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Memory managment

Chapter · May 2015

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.4144.0167

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Qasim Mohammed Hussein

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Memory management

Assist. Prof. Dr.

Qasim Mohammed Hussein

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

 Memory management
• To improve both the utilization of the CPU and
the speed of its response to users,
• The computer must keep several processes in
main memory
• Many memory-management schemes exist,
reflecting various approaches, and the
effectiveness of each algorithm depends on
the situation

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

Logical Versus Physical Address Space
• Logical address is an address generated by
the CPU.
• Physical address is the address actually seen
by the memory hardware.

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

 Storage management strategies
1) Fetch strategies
2) Placement strategies
3) Replacement strategies

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

 1. Fetch strategies
• Fetch strategies are concerned with when to
obtain the next piece of program or data for
transfer to main storage from secondary storage.
There are two approaches.
• Demand fetch strategies : The next piece of
program or data is brought into the main memory
when it is referenced by a running program.
• Anticipatory fetch strategies: They make predict
and guesses and anticipating the future where
program control will go next.

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

 2. Placement strategies
They are concerned with determining where in
main storage to place a new program .
Strategies are most commonly used to select a
free hole from the set of available holes.
A) First fit.
- The incoming job places in the first hole that is
big enough.
- It does not need search all the hole set.
- It is faster strategies to placement.
Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed
 2. Placement strategies
• Best fit.
- Allocate the smallest hole that is big enough.
- Need to search the entire list, unless the list is
ordered by size.
- This strategy produces the smallest leftover hole.
• Worst fit.
- Allocate the largest hole.
- Need to search the entire list, unless it is sorted
by size.
- This strategy produces the largest leftover hole,

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

 2. Placement strategies

Example

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

 3. Replacement strategies
• They are concerned with determining which
piece of program of data to displace to make
room for a new program or data.

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

 Contiguous and non – contiguous
storage allocation
• The contiguous allocation means ach program
occupy a single contiguous block of storage
locations.
• In non – contiguous , a program is divided
into several blocks or segments that may be
placed I n memory in pieces not necessary
adjacent to one another.

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

 Storage management
1. Bare machine : The user has control over the
entire memory space. It is simple and not
required cost , and not need special HW or SW.
2. Overlays allocation storage.
It allows allocating run a program that its size
larger than the amount of memory by keeps in
memory only those instructions and data that
are need at given time

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

 Storage management
3. Swapping allocation method.
A process can be swapped temporarily out of
memory to a backing store and then brought
back into memory for continued execution
4. Multiple partition allocation.
The memory is divided into a number of
regions or partitions. Each partition have one
process.

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

 Storage management
• So, several user processes reside in memory at
the same time.
• There are two management schemes:
a) multiple contiguous fixed partition (MFT)
b) multiple contiguous variable partition (MVT).

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

A. Multiple contiguous fixed partition.
• The memory is divided into a number of fixed
– size partitions. Each partition contains one
process only.
Need protection.
By using two registers.
(1) Bound registers: they contain the value of
smallest and largest physical address.
(2) Base and limit registers. Base register
contains the smallest physical address. Limit
register contains the size of process.

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

• The problem of MFT is determining the best partitions
sizes to minimize internal and external fragmentation

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

Multiple contiguous variable partition
(MVT).
To solve the fragmentation problem in MFT ,
allow the partition sizes to vary dynamically.
In MVT, the OS keeps a table indicating which
parts of memory are available and which are
used.

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

 Fragmentation
• As processes are loaded and removed from
memory, the free memory space is broken
into little pieces.
• After sometimes that processes can not be
allocated to memory blocks considering their
small size and memory blocks remains
unused.
• This problem is known as Fragmentation

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

 Fragmentation

S.N. Fragmentation Description

Total memory space is enough to satisfy

External
1 a request or to reside a process in it, but
fragmentation
it is not contiguous so it cannot be used.

Memory block assigned to process is

Internal bigger. Some portion of memory is left
2
fragmentation unused as it cannot be used by another
process.
Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed
 Compaction
• Solution of fragmentation is used compaction.
• Compaction: move all processes to one end
of memory and holes to the other end.
• Expensive and can only be done when
relocation is done at execution time, not at
load time
• All the methods suffer from external
fragmentation.

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

 Paging
• A Pging technique is a one solution of
external fragmentation.
• Paging is a memory-management scheme that
permits the physical address space of a
process to be noncontiguous.
• The physical memory is breaking into fixed-
sized blocks called frames and logical memory
is breaking into blocks of the same size called
pages

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

 Paging
• Address generated by CPU is divided into Page
number (p) and Page offset (d).
• Page number (p) -- page number is used as an
index into a page table which contains base
address of each page in physical memory.
• Page offset (d) -- page offset is combined with
base address to define the physical memory
address.
• When a process is to be executed, its pages are
loaded into any available memory frames from
the backing store. The backing store is divided
into fixed-sized blocks that are of the same size
as the memory frames.
Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed
• A Page Table is used where the page number
is the index and the table contains the base
address of each page in physical memory.
• This base address (p) is combined with the
page offset (d) to define the physical memory
address that is sent to the memory unit.

