 553
Evans, J.C., 185 Luco, Y.E., 441, 491
Imai, T., 136, 146, 185 Poulos, S.J., 133, 183
Ewing, W.M., 93 Lorenz, H., 154, 155, 185
Indian Standard Institution, 9, 11 Lysmer, J., 205, 211, 221, 222, 223, 304, 328, Prakash, S., 1, 4, 11, 81, 83, 93, 96, 107,
Ireland, H.O., 145, 159, 178, 183, 185 329,419,437,439,489,491,492 108, 109, 110, 128, 140, 142, 145, 146,
Firestone, Inc., 410, 437 Ishibashi, I., 131, 132, 185 147, 165, 172, 176, 178, 180, 186, 232,
Fletcher, G., 145, 184 Ishihara, K., 107, 108, 131, 132, 185 McNeill, R.L., 301, 304, 414, 437 258, 302, 303, 304, 328, 329, 439, 459,
Fry, Z.B., 139, 177, 183, 184, 438, 491, 552 Ishimoto, M., 124, 185 Madhav, M.R., 499, 552 471, 492, 494, 517, 548, 553, 555, 556,
Fugro, Inc., 113, 184 Iwasaki, T., 107, 131, 132, 178, 185 Madshus, C.F., 181, 184, 555, 576 559, 569, 575, 576, 577, 582, 592
Funston, N.E., 302, 304 Major, A., 328, 329, 344, 349, 375, 386, 390, Press, F., 93
Jakub, M., 485, 491 Puri, V.K., 1, 11, 81, 83, 93, 107, 108, 109,
391, 394, 398, 407, 437, 592
Gazetas, G., 236, 303, 482, 485, 488, 489, Jardetzky, W.S., 93 Marcuson, W.F., III, 112, 179, 185, 186 110, 133, 146, 147, 165, 172, 176, 178,
491, 550, 552 Johnson, G.R., 439, 489, 491 Marganson, B.E., 437 U6,n2,258,3ro,W4,C9,~9,471,
Gle, D.R., 541; 543, 544, 552 Joshi, V.H., 186 492, 494, 553, 556, 559, 577
Martin, G .R., 187
Goodier, G.N., 78, 94 Judd, S., 378, 398 Maxwell, A.A., 499, 500, 501, 547, 552 Pursey, H., 92, 93
Griffith, A.H., 185 May, T.W., 419, 437 Pyke, R.M., 187
Grigg, R.F., 514, 541, 547, 553 Kaldijan, M.J., 489, 491 Meister, F.J., 6, 11
Guha, S.K., 576 Kaufman, R.I., 128, 184 Melore, V.R., 183 Quinlin, P.M., 216,236, 304
Gupta, B.N., 438, 491 Kausel, E., 439, 491 Miller, G.F., 92, 93
Gupta, D.C., 491, 556, 569, 575, 577, 582, Kausel, F., 544, 546, 552 Mohr, H.A., 145, 186 Ranjan, G., 186
592 Kaynia, A.M., 544, 546, 552 Moore, P.J., 303, 304 Rao, N.S.V.K., 236, 303, 439, 491, 499, 552
Kjellman, W., 128, 185 Moretto, 0., 185 Rausch, E., 6, 8, 11, 341, 375, 393, 398
Kleinlogel, 345, 375 Rayleigh, L., 85, 93
Hadjian, A.A., 485, 491
Klien, A.M., 400, 437 Nadim, F., 576 Reiher, H., 6, 11
Hall, J.R., Jr., 91, 94, 118, 124, '148, 150, Knox, D.P., 187
153, 184, 186, 205, 211, 215, 224, 225, Nagendra, M.V., 437 Reissner, E., 215, 216, 228,236,239, 304,
Ko, H.Y., 134, 185 Nagraj, C.N., 302, 303 441, 457, 492
226,227,229,235,238,264,302,304,
Kobori, T., 234, 304, 305 Nandakumaran, P., 186, 553 Richart, F.E., Jr., 5, 6, 8, 11, 80, 81, 84, 90,
305, 329, 497, 553
Koerner, R.M., 185 Nazarian, S., 139, 140, 186 91, 93, 94, 106, 110, 112, 113, 118, 123,
Hall, W.J., 304
Kolsky, H., 78, 93 Newcomb, W.K., 201, 203, 211 124, 136, 150, 151, 152, 153, 178, 181,
Hansen, W.E., 186
Harder, L.F., 187 Korfund, Inc., 404, 405, 406, 437 Nieto, J.A., 303 183, 184, 186, 187, 188, 205, 211, 215,
Kovacs, W.D., 146, 185 Nogami, T., 547, 549, 552, 621 217, 218, 221, 222, 228, 229,230, 235,
650 AUTHOR INDEX

Richart, F. E., Jr. (Continued) Thiers, G.R., 128, 129, 130, 131, 188
236, 238, 260, 264, 302, 304, 305, 312, Thomson, W.T., 27, 31, 43, 61, 234, 305
328, 329, 414, 437, 438, 492, 496, 497,
498, 553, 555, 577
Thornburn, T.H., 186
.Timoshenko, S., 78, 94 Subject Index
Rizzo, P.C., 183 Ting, J.M., 541, 553
Roesset, J.M., 439,485,491 Tokimatsu, K., 187
