ABSTRACT

Old devices are replaced and abandoned. Such Electronic and Electrical Equipment’s (EEEs)
that are discarded by users are termed as e-waste. Management of e-waste includes proper
collection, segregation and recycling of discarded devices in an environment friendly manner.
Even today, e-waste collection and recycling in India is largely dominated by the unorganized
sector, which makes the enforcement of such laws very difficult. We propose a novel approach
for Modified EWM using block chain based smart contracts using DES (Data Encryption
Standard Algorithm) .Block chain is the technology that enables us to write smart contracts.
Smart cities have the potential to overcome environmental problems caused by improper waste
disposal by improving human health, protecting the aquatic ecosystem, and reducing air
pollution. However, today’s systems, approaches, and technologies leveraged for waste
management are manual and centralized. This fact makes them vulnerable to manipulation and
the single point of failure problem. Also, a large portion of the existing waste management
systems within smart cities fall short in providing operational transparency, traceability, audit,
security, and trusted data provenance features. We discuss the opportunities brought about by
block chain technology in various waste management use cases and application scenarios,
including real-time tracing and tracking of waste, reliable channelization and compliance with
waste treatment laws, efficient waste resources management, protection of waste management
documentation, and fleet management. We introduce a framework that leverages block chain-
based smart contracts to automate the key services in terms of waste management of smart cities.
We compare the existing block chain-based waste management solutions based on important
parameters. Furthermore, we present insightful discussions on several ongoing block chain-based
research projects and case studies to highlight the practicability of block chain in waste
management. Finally, we present open challenges that act as future research directions.
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Since the past decade, worldwide cities have been continuously generating an enormous
amount of waste that is putting a harmful effect on human health and the environment. It is
estimated that the world generates up to 1.3 billion tons of solid waste each year and it is
expected to increase to 2.2 billion tons per year by 2025. On average, every human being
generates around 0.11 to 4.54 kilograms of solid waste per day. It is reported that 33% of the
generated solid waste in cities do not manage in an environmentally friendly and safer way. The
improper management of waste can contaminate the oceans, cause disease spreading, and harm
animals that eat waste (e.g., food waste or plastic bags) unknowingly. The proper management of
waste in smart cities requires the associate editor coordinating the review of this manuscript and
approving it for publication was Sathish Kumar. Close coordination and collaboration among the
involved stakeholders such as waste generators, collectors, shipper, and waste treatment
facilities. However, the existing systems leveraged to manage waste are highly disintegrated and
face several challenges because of a lack of means to adequately share waste-related data among
involved stakeholders in waste management processes. Block chain technology presents a single
and unified platform that can be used by the involved stakeholders in waste management of cities
to share data in an effective, secure, transparent, and verifiable manner. Since block chain
follows a decentralized architecture, hence it is a highly fault-tolerant, robust, and trusted
technology.

1.1 BLOCK CHAIN

Block chain, sometimes referred to as distributed ledger technology (DLT), and makes the
history of any digital asset unalterable and transparent with a decentralized network and
cryptographic hashing. A simple analogy for how block chain technology operates can be
compared to how a Google Docs document works. When you create a Google Doc and share it
with a group of people, the document is simply distributed instead of copied or transferred. This
creates a decentralized distribution chain that gives everyone access to the base document at the
same time.
No one is locked out awaiting changes from another party, while all modifications to the
document are being recorded in real-time, making changes completely transparent. A significant
gap to note however is that unlike Google Docs, original content and data on the block chain
cannot be modified once written, adding to its level of security. Block chain is an especially
promising and revolutionary technology because it helps reduce security risks, stamp out fraud
and bring transparency in a scalable way. Popularized by its association with cryptocurrency
and NFTs, block chain technology has since evolved to become a management solution for all
types of global industries. Today, you can find block chain technology providing transparency
for the food supply chain, securing healthcare data, innovating gamingand overall changing how
we handle data and ownership on a large scale. How Does Block chain Work? For proof-of-work
block chains, this technology consists of three important concepts: blocks, nodes and miners.
What Is a Block? Every chain consists of multiple blocks and each block has three basic
elements: The data in the block. The nonce — “number used only once.” A nonce in block chain
is a whole number that is randomly generated when a block is created, which then generates a
block header hash.  The hash — a hash in block chain is a number permanently attached to the
nonce. For Bitcoin hashes, these values must start with a huge number of zeroes (i.e., be
extremely small). When the first block of a chain is created, a nonce generates the cryptographic
hash. The data in the block is considered signed and forever tied to the nonce and hash unless it
is mined.

1.2 WASTE MANAGEMENT

Waste management or waste disposal includes the processes and actions required to

manage waste from its inception to its final disposal. This includes the collection, transport,
treatment and disposal of waste, together with monitoring and regulation of the waste
management process and waste-related laws, technologies, economic mechanisms. Waste can be
solid, liquid, or gases and each type has different methods of disposal and management. Waste
management deals with all types of waste, including industrial, biological, household, municipal,
organic, biomedical, radioactive wastes. In some cases, waste can pose a threat to human health.
Health issues are associated throughout the entire process of waste management. Health issues
can also arise indirectly or directly. Directly, through the handling of solid waste, and indirectly
through the consumption of water, soil and food. Waste is produced by human activity, for
example, the extraction and processing of raw materials. Waste management is intended to
reduce adverse effects of waste on human health, the environment, planetary resources
and aesthetics. The aim of waste management is to reduce the dangerous effects of such waste on
the environment and human health. A big part of waste management deals with municipal solid
waste, which is created by industrial, commercial, and household activity. Waste management
practices are not uniform among countries (developed and developing nations); regions
(urban and rural areas), and residential and industrial sectors can all take different approaches.