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

 Paging

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

 Example :
Consider a user program of logical address of
size 4 pages and page size is 4 bytes, use the
physical address of 260 frames. If the user
program consists of instruction a, b, c, …, p .
each instruction takes 1 byte. Assume at that
time the free frames list are 5, 6, 1, 2, 14.
Show how the program can be allocated in the
physical memory and draw the page table and
the logical and physical map?

The physical address = (frame number * page size)+ offset

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed
 Paging
Example 2: Consider a user program of logical address of
size 6 pages and page size is 4 bytes. The physical address
contains 300 frames. The user program consists of 16
instructions a, b, c, . . . u, v . Each instruction takes 1
byte. Assume at that time the free frames are 7, 26, 52,
20, 55, 6, 18, 21, 70, and 90. Find the following?

A) Draw the logical and physical maps and page tables?

B) Allocate each page in the corresponding frame?
C) Find the physical addresses for the instructions m, d,
v, r?
D) Calculate the fragmentation if exist?
The physical address = page size * frame number
+ offset
• The physical address of m = 4*20 +0 = 80
• The physical address of d = 4*7+3 = 31
• The physical address of v = 4* 6 +1 = 25
• The physical address of r = 4*55+ 1= 221
• The external fragmentation = 0
• The internal fragmentation = 2
Shared Pages
Shared code: One copy of read-only code shared among
processes (i.e., text editors, compilers, window systems).
Shared code must appear in same location in the logical
address space of all processes.

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

 6. Segmentation
• Segmentation is a memory-management
scheme that supports this user view of
memory, which uses a memory as a collection
of variable size segment.

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

 6. Segmentation
• A logical address space is a collection of
segments. Each segment has a name and a
variable length. The addresses specify both
the segment name and the offset within the
segment.
• To implement segmentation, we use a
segment table. Each entry in the segment
table has a segment base and a segment
limit.

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

 6. Segmentation
• The segment base contains the starting
physical address where the segment resides in
memory, whereas the segment limit specifies
the length of the segment.

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

 6. Segmentation
• A logical address consists of two parts: a
segment number, s, and an offset into that
segment, d.
• The segment number is used as an index to the
segment table.
• The offset d of the logical address must be
between 0 and the segment limit.

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

 Segment hardware

Physical address = Base of segment + offset

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed
Example: Consider we have five segments
numbered from 0 through 4. The segments
are stored in physical memory as shown in
figure.
The segment table has a separate entry for
each segment, giving the beginning
address of the segment in physical memory
(or base) and the length of that segment
(or limit). For example, segment 2 is 400
bytes long and begins at location 4300

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

 6. Segmentation
• Fragmentation in segmentation
• Segmentation may cause external
fragmentation when all blocks of free memory
are too small to accommodate a segment.
There fore , segmentation has two types of
fragment: external and internal.

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

 Example
Consider a program consists of five segments: S0 = 600,
S1 = 14 KB , S2= 100 KB, S3 =580 KB, and S4 = 96 KB .
Assume at that time, the available free space partition of
memory are 1200 – 1805, 500 – 600 , 220-250, 2500-
3200. Find the following :
• Draw logical to physical maps and segment table?
• Allocate space for each segment in memory?
• Calculate the external fragmentation and the internal
fragmentation?
• What are the addresses in physical memory for the
following logical addresses:
• 0.580, (b) 1.17 (c) 2.96 (d) 4.112 ( e) 3.420

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

Memory management
Find the fragmentation
Because all segments are allocated, therefore no
external fragmentation. So external Frag. =0
Internal fragmentation = (250-234)+(1805-1800)+
3200-3176)
= 16 + 5 + 24 = 45
4. The physical addresses are
a) S= 0, d= 580 , the base for S0 = 1200, limit = 600
The physical address = 1200+580 = 1780.
b) S = 1 , d = 17 the base for S1 = 220, limit = 14 .
Because d > limit , the address is wrong.
C) S= 2, d= 96 , the base for S2 = 500, limit = 100
The physical address = 500+ 96 = 596
d) S= 4, d= 112 , the base for S4 = 3080, limit = 96.
Because d > limit , the address is wrong.
e) S= 3 , d= 420, the base for S3 = 2500, limit = 580.
The physical address = 2500 + 430 = 2920.

Memory management Dr. Qasim Mohammed

Exampl2:Let program has five segments with following
size: S0= 60 KB, S1= 140 KB, S2 = 100KB , S3= 340 KB,
S4 = 218KB. And suppose the free space list at that time
is: (1700 – 1760, 1800 – 2020, 2500 – 2640, 2100 – 2200,
and 2800 - 3144).
Answer the following?
• Allocate a memory space for each segment and draw
the logical map, physical map and segment and
segment table?
• Calculate the external and internal fragmentation?
• Find the physical addresses for the logical addresses?
• 0.50 (2) 1.91 (3) 2.102 (4) 3. 17 (5) 4`.60
3. External fragmentation =0.
The internal fragmentation =(160-150)+(250-234)
= 24
The physical address of 0.580 = 1200+580 = 1780.
Because d > limit of S1 , the address is wrong.
The physical address of 2.96= 50 + 96 = 146
The physical address is of 4.82 is = 3080 + 82 = 3162
The physical address 3.24 = 2500 + 430 = 29206
 Thanks for
your attention

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