Roscoe, K.H., 128, 186 Trudeau, P.J., 113, 188
Rubinstein, M.F., 363, 374 Tsai, N.C., 491
Tucker, R.L., 517, 548, 553
Sachs, K., 439, 456, 458, 471, 488, 492, 522,
553 Urlich, C.M., 489, 492
Sagessor, R., 437 Ushijima, R., 439,491
Sagoci, H.F., 228, 304, 441, 457, 492
Sangrey, D.A., 422, 423, 437 Vardoulakis, I. G., 436, 542
Saran, S., 186 Vargas, M., 185
Schmertmann, J.H., 145, 146, 186 Vijayvergiya, R.C, 438, 492
Scott, R.F., 134, 185
Seed, H.B., 109, 128, 129, 130, 131, 133, Wahls,H.E., 112, 179, 185, 186
134, 146, 178, 179, !86, 187, 188 Wang, X.K., 576, 577
Segol, G., 419, 437 Warburton, G.B., 236, 237, 303, 305 Absorber, 44 Analysis:
Shannon, W.L., 124, 187 Wass, G., 419, 437, 439, 489, 492,544,546, installation o~, 589,590,591,592 dynamic, 366
553 methods, see Methods of analysis
Shannon and Wilson-Agbabian Associates, pneumatic, 399, 404, 408
106, 187 Weissman, G.F., 150, 188 principle of, 48, 404 preliminary, 363
Shen, G.T., 363, 375 Westman, R.A., 441, 491 Anchor bolts, 586, 587, 588
types: 404
Sherif, M.A., 131, 132, !85 White, S.R., 150, 188 supported, 405, 406, 589, 590, 591 Anvil, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311
Sheta, M., 499, 517, 547, 553, 620, 621 Whitman, R.V., 107, 150, 178, 185, 188, 217, suspended, 405, 406, 589, 592 amplitude, 313, 322
Shippy, D.J., 184 218, 228, 230, 236, 302, 305, 312, 329, Acceleration, 15 Aperiodic motion, 12
Silver, M.L., 132, 133, 134, 185, !87 498, 553 Attenuation, see Damping
pickups, 44
Singh, B., 186 Wilson, S.D., 124, 188 Auxiliary equipment, 330
Accelerometer, 43, 44
Skempton, A.W., 146, 179, 187 Wolfe, W.E., 134, 188 Active Isolation, 399, 413, 415, 425
Snowdon, J.C., 407, 437 Wong, R. T., 187 ADINA, 363, 374, 622 Bandwidth method, 40
Sridharan, A., 419, 437 Woods, R.D., 91, 92, 94, 112, 113, 115, 124, Amplitude, 5, 13, 26, 29, 30, 39, 47, 48, 53 Barriers:
Srivastava, L.S., 186 125, 126, 127, 131, 132; 134, 135, 137, of foundation: 213 pile, 399,420,425
Stephenson, R.W., 127, !87 138, 140, 145, 150, 153, 183, 186, 187, rocking, 233, 246, 257, 450, 454, 467, trench, 399, 414, 434
Stevens, H.W., !50, 187 188, 215, 229, 235, 238, 264, 305, 329, 468, 469, 474, 476 Base, slab, 330, 331
Stokoe, K.H., II, 110, 111, 113, 114, 115, 413, 414, 415, 416, 417, 418, 420, 421, sliding (horizontal), 233, 243, 246, 248, Beam:
116,117,135,140,178,181,183,186, 422, 425, 437, 497, 541, 542, 543, 544, 257, 267, 448, 454, 464, 468, 474, 476, longitudinal, 330
187, 188, 303, 438, 492 549,552,553,555,577 477 transverse, 330
Stone, N.E., 363, 375 torsional, 229,248, 267, 457, 471, 473, Bilinear models, stress-strain curves, 128,
Sung, T.Y., 216,217,234,305,441,492 Yamane, G., 187 475 129, !30
Szekley, E.M., 303 Yang, Z., 113, 188 vertical, 224, 242, 246, 256, 266, 267, Block foundation, mode of vibration, 213
Yasuda, S., 131, 132, 185 313, 314, 322, 402, 403, 411, 412, 442, Bulk modulus, 102, 103
Takagi, Y., 185 Yoshimi, Y., 131, 132, 188 462, 469, 472, 473
Tassoulas, J.L., 439, 492 Yoshimura, M., 136, 185 of frame: ~,
Tatsuoka, F., 107, 178, 185 Yu, P., 181, 188 horizontal, 348, 356, 371 Case history:
Taylor, D.W., 100, 168, 188 rotation, 356, 370 compressor foundation, 556
Terzaghi, K., 240, 305 Zoeppritz, K., 93, 94 vertical, 346, 351, 352 hammer foundation, 569