Proper management of waste is important for building sustainable and livable cities, but it
remains a challenge for many developing countries and cities. A report found that effective waste
management is relatively expensive, usually comprising 20%–50% of municipal budgets.
Operating this essential municipal service requires integrated systems that are efficient,
sustainable, and socially supported. A large portion of waste management practices deal
with municipal solid waste (MSW) which is the bulk of the waste that is created by household,
industrial, and commercial activity. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), municipal solid waste is expected to reach approximately 3.4 Gt by 2050;
however, policies and lawmaking can reduce the amount of waste produced in different areas
and cities of the world. Measures of waste management include measures for integrated techno-
economic mechanisms of a circular economy, effective disposal facilities, export and import
control and optimal sustainable design of products that are produced. In the first systematic
review of the scientific evidence around global waste, its management and its impact on human
health and life, authors concluded that about a fourth of all the municipal solid terrestrial waste is
not collected and an additional fourth is mismanaged after collection, often being burned in open
and uncontrolled fires – or close to one billion tons per year when combined. They also found
that broad priority areas each lack a "high-quality research base", partly due to the absence of
"substantial research funding", which motivated scientists often require. Electronic waste (e-
waste) includes discarded computer monitors, motherboards, mobile phones and chargers,
compact discs (CDs), headphones, television sets, air conditioners and refrigerators. According
to the Global E-waste Monitor 2017, India generates ~ 2 million tones (Mte) of e-waste annually
and ranks fifth among the e-waste producing countries, after the US, P.R. China, Japan and
Germany.
1.2 TRACEABILITY

Traceability is the capability to trace something.In some cases, it is interpreted as the ability to
verify the history, location, or application of an item by means of documented recorded
identification.Other common definitions include the capability (and implementation) of keeping
track of a given set or type of information to a given degree, or the ability to chronologically
interrelate uniquely identifiableentities in a way that is verifiable.Traceability is applicable to
measurement, supply chain, software development, healthcare and security.The
term measurement traceability is used to refer to an unbroken chain of comparisons relating
an instrument's measurements to a known standard. Calibration to a traceable standard can be
used to determine an instrument's bias, precision, and accuracy. It may also be used to show
a chain of custody - from current interpretation of evidence to the actual evidence in a legal
context, or history of handling of any information.In many countries, national standards for
weights and measures are maintained by a National Metrological Institute (NMI) which provides
the highest level of standards for the calibration/ measurement traceability infrastructure in that
country. Examples of government agencies include the National Physical Laboratory, UK(NPL)
the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in the USA, the Physikalisch-
Technische Bundesanstalt(PTB) in Germany, and the Instituto Nazionale di Ricerca Metrologica
(INRiM) in Italy. As defined by NIST, "Traceability of measurement requires the establishment
of an unbroken chain of comparisons to stated references each with a stated uncertainty."

A clock providing traceable time is traceable to a time standard such as Coordinated Universal

Timeor International Atomic Time. The Global Positioning System is a source of traceable time.

Within a product's supply chain, traceability may be both a regulatory and an ethical or

environmental issue.Traceability is increasingly becoming a core criterion for sustainability
efforts related to supply chains wherein knowing the producer, workers and other links stands as
a necessary factor that underlies credible claims of social, economic, or environmental
impacts. Environmentally friendly retailers may choose to make information regarding their
supply chain freely available to customers, illustrating the fact that workers that earn a fair wage,
using methods that do not damage the environment, manufacture the products they sell in
factories with safe working conditions.In food processing (meat processing, fresh produce
processing), the term traceability refers to the recording through means of barcodes or RFID tags
& other tracking media, all movement of product and steps within the production process. One of
the key reasons this is such a critical point is in instances where an issue of contamination arises,
and a recall is required. Where traceability has been closely adhered to, it is possible to identify,
by precise date/time & exact location, which goods must be recalled, and which are safe,
potentially saving millions of dollars in the recall process. Traceability within the food
processing industry is also utilized to identify key high production & quality areas of a business,
versus those of low return, and where points in the production process may be improved. In food
processing software, traceability systems imply the use of a unique piece of data (e.g., order
date/time or a serialized sequence number, generally through the use of a barcode / RFID) which
can be traced through the entire production flow, linking all sections of the business, including
suppliers & future sales through the supply chain. Messages and files at any point in the system
can then be audited for correctness and completeness, using the traceability software to find the
particular transaction and/or product within the supply chain.

1.3 IOT

The Internet of things (IoT) describes physical objects (or groups of such objects) with sensors,
processing ability, software, and other technologies that connect and exchange data with other
devices and systems over the Internet or other communications networks. Internet of things has
been considered a misnomer because devices do not need to be connected to the public internet,
they only need to be connected to a network and be individually addressable. The field has
evolved due to the convergence of multiple technologies, including ubiquitous
computing, commodity sensors, increasingly powerful embedded systems, and machine learning.
Traditional fields of embedded systems, wireless sensor networks, control
systems, automation (including home and building automation), independently and collectively
enable the Internet of things. In the consumer market, IoT technology is most synonymous with
products pertaining to the concept of the "smart home", including devices and appliances (such
as lighting fixtures, thermostats, home security systems, cameras, and other home appliances)
that support one or more common ecosystems, and can be controlled via devices associated with
that ecosystem, such as smartphones and smart speakers. IoT is also used in healthcare systems.
There are number of concerns about the risks in the growth of IoT technologies and products,
especially in the areas of privacy and security, and consequently, industry and governmental
moves to address these concerns have begun, including the development of international and
local standards, guidelines, and regulatory frameworks. The Internet of Medical Things (IoMT)
is an application of the IoT for medical and health related purposes, data collection and analysis
for research, and monitoring. The IoMT has been referenced as "Smart Healthcare", as the
technology for creating a digitized healthcare system, connecting available medical resources
and healthcare services. IoT devices can be used to enable remote health
monitoring and emergency notification systems. These health-monitoring devices can range from
blood pressure and heart rate monitors to advanced devices capable of monitoring specialized
implants, such as pacemakers, Fitbit electronic wristbands, or advanced hearing aids. Some
hospitals have begun implementing "smart beds" that can detect when they are occupied and
when a patient is attempting to get up. It can also adjust itself to ensure appropriate pressure and
support is applied to the patient without the manual interaction of nurses. A 2015 Goldman Sachs
report indicated that healthcare IoT devices "can save the United States more than $300 billion in
annual healthcare expenditures by increasing revenue and decreasing cost." Moreover, the use of
mobile devices to support medical follow-up led to the creation of 'm-health', used analyzed
health statistics. Specialized sensors can also be equipped within living spaces to monitor the
health and general well-being of senior citizens, while also ensuring that proper treatment is
being administered and assisting people to regain lost mobility via therapy as well. These sensors
create a network of intelligent sensors that are able to collect, process, transfer, and analyze
valuable information in different environments, such as connecting in-home monitoring devices
to hospital-based systems. Other consumer devices to encourage healthy living, such as
connected scales or wearable heart monitors, are also a possibility with the IoT. End-to-end
health monitoring IoT platforms are also available for antenatal and chronic patients, helping one
manage health vitals and recurring medication requirements. Advances in plastic and fabric
electronics fabrication methods have enabled ultra-low cost, use-and-throw IoMT sensors. These
sensors, along with the required RFID electronics, can be fabricated on paper or e-textiles for
wireless powered disposable sensing devices. Applications have been established for point-of-
care medical diagnostics, where portability and low system-complexity is essential.
 CHPATER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

WORLD URBANIZATION PROSPECTS: AN ALTERNATIVE TO THE UN MODEL

OF PROJECTION COMPATIBLE WITH THE MOBILITY TRANSITION THEORY

Philippe Bocquieret.al., has proposed in this paper This paper proposes to critically examine the
United Nations projections on urbanization. Both the estimates of current trends based on
national data and the method of projection are evaluated. The theory of mobility transition is
used as an alternative hypothesis. Projections are proposed using a polynomial model and
compared to the UN projections, which are based on a linear model. The conclusion is that UN
projections may overestimate the urban population for the year 2030 by almost one billion, or
19% in relative term. The overestimation would be particularly more pronounced for developing
countries and may exceed 30% in Africa, India and Oceania. The United Nations Population
Division has been publishing and revising its World Urbanization Prospects since 1991 (the
latest being the 2002 revision: United Nations 2002) and this has become a popular source of
data and analysis of the past, current and future proportion urban in each country, region or
continent of the world. As urban issues get more attention, notably in the Millennium
Development Goals (MDG), it is increasingly used as an instrument for projections of some
other global trends, such as poverty (UN-Habitat 2003; World Bank 2003), energy consumption,
environment and resources (UNDP et al. 2003), etc. Projections and even estimations, for recent
years, of other global trends cannot afford to do without urbanization projections, as they are
often a key indicator of global integration. Since the UN data is largely used and referred to,
analyzing the historical trends and projections from this set of data will be more useful to the
interested reader and also to the planner than to refer to not yet internationally agreed
alternatives. Nevertheless, and without questioning the merits of the UN database on
urbanization, it is necessary to assess its limits. This has already been done through a number of
publications since the inception of the UN method of projection for urban population. What
about the projection method? Let alone the difficult problem of the availability of reliable data,
and temporarily working with the hypothesis that national definitions capture reasonably well the
proportion urban, the method of projections used by the UN since its first projections of urban
population needs examination.[1].
SECURITY AND PRIVACY ON BLOCK CHAIN

RUI ZHANGet.al., has proposed in this paper Block chain offers an innovative approach to
storing information, executing transactions, performing functions, and establishing trust in an
open environment. Many consider block chain as a technology breakthrough for cryptography
and cybersecurity, with use cases ranging from globally deployed cryptocurrency systems like
Bitcoin, to smart contracts, smart grids over the Internet of Things, and so forth. Although block
chain has received growing interests in both academia and industry in the recent years, the
security and privacy of block chains continue to be at the center of the debate when deploying
block chain in different applications. This article presents a comprehensive overview of the
security and privacy of block chain. To facilitate the discussion, we first introduce the notion of
block chains and its utility in the context of Bitcoin-like online transactions. Then, we describe
the basic security properties that are supported as the essential requirements and building blocks
for Bitcoin-like cryptocurrency systems, followed by presenting the additional security and
privacy properties that are desired in many block chain applications. Finally, we review the
security and privacy techniques for achieving these security properties in block chain-based
systems, including representative consensus algorithms, hash chained storage, mixing protocols,
anonymous signatures, non-interactive zero-knowledge proof, and so forth. We conjecture that
this survey can help readers to gain an in-depth understanding of the security and privacy of
block chain with respect to concept, attributes, techniques, and systems. Block chain technology
is a recent breakthrough of secure computing without centralized authority in an open networked
system. From a data management perspective, a block chain is a distributed database that logs an
evolving list of transaction records by organizing them into a hierarchical chain of blocks. From
a security perspective, the block chain is created and maintained using a peer to peer overlay
network and secured through intelligent and decentralized utilization of cryptography with crowd
computing It is predicted [30] that the annual revenue of block chain-based enterprise
applications worldwide will reach $19.9 billion by 2025, an annual growth rate of 26.2% from
about $2.5 billion in 2016. Meanwhile, Goldman Sachs, Morgan Stanley, Citibank, HSBC,
Accenture, Microsoft, IBM, Cisco, Ten cent, Ali, and other world-renowned financial
institutions, consulting firms, IT vendors, and Internet giants are accelerating laboratory research
and capital layout on block chain technology. Block chain together with artificial intelligence
and big data are considered as the three core computing technologies for the next generation
financial industry. In addition to Bitcoin.com, several orthogonal efforts, such as the Hyper
ledger project sponsored by IBM and Apache foundation, Ethereal and File Coin provide open
source repositories and platforms for block chain research and development.[2]