reduction factor, 414, 415, 416, 418, 419, Chemical soil stabilization, 427
420, 421 Coefficients:
rotating maSs excitation, 313, 332 of earth pressure at rest, 159
of elastic non-uniform compression, 121
Analog:
of elastic non-uniform shear, 121
Hall's, 224
of elastic resistance of piles, 494
Hsieh's, 220
Lysmer's, 221, 223 of elastic restitution, 316
651
652
Coefficients (Continued)
of elastic uniform compression, 121, 122,
142
of elastic uniform shear, 121, 143
of shear modulus increase, 111, 112
Comments, final, 93, 436, 547
Compliance, functions, 483, 485, 490
Compliance Impedance functions, 482
Computer programs:
ADINA, 363, 374, 622
for block foundations, 595
for hammer foundations, 610
PILAY II, 542, 543, 620
STRUDL II, 363, 374, 375, 621
Condenser, 330, 331, 333
loads, 332, 333
Confining pressure, mean, 84, 105
Constrained modulus, 79, 95, 102, 103
Construction of foundation:
block, 579
frame, 580
Construction joint, 579, 583, 584
Contact pressure, 216
parabolic, 216, 217
rigid base, 216, 217
uniform, 216, 217
Continuum approach for piles, 217
Conversion factors, 629
Coulomb damping, see Damping, Coulomb
Counterbalancing, 194, 195, 426
Counterweights, 194, 202, 381, 382
Criteria:
for design, see Design, criteria
for vibrations, 7
Critical damping, 21, 22
Crushers:
gyratory, 380
hammer, rotary, 380, 383, 384
jaw, 380, 381
primary and secondary, 383
Cycle, 12
Cyclic·plate-load test, 144
Damper, vibration, 429, 430
Damping, 14, 20, 28, 38
coefficient of attenuation, 151
constant, geometrical, rigid circular
footing:
on elastic half space:
rocking, 227
sliding, 225
torsional, 228
vertical, 221, 223
SUBJECT INDEX
embedded in elastic. half space:
cross coupled, 453, 455, 473
rocking, 450, 453, 455, 473
sliding, 446, 448, 453, 455, 473
torsional, 457, 458
vertical, 442
Coulomb, 14
critical, 21, 22
equivalent viscous, 153
factor, 22, 264. See also Damping, ratio
factors affecting, 155, 156
geometrical, 151, 152, 219
material, 147, 179, 150
specific damping capacity, 150
viscous, 20, 24, 25, 40, 147
parameters, 519
ratio, 95, 153, 180
rigid geometrical circular footing:
on elastic half space:
rocking, 153, 228, 232
sliding, 153, 225, 232
torsional vibration, 153, 154, 229
vertical vibration, 153, 223
embedded in elastic half space:
rocking, 450
sliding, 448
torsional, 458, 459, 472
vertical, 442, 443, 472
hysteretic, 485
viscous, 14
Deck slab, 330, 331
Degree of freedom systems, 13
multi degree, 13, 50
single degree, 13
two degree, 44, 45
Degree of saturation, effect on soil modulus,
117
Design:
criteria, 4, 318, 339, 377, 379, 385
parameters for vertical vibrations of pile,
511, 512, 513
procedure:
embedded foundation, 471
foundations on absorbers, 410
hammer foundation, 319
pile foundation, 529
reciprocating machines, foundations for,
260
turbo generator foundation, 363
wave barriers:
pile barrier, passive isolation, 423
trench barrier, active isolation, 423
trench barrier, passive isolation, 423
SUBJECT INDEX 653
Dip angle, 92 soil:
Displacement: cross coupled, 453, 455, 473
functions, rigid circular footing on elastic rocking, 227, 246, 264, 450, 453, 455,
half space, 215, 216, 217, 219-222, 235, 473
441 sliding, 121, 225, 242, 264, 448
pick up, 44 soil pile system, see Pile stiffness