TOWARDS BLOCKCHAIN INTEROPERABILITY

Stefan Schulte et.al., has proposed in this paper . In recent years, distributed ledger technologies
like block chains have gained much popularity within both industry and research. Today, block
chains do not only act as the underlying technology for cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, but have
also been identified as a potentially disruptive technology in many different fields, e.g., supply
chain tracking and healthcare. The widespread attention for block chains has led to manifold
research and development activities. As a result, today’s block chain landscape is heavily
fragmented, with different, incompatible technologies being available to potential users. Since
interoperability between different block chains is usually not foreseen in existing protocols and
standards, functionalities like sending tokens from one participant to another, or invoking and
executing smart contracts can only be carried out within a single block chain. In this paper, we
discuss the need for block chain interoperability and how it could help to stimulate a paradigm
shift from today has closed block chains to an open system where devices and users can interact
with each other across the boundaries of blockchains. For this, we consider the areas of cross-
block chain token transfers, as well as cross-block chain smart contract invocation and
interaction Originally, blockchains have been primarily perceived as the underlying
technological means to realize monetary transactions in a fully decentralized way, thus enabling
cryptocurrencies. While blockchains of the first generation like the one established by Bitcoin [1]
provide the means to store data and to enact transactions in a distributed ledger, second-
generation blockchains like Ethereal enable the execution of almost arbitrary software
functionalities within the block chain, using so-called smart contracts. For this, second-
generation blockchains provide quasi Turing-complete scripting languages like Solidity, and an
according execution environment like the Ethereal Virtual Machine (EVM).[3]

IOT PUBLIC FOG NODES REPUTATION SYSTEM: A DECENTRALIZED

SOLUTION USING ETHEREUM BLOCKCHAIN

MAZIN DEBEet.al., has proposed in this paper Public fog nodes extend cloud services for the
Internet of Things (IoT) clients and smart devices to provide additional computation capabilities,
storage space, and reduce latency and response time. The openness and pervasiveness of public
fog nodes leads to the requirement of using trust models to ensure reliability, security, privacy,
and meet the service-level agreements (SLAs). Conventional trust models for public fog nodes
are centrally configured, deployed, and maintained considering security, privacy, and SLA
requirements. However, these trust models enforce centralized governance policies across the
system which leads towards the single-point-of-failure and single-point-of-compromise over IoT
devices’ and users’ personal data. This paper proposes a decentralized trust model in order to
maintain the reputation of publicly available fog nodes. The reputation is maintained considering
users’ opinions about their past interactions with the public fog nodes. The proposed trust model
is designed using public Ethereum blockchain and smart contract technologies in order to enable
decentralized trustworthy service provisioning between IoT devices and public fog nodes. The
proposed approach is tested and evaluated in terms of security, performance, and cost. The
results show that using blockchain for decentralized reputation management could become more
advantageous when compared to the existing centralized trust models. Fog computing is an
architecture that has been created to mediate between the cloud servers and their clients in order
to support the Internet of Things (IoT) devices (see Fig. 1). IoT devices generally have weak
computation power, minimal storage and limited network capabilities. Fog devices offer an
external source for additional processing power and storage space . With the large amount of
data generated by IoT devices, fog nodes ensure better performance by reducing latency and
optimizing the connection between the IoT clients and their service providers. Fog nodes usually
reside very close to the IoT devices (typically on nearby routers or switches). They provide a
reliable connection to process, filter and store IoT data streams before forwarding them to the
cloud service providers .[4]

‘‘MITIGATING LOT DEVICE BASED DDOS ATTACKS USING BLOCKCHAIN,’

Uzair Javaidet.al., has proposed in this paper Many IoT devices lack memory and
computational complexities of modern computing devices, making them vulnerable to a wide
range of cyber attacks. Among these, DDoS attacks are a growing concern in IoT. Such attacks
are executed through the introduction of rogue devices and then using them and/or other
compromised devices to facilitate DDoS attacks by generating relentless traffic. This paper aims
to address DDoS security issues in IoT by proposing an integration of IoT devices with
blockchain. This paper uses Ethereum, a blockchain variant, with smart contracts to replace the
traditional centralized IoT infrastructure with a decentralized one. IoT devices are then required
to access the network using smart contracts. The integration of IoT with Ethereum not only
prevents rogue devices from gaining access to the server but also addresses DDoS attacks by
using static resource allocation for devices.[5]