Drainage during shear, 97 torsional, 228, 248, 264, 457, 458, 473
Dynamic: vertical, 121, 219, 241, 264, 312, 401,
compliance, 482, 485 411, 442, 443, 472
impedance, 482, 484, 485
real and imaginary, 484 Fatigue factor, 394
Dynamic loads, see Forces, Unbalanced; Field methods, 135
Unbalanced moments crossMbore hole test, 135
Dynamic prestrain, effect on soil modulus, cyclic plate test, 144
118 down-hole test, 136
free footing vibration test, 144
Eccentricity, 201, 426, 427 horizontal footing resonance test, 143
Effective: standard penetration test, 145, 178, 179
height, 344, 366 surface wave test, 137
mass, 302 up-hole test, 136
mass moment of inertia, 302 vertical footing resonance test, 140
span, 344;,'"367 >\;,,--·~1'· Finite rcids, end conditions:
Elastic constants, 100 fixed-fixed, 73, 76
Elastic half space approach, 260, 264, 472, fixed-free, 72, 76
488. See also Elastic half space method free-free, 70, 71, 76
Elastic half space method: Flexibility influence coefficient, 50, 52
embedded: Flexibility matrix, 52
coupled sliding and rocking, 451, 473 Footing shape, effect on vibratory response,
rocking, 448, 449 234
sliding, 443, 445, 447, 448 Force:
torsional, 456, 457, 458, 472 due to impact,.205
vertical, 440, 444, 472 primary and secondary, 194, 202
rigid circular footing, vibrations of, 438, Forced vibrations, 13, 39
439 with viscous damping, 24, 25
surface: 214, 301 Forces, unbalanced, 2, 29
coupled sliding and rocking, 230 jaw crushers, 382
rocking, 225 multicylinder machines, 195
sliding, 224 in reciprocating machines, 189
torsional, 228 in rotary machines, 201
vertical, 215 single cylinder machines, 190
Elastic layer, rigid circular footing: Form of vibrations associated with coupled
torsional oscillation, 239 rocking and sliding, 256 ..•
vertical oscillation, 237 Foundations, embedded block, See
Embedded foundations, vibrations of: 'Embedded foundations
coupled sliding and roiJRing, 451, 468, 473 Foundations:
rocking, 448, 449, 464, 465, 467 for crushing mills, 380
sliding, 443, 445, 447, 448, 462, 463 for fans and blowers;· 379
torsional, 456, 457, 458, 469, 470, 472 for impact machines, 306
vertical, 440, 444, 459, 460, 461, 472 for mills, grinding, 391
Equivalent radius, 234, 264, 321 for mills, rolling, 386
Equivalent spring, 19, 312, 320, 342, 355, for motor generators, 376
370, 402 for presses, stamping, forging and impact,
pad below anvil, 312 392
 b54 655
SUBJECT INDEX SUBJECT INDEX

Foundations (Continued) Lame's constants, 78 of foundations: torsion, 524

for pumps, centrifugal, 378 Limiting amplitudes, 6 coupled rocking and sliding, 232, 251, translation, 518
for reciprocating, 212 Linear elastic weightless spring approach, 267,476 vertical, 508
for rotary machines, high speed, 330 260, 266, 474, 488. See also Linear limiting, 313, 320, 367, 411 Piles:
for rotary machines, low speed, 376 rocking, 228, 246, 450, 467, 476 coefficient of elastic resistance, 494
elastic weightless spring method
for tools, machine, 391 Linear elastic weightless spring method, 214, torsional, 229, 248, 265, 370, 457, 471, damping, 508
Frame foundation, 330, 331, 332, 363 240, 301 475 end bearing, 495
combined horizontal and rotation, 352, vertical, 242, 264, 266, 442, 461, 462, footing stiffness, 515, 524
embedded foundations, vibrations of:
353 coupled rocking and sliding, 468, 476 475 friction, 497
horizontal vibration, 347, 352, 358 rocking, 464, 465, 467 Natural period, 17 interactiOn factors, 514, 521
vertical vibration, 342, 343, 349, 357 sliding, 462, 463 Nonlinearity, effect on foundation effect, 302 lumped mass model, 499
Free vibration Of spring mass, 16 torsional, 469, 470, 475 Normalized shear modulus, 109 pile groups, 514, 520
with viscous damping, 20 vertical, 459, 460, 461, 475 Normalized shear modulus increase, 111, 112 predicted response, 541
Frequency, 12 surface footing, vibrations of: Normal mode: resonant frequency, 498
circular, 15, 17 coupled rocking and sliding, 251 method, 55 rocking, 517
damped, 24, 259 rocking, 243 of vibration, 14, 70 stiffness parameters, 541, 512
Frequency dependent excitation, 29 sliding, 242 torsion, 521
Frequency determinant, 51, 53, 57 torsional, 247 Overview, 177, 301, 328, 488 translation, 517
Frequency equation, 57, 232, 253, 312, 351, vertical, 240 vertical stiffness, 508
355' 402, 468 Logarithmic decrement, 38, 148. See also Pads, absorber: vertical vibrations, 499, 502
Frequency ratio, 5, 14, 26, 27, 28, 31 Damping cork, 404, 406 Poisson's ratio, 78, 81, 95, 101
dimensionless, 216,441, 456 Longitudinal vibrations of rods, 63, 69 neoprene, -404, 408 ''j,":.;f"
Principal modes of vibration, 14, 51
Functions, compliance and impedance, 301, rubber, 404, 407
482 Machines on floors, 394 stresses in, 317, 322 Radius of footing, equivalent, see Equivalent
Magnification factor, 27, 32, 222, 226, 227, timber, 404, 408 radius
Geometrical damping, 91, 92 238 Particle motion: Ratio, impedance, 422
Mass effective, 302 longitudinal waves, 66 Rayleigh wave (R~wave), 85
Hammer: Mass ratio, 216, 217, 224, 226, 443 surface waves, 90 wave length, 424
counter blow, 306 modified, 221, 224, 225, 264 Particle velocity: Rayleigh's method, 35, 36
. double acting, 306 Measures, remedial, 401, 406 definition, 66 Reciprocating machine, 2
drop, 3, 306 Method, Rayleigh's, 35 equation, 66 Reinforcement, steel, 580, 581, 582, 583,
forging, 3 Methods of analysis, 214, 307, 340 Passive isolation, 399, 414, 415, 423 584, 585, 586
Harmonic motion, 14 elastic half space, 214, 301, 439, 471 Period, 12 Resonance, 14
Heat exchanger, 330 linear elastic weightless spring, 214, 240, natural, 17 ResonantMcolumn test, 123, 149
301, 439, 459, 471 Phase angle, 27, 29, 31,44 hollow specimen, 126
ICES STRUDL, 363, 374, 375, 621 Mode of vibration, 54 Pickup: Retrograde ellipse, 90
Impedance, 483 normal, 14, 70 acceleration, 44 Rotary machine, 4
function, 482, 485 principal, 14, 51 displacement, 44
Inertia ratio, 226, 228, 264 Modulus, see also Field methods; Laboratory PILAY 2, 542, 543, 620 Scaled area, of trench, 419
Instruments, vibratory measuring, 42, 43 methods Pile barriers, 420 Secant modulus, 101
Interaction factors, piles, 514 secant, 101 isolation effectiveness, 420, 421 Service factor, 6, 8
Interfacing machine with foundation, 586 shear, 74, 84, 95, 101, 102 Pile cap: Shear modulus, 74, 84, 95, 101, 102, 104
International standard, 15 complex, 15~, 523 damping, 515 cohesionless soils, 105, 106, 107
Isolation tangent, 101 stiffness, 515 effect of prestrain, 118
active, 399, 413, 415, 423 Young's, 63, 64, 95, 102 Pile damping: ·•·~ factors affecting, 104