COLLABORATIVE DDOS MITIGATION BASED ON BLOCKCHAINS

Bruno Rodrigueset.al., has proposed in this paper The rapid growth in the number of insecure
portable and stationary devices and the exponential increase of traffic volume makes Distributed
Denial-of-Service (DDoS) attacks a top security threat to services provisioning. Existing defense
mechanisms lack resources and flexibility to cope with attacks by themselves, and by utilizing
other’s companies resources, the burden of the mitigation can be shared. Emerging technologies
such as blockchain and smart contracts allows for the sharing of attack information in a fully
distributed and automated fashion. In this paper, the design of a novel architecture is proposed by
combining these technologies introducing new opportunities for flexible and efficient DDoS
mitigation solutions across multiple domains. Main advantages are the deployment of an already
existing public and distributed infrastructure to advertise white or blacklisted IP addresses, and
the usage of such infrastructure as an additional security mechanism to existing DDoS defense
systems, without the need to build specialized registries or other distribution mechanisms, which
enables the enforcement of rules across multiple domains.[6]

BLOCKCHAIN SECURITY ATTACKS, CHALLENGES, AND SOLUTIONS FOR THE

FUTURE DISTRIBUTED IOT NETWORK

SAURABH SINGHet.al., has proposed in this paper Block chain technology is becoming
increasingly attractive to the next generation, as it is uniquely suited to the information era.
Block chain technology can also be applied to the Internet of Things (IoT). The advancement of
IoT technology in various domains has led to substantial progress in distributed systems. Block
chain concept requires a decentralized data management system for storing and sharing the data
and transactions in the network. This paper discusses the block chain concept and relevant
factors that provide a detailed analysis of potential security attacks and presents existing
solutions that can be deployed as countermeasures to such attacks. This paper also includes block
chain security enhancement solutions by summarizing key points that can be exploited to
develop various block chain systems and security tools that counter security vulnerabilities.
Finally, the paper discusses open issues relating to and future research directions of blockchain-
IoT systems. Block chain technology, a distributed digital ledger technology that can be used to
maintain continuously growing lists of data records and transactions securely, has recently taken
the world by storm. The three main criteria related to block chain identity and accessibility are
public or less authorized, private or authorized, and consortium. The most important and unique
factor of the block chain concept is that the stored information is secured entirely within the
blocks of the block chain’s transactions. Its decentralized consensus model has the three main
features of consistency, aliveness, and fault toleranceBlockchain technology has been
successfully applied in a wide variety of areas. When block chain technology is implemented in
the Internet of Things (IoT) domain to exchange and share network data, records, validation, and
security service, there are a few relevant issues that are still being researched, with a particular
focus on the security of cyber-physical systems in the IoT sector. Many authorized organizations
are currently working to ensure proper interoperability, integrity, and privacy of the IoT network.
These organizations are all working together using block chain technology and cloud computing.
The technology brings transparency, reliability, and proper governance to the IoT information
system.[7]

SOLUTIONS TO SCALABILITY OF BLOCKCHAIN: A SURVEY

QIHENG ZHOUet.al., has proposed in this paper Blockchain-based decentralized

cryptocurrencies have drawn much attention and been widely-deployed in recent years. Bitcoin,
the first application of blockchain, achieves great success and promotes more development in
this field. However, Bitcoin encounters performance problems of low throughput and high
transaction latency. Other cryptocurrencies based on proof-of-work also inherit the flaws,
leading to more concerns about the scalability of blockchain. This paper attempts to cover the
existing scaling solutions for blockchain and classify them by level. In addition, we make
comparisons between different methods and list some potential directions for solving the
scalability problem of blockchain. Blockchain as an emerging technology to realizing the
distributed ledgers has attracted extensive research attention recently. Such a ledger intends to
achieve decentralized transaction management, which means that any node joining the ledger can
initiate transactions equally according to rules, and the transaction does not need to be managed
by any third party. All transactions in the system are stored in blocks, which are then linked as a
chain and organized in chronological order. Moreover, transactions that have written in blocks
are immutable and transparent to all peers. With all these attractive characteristics, blockchain is
drastically different from the traditional centralized trust entities and becomes a significant
enabler to future financial systems. In recent years, the blockchain has developed rapidly, from
Bitcoin [1], the first decentralized cryptocurrency, to Ethereum [2] with smart contracts,
followed by the emerging permissioned blockchain (e.g. Hyperledger fabric [3]). Because of the
wide adoption of Blockchain, blockchain based applications have been getting involved in our
daily lives. Blockchain has shown its tremendous ability in disrupting how digital transactions
are carried out in a more secure and transparent manner. But the question still stands - does it
have the ability to serve other real-world applications? Such confusion is because of the
hindrance caused by its scalability issues.[8]

BLOCKCHAIN AND SCALABILITY

Anamika Chauhan et.al., has proposed in this paper — Bitcoin has shown great utility around
the world with the drastic increase in its value and global consensus method of proof-of-work
(POW). Over the years after the revolution in the digital transaction space, we are looking at
major scalability issue with old POW consensus method and bitcoin peak limit of processing
only 7 transactions per second.With more companies trying to adopt blockchain to modify their
existing systems, blockchain working on old consensus methods and with scalability issues can’t
deliver the optimal solution. Specifically, with new trends like smart contracts and DAPPs, much
better performance is needed to support any actual business applications. Such requirements are
pushing the new platforms away from old methods of consensus and adoption of off-chain
solutions. In this paper, we discuss various scalability issues with the Bitcoin and Ethereum
blockchain and recent proposals like the lighting protocol, sharding, super quadratic sharding,
DPoS to solve these issues. We also draw the comparison between these proposals on their
ability to overcome scalability limits and highlighting major problems in these approaches. In the
end, we propose our solution to suffice the scalability issue and conclude with the fact that with
better scalability, blockchain has the potential to outrageously support varied domains of the
industry. Scalability issues arise due to limited block size and current consensus method where
every node in the network sequentially validate the transaction before it being published in the
blockchain. This problem intensifies with an increase in the number of transactions requiring
more nodes to support the network but simultaneously increasing the number of steps for the
transaction to travel and reach full consensus with every node. We can also see a proportional
relationship between fall in scalability of the blockchain and increase in the network size. This
flaw is the major setback that is stopping the mass adoption of blockchain for real-world
applications[9].