passive 399, 414, 415, 423 Moment of inertia: cross,-518 strain level, 107, 108, 109
of area, 247, 262, 263, 624 rotation, 518 time effects, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115,
Laboratory methods, 122 of mass, 262, 263, 625, 626, 627 torsion, 524 116, 117
cyclic simple shear test, 128 of pile cross section, 518, 524 translation, 518 cohesionless soils, equations for 106, 107,
cyclic torsional shear test, 131 polar, 74, 263, 369 vertical, 508 .._ 424
cyclic triaxial compression test, 133 Multidegrees of freedom, 50 Pile stiffness: complex, 152, 523
resonant column test; 123 cross, 518 Shear tests:
end conditions, 125 Natural frequency, 4, 12, 18, 19, 35, 49, 346, parameters, 519 consolidated~undrained, 98
ultrasonic pulse test, 127 348 rotation, 518 drained test, 100
656 SUBJECT INDEX

Shear tests (Continued) due to normal operation, 332

unconsolidated-undrained, 98 Two degree of freedom systems, 44
Shear wave velocity, 75 coupled rocking and sliding, 230, 251
Simple harmonic motion, 14 coupled translation and rotation, 352
Soil stabilization: forced vibration, 44, 45
with cement, 428
chemical, 427 Unbalanced forces, see Forces, unbalanced
with silicates, 428 Unbalanced moments, 197, 202
Spectral analysis of surface waves, 139 primary, 199, 200, 202
Springs: secondary, 200, 202
pneumatic, 409
rubber, 407
Velocity:
steel or metal, 404
compression wave, 79, 31, 82
Square pulse, 33
longitudinal wave propagation, 65
Static deflection, 18, 19, 26
Rayleigh wave, 81, 90
Stiffness, cross coupled, 453
shear wave, 75, 81, 82, 84, 424
Stiffness coefficient, 50
wave propagation, 62, 66, 88
Stiffness and damping parameters, embedded
Vibration:
foundations:
absorber, 44
half space:
absorption, principle of, 401
rocking, 449
isolation:
sliding, 447
active, 399
torsional, 448
passive, 399
vertical, 444
measuring instruments, 42
side layer:
modes of rigid foundation block, 213, 214
rocking, 449
of elastic rods of finite length:
sliding, 447
fixed-fixed, 71, 73, 76
torsional, 458
fixed-free, 71, 72, 76
vertical, 444
free-free, 70, 71, 76
Stiffness matrix, 50, 362
rigid circular footing on elastic layer:
Stiffness method, 51
torsional, 239
Surface footing, vibrations of co~pled
vertical, 237
rocking and sliding, 230, 251
severity data, 9
rocking, 225, 227, 243, 244
Viscous damping, 14
rocking, sliding, and vertical, 248
determination by band width method, 39
sliding, 224, 226, 242
torsional, 228, 229, 247
vertical, 213, 215, 218, 240, 241 Waves due to surface footing, 91
Wave equation:
Tangent modulus, 101 for longitudinal waves in a rod, 65, 66
Test data, evaluation, 146 solution for finite rods, 70, 76
Torsional vibrations of rods, 74, 76 Wave front, cylindrical, 91
Transducer, acceleration, 140, 141 Wave length, measurement, 63, 86, 424
Transient loads, 31 Wave propagation, 62
Transmissibility, definition, 41 elastic half space, 84, 85
Triaxial compression test, 96 elast.ic infinite medium, 76
Tuning of foundation, high; low, 5 elastic rods, 63
Tup,306, 307,309,310,311 fixed end, 69
Turbines, 330, 331, 332 free end, 68
Turbogenerator: longitudinal vibrations, 63
foundation, 331, 332 torsional vibrations, 74
layout, 331 velocity of, 62, 65
loads on foundation:
due to emergency condition, 332, 337 Young's modulus, 63, 64, 95, 102