BLOCKCHAIN-BASED DECENTRALIZED STORAGE NETWORKS: A SURVEY

Nazanin ZahedBenisi et.al., has proposed in this paper . Blockchain is a new approach to create
a distributed network which was first introduced in 2008. By the help of this disruptive
technology a peerto-peer network can be formed where nodes have to reach a consensus and
form a chain from accepted blocks, while no central party or trusted controller is required.
Among all the existing uses of this technology, decentralized storage systems are one of its
prominent applications. Decentralized storage networks, are consisted of a group of people
willing to rent out their unused hardware storage space. By implementing end-to-end encryption
clients can securely transmit their files through a fully decentralized network and eliminate the
risk of data failures that arise from centralized controls. In this network, storage providers are
required to prove that they store unaltered files during the time. Also a smart contract between
two parties is set out in which rental duration and cost that the customer needs to pay for using
that storage space is clarified. This paper presents a comprehensive survey on the blockchain-
based storage systems and how they work and then compares them with cloud-based storage
networks. Also different techniques of consensus protocols in each group are explored. Next, we
have an overview on the advantages and also weak points of blockchain-based storage systems.
Finally, we discuss about future research directions.Electronic devices such as computers,
smartphones and cameras produce enormous volumes of data each day, which require more and
more storage resources. In order to 2 fulfill this necessity, cloud storage systems were created. A
Cloud storage system is a cooperation storage service system with multiple devices, many
application domains and service forms. Cloud storage is less costly and more reliable than local
storage and is less prone to data-loss . The act of storing user’s data on memories maintained and
secured by a third party is termed cloud storage. To put it simply, data is being stored in the
memory of remote devices instead of data owner’s hardware . Although one of the greatest
innovations in the field of computing is storage and access of data in the cloud, there are many
security and availability issues regarding this technology. One of the main problems with cloud
storage is lack of transparency and control over stored data. In other words, users are unaware of
the exact location where their data is being stored, how and when it is processed or even whether
their data has been lost or compromised. Another issue with such systems is lack of trust. Since it
is not customary for users and service providers to sign an official contract, there is no legal
framework for users to claim compensation if their data is damaged, compromised or sold to
third-party companies. In addition, clients are not convinced whether their data is copied or sold
elsewhere.[10]
 CHPATER 3
SYSTEM ANALYSIS

EXISTING SYSTEM

Blockchain-based systems developed for waste management have mostly focused on electronic,
medical, domestic, and agricultural waste of smart cities. Existing blockchain-based projects for
waste management have implemented several types of services related to waste management,
assets tracking, shipment monitoring, tokens transferring ,waste sorting , and auditability of
waste handler’s actions . The existing studies have followed Ethereum and Hyperledger
Fabric platforms to issue rewards and penalties for the waste management participants and
ensure the compliance of user’s action with waste management laws

The opportunities for blockchain technology in waste management of smart cities are many, and
technical, social, and organizational challenges in implementing such opportunities are unclear
to researchers and practitioners. To the best of our knowledge, none of the existing studies have
explored or reviewed the opportunities offered by blockchain in terms of waste management of
smart cities. More specifically, we conduct this study to explore the role of blockchain in waste
management, present several blockchain-based research projects and case studies, and discuss
the challenges which need further research to improve waste management services in smart
cities.

DRAWBACKS

• Less accuracy.

• Poor clarity result and waste management scheme.

• non-problematic concept and can cover an

• array of policy aims, such as the circular economy. There are,

• Not able to support relation to what waste management operations are considered
“sustainable.” These may relate to the emphasis
• Does not placed on the different economic environmental, and social pillars of
sustainable development.

• Low precision findings with poor data analysis .

FIGURE 1.An overviewof the key opportunities offered by block chain
intermsofwastemanagementinsmartcities.

PROPOSED SYSTEM

In this paper, we present a way to improve the situation of EWM in India. Our technique is based
on smart contracts, developed using block chain technology. Block chain will enable proper
book-keeping of the EEEs introduced in the market by different producers and retailers.This will
enable smart contracts to clearly specify collection targets and penalize the appropriate party
whenever required.Providing incentives to customers when they channelize their e-waste to the
formal sector, can serve as the first step in reducing the dominance of the unorganized sector in
EWM.

ADVANTAGES

• Offering clarity in property rights of products and wastes.

• supporting law and policy goals by incentivizing sustainable waste management.

• maintaining anonymity and privacy for institutions and individuals.

• Reliable data analysis provide better waste management .

• Clear accuracy on location identity.

MODULES

AUTHORIZATION MODULE

This module of the smart contract will be used exclusively by GAs to provide a digital e-waste
license to any PR, RT and owner of CC or RU, allowing them to start their operation in India.
This license will state each stakeholder’s responsibilities in terms of their e-waste collection
targets for upcoming years and the penalty for not meeting the specified target. If the
stakeholders fail to meet these targets, the penalty amount, as calculated by the smart contract,
will be automatically deducted from the stakeholder’s account and transferred to appropriate
government account.

FIGURE2.Interactionbetweenwastecollectorsandthew
asterecyclingcenterusingablockchain-
basedsmartcontract.

PRODUCER MODULE

Each PR must maintain a record of the amount of EEEs that they plan to supply (Supply
Amount) in the Indian market. They must also specify the RTs to which they will supply EEEs,
the amount of e-waste they have gathered so far, its source and the CCs on the EWMB to which
they will supply the gathered e-waste. These records must be provided to the Producer module.
This module will call the Collection Module to verify the contribution of e-waste made by PRs.

EXCHANGEPR_RT MODULE

This module will monitor the exchange of EEEs between PRs and RTs. At the time of
purchase, a transaction must be initiated by the RT. This transaction must specify the PR’s e-
waste license number, the RT’s e-waste license number and the record of the units exchanged
between them. In case of a mismatch, the module will reject the transaction and penalize the
corresponding PR for his/her malpractice.

RETAILER MODULE

Each RT must record the amount of EEEs that have been purchased by them (Purchase
Amount). This amount will be verified through the ExchangePR_RT Module. RTs must also
specify the amount of e-waste they have gathered so far, its source and the PRs on the EWMB
from whom they will purchase. The Retailer Module will call the Producer Module to verify the
contribution of e-waste made by RTs and whether the PRs specified by RTs match with the list
provided by the PRs.

EXCHANGERT_CS MODULE

This module will monitor the exchange of EEEs between RTs and CSs. It works like
ExchangePR_RT Module, but the transaction must be initiated by CS. This transaction will
specify RT’s e-waste license number, the CS’s Aadhar number and the record of the units
exchanged between them. RT’s Purchase Amount will be verified using Retailer Module by
examining all transactions with respect to each RT.

CONSUMER MODULE

CSs who wish to join the EWMB, must call this module to register themselves through
their unique identification number like Aadhar.

RETURNCS_RT MODULE

CSs invoke this module when they want to return their EEEs that have reached their end-
of-life. The details of the discarded EEEs are provided to this module. The ExchangeRT_CS
Module is invoked to find the RT to whom this e-waste belongs. An alert is automatically sent to
the RT specifying the CS details and the deadline to collect the e-waste. When RT collects the e-
waste from the CS, a percentage of the product’s original cost is credited to CS account
automatically. If the deadline is not met, penalty amount (pre-defined in the module) is debited
from the RT’s account.
CHAPTER 4
SYSTEM SPECIFICATION

4.1 HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

• Processor Type : Pentium i3

• Speed : 3.40GHZ

• RAM : 4GB DD2 RAM

• Hard disk : 500 GB

• Keyboard : 101/102 Standard Keys

• Mouse : Optical Mouse

4.2 SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS

• Operating System : Windows 10

• Front end : NetBeans IDE / jdk

• Coding Language : Java

• Tools : Weka Tools

 CHAPTER 5

SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

5.1 FRONT END: JAVA

The software requirement specification is created at the end of the analysis task. The function
and performance allocated to software as part of system engineering are developed by
establishing a complete information report as functional representation, a representation of
system behavior, an indication of performance requirements and design constraints, appropriate
validation criteria.

FEATURES OF JAVA

Java platform has two components:

 The Java Virtual Machine (Java VM)

 The Java Application Programming Interface (Java API)

The Java API is a large collection of ready-made software components that provide many useful
capabilities, such as graphical user interface (GUI) widgets. The Java API is grouped into
libraries (packages) of related components.

The following figure depicts a Java program, such as an application or applet, that's running on
the Java platform. As the figure shows, the Java API and Virtual Machine insulates the Java
program from hardware dependencies.
 As a platform-independent environment, Java can be a bit slower than native code.
However, smart compilers, well-tuned interpreters, and just-in-time byte code compilers can
bring Java's performance close to that of native code without threatening portability.

SOCKET OVERVIEW:

A network socket is a lot like an electrical socket. Various plugs around the network have
a standard way of delivering their payload. Anything that understands the standard protocol can
“plug in” to the socket and communicate.

Internet protocol (IP) is a low-level routing protocol that breaks data into small packets
and sends them to an address across a network, which does not guarantee to deliver said packets
to the destination.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a higher-level protocol that manages to reliably transmit
data. A third protocol, User DatagramProtocol (UDP), sits next to TCP and can be used directly
to support fast, connectionless, unreliable transport of packets.

CLIENT/SERVER:

A server is anything that has some resource that can be shared. There are compute
servers, which provide computing power; print servers, which manage a collection of printers;
disk servers, which provide networked disk space; and web servers, which store web pages. A
client is simply any other entity that wants to gain access to a particular server.

A server process is said to “listen” to a port until a client connects to it. A server
is allowed to accept multiple clients connected to the same port number, although each session is
unique. To manage multiple client connections, a server process must be multithreaded or have
some other means of multiplexing the simultaneous I/O.

RESERVED SOCKETS:

Once connected, a higher-level protocol ensues, which is dependent on which port

user are using. TCP/IP reserves the lower, 1,024 ports for specific protocols. Port number 21 is
for FTP, 23 is for Telnet, 25 is for e-mail, 79 is for finger, 80 is for HTTP, 119 is for Netnews-
and the list goes on. It is up to each protocol to determine how a client should interact with the
port.

JAVA AND THE NET:

Java supports TCP/IP both by extending the already established stream I/O
interface. Java supports both the TCP and UDP protocol families. TCP is used for reliable
stream-based I/O across the network. UDP supports a simpler, hence faster, point-to-point
datagram-oriented model.

INETADDRESS:

The InetAddress class is used to encapsulate both the numerical IP address and
the domain name for that address. User interacts with this class by using the name of an IP host,
which is more convenient and understandable than its IP address. The InetAddress class hides
the number inside. As of Java 2, version 1.4, InetAddress can handle both IPv4 and IPv6
addresses.

FACTORY METHODS:

The InetAddress class has no visible constructors. To create an InetAddress

object, user use one of the available factory methods. Factory methods are merely a convention
whereby static methods in a class return an instance of that class. This is done in lieu of
overloading a constructor with various parameter lists when having unique method names makes
the results much clearer.

Three commonly used InetAddress factory methods are:

1. Static InetAddressgetLocalHost ( ) throws

UnknownHostException

2. Static InetAddressgetByName (String hostName)

throwsUnknowsHostException

3. Static InetAddress [ ] getAllByName (String hostName)

 throwsUnknownHostException

INSTANCE METHODS:

The InetAddress class also has several other methods, which can be used on the
objects returned by the methods just discussed. Here are some of the most commonly used.

Boolean equals (Object other)- Returns true if this object has the same
Internet address as other.

1. byte [ ] get Address ( )- Returns a byte array that represents the object’s
Internet address in network byte order.

2. String getHostAddress ( ) - Returns a string that represents the host address

associated with the InetAddress object.

3. String get Hostname ( ) - Returns a string that represents the host name associated
with the InetAddress object.

4. booleanisMulticastAddress ( )- Returns true if this Internet address is a multicast

address. Otherwise, it returns false.

5. String toString ( ) - Returns a string that lists the host name and the IP address for
convenience.

TCP/IP CLIENT SOCKETS:

TCP/IP sockets are used to implement reliable, bidirectional, persistent,

point-to-point and stream-based connections between hosts on the Internet. A socket can be used
to connect Java’s I/O system to other programs that may reside either on the local machine or on
any other machine on the Internet.

There are two kinds of TCP sockets in Java. One is for servers, and the other
is for clients. The Server Socket class is designed to be a “listener,” which waits for clients to
connect before doing anything. The Socket class is designed to connect to server sockets and
initiate protocol exchanges.
The creation of a Socket object implicitly establishes a connection between the client and server.
There are no methods or constructors that explicitly expose the details of establishing that
connection. Here are two constructors used to create client sockets

Socket (String hostName, intport) - Creates a socket connecting the local host to the named host
and port; can throw an UnknownHostException or anIOException.

Socket (InetAddressipAddress, intport) - Creates a socket using a

preexistingInetAddressobject and a port; can throw an IOException.

A socket can be examined at any time for the address and port information
associated with it, by use of the following methods:

 InetAddressgetInetAddress ( ) - Returns the InetAddress associated with

the Socket object.

 IntgetPort ( ) - Returns the remote port to which this Socket object is

connected.

 IntgetLocalPort ( ) - Returns the local port to which this Socket object is

connected.

Once the Socket object has been created, it can also be examined to gain access
to the input and output streams associated with it. Each of these methods can throw an IO
Exception if the sockets have been invalidated by a loss of connection on the Net.

Input Streamget Input Stream ( ) - Returns the InputStream associated with the
invoking socket.

Output Streamget Output Stream ( ) - Returns the OutputStream associated with

the invoking socket.

TCP/IP SERVER SOCKETS:

 Java has a different socket class that must be used for creating server applications. The
ServerSocket class is used to create servers that listen for either local or remote client programs
to connect to them on published ports. ServerSockets are quite different form normal Sockets.

When the user create a ServerSocket, it will register itself with the system as having an interest
in client connections.

 ServerSocket(int port) - Creates server socket on the specified port with a queue length of
50.

 Serversocket(int port, int maxQueue) - Creates a server socket on the specified portwith a
maximum queue length of maxQueue.

 ServerSocket(int port, int maxQueue, InetAddress localAddress)-Creates a server socket

on the specified port with a maximum queue length of maxQueue. On a multihomed host,
localAddress specifies the IP address to which this socket binds.

 ServerSocket has a method called accept( ) - which is a blocking call that will wait for a
client to initiate communications, and then return with a normal Socket that is then used
for communication with the client.

URL:

The Web is a loose collection of higher-level protocols and file formats, all unified in a
web browser. One of the most important aspects of the Web is that Tim Berners-Lee devised a
saleable way to locate all of the resources of the Net. The Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is
used to name anything and everything reliably.

The URLprovides a reasonably intelligible form to uniquely identify or address

information on the Internet. URLs are ubiquitous; every browser uses them to identify
information on the Web.
 CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION

In the presented work, smart contracts have been used to regulate the flow of EEEs as well as e-
waste through the system. Different modules of the smart contract monitor interactions between
stakeholders.All modules interact with each other to ensure that at no point any stakeholder
indulges in any inappropriate transaction. Details from different stakeholders are obtained so that
transactions can be verified using this information.This block chain based e-waste management
system can be extended to include parts of like printer cartridges, toners, mobile batteries,
chargers and printed circuit boards used in repairing In this article, we have discussed how block
chaintechnology can be leveraged for managing waste within smart cities in a manner that is
decentralized, tamper-proof, transparent, traceable and trackable, auditable, secure, and
trustworthy. We explored the key opportunities offered by block chain technology for managing
various activities and actions related to the collection, shipment, segregation, disposal, and
recycling of waste in smart cities. We presented a block chain-based framework for waste
management Waste Management in Smart Cities: Survey highlight system components,
participants along with their role definition, and data flow among system components. We
provided insightful discussions on the recent block chain-based research projects and case
studies to highlight the practicability of block chain in the waste management. We identified and
discussed several challenges remaining to be addressed to unlock the full potential of block chain
in terms of waste management within smart cities.
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