Field instrumentation is technology-based, which advances rapidly.

Accordingly, users
of instrumentation are encouraged to follow the developments by browsing
manufacturers' websites and using other online sources of information (e.g.
www.geotechnicalnews.com).
Ground movements are normally associated with stress redistribution and pore
pressure changes which are characteristic of the particular ground and should be
measured in terms of the displacement of points, which can be positioned on
the surface of the ground or within the ground mass. The displacement of a
point should be referred to a stable reference position, and sufficient
measurements taken to define movement in three dimensions if this is required.
The relative movement between adjacent points can be used to obtain strain.
Surface movements should be measured using one of the following:
• precise levelling;
• surveying;
• total stations (automatic or manually operated)
• photogrammetric methods; or
• global positioning systems (GPS).
NOTE 1 An accuracy of ±0.5 mm can be achieved with precise levelling and ±3 ppm
for distance measurements over 2 000 m can be achieved using EDM (electronic
distance measurement) instruments. Manually operated total stations can typically
deliver an accuracy of ±2.5 mm in X, Y and Z coordinates of a monitoring point if
the sighting distance is less than 75 m. Automatic (robotic) totals stations mounted
on fixed platforms that don't move can deliver accuracies as good as ±1.0 mm if they
are properly installed and maintained.
Care should be taken to position reference points away from the effects of
movements due to load and water changes. Due account should be made for
atmospheric distubances and care taken to avoid positioning instruments in
locations that are adversely affected by wind, vibrations and construction
activities.
Internal movements or displacements and stresses should be measured in
boreholes or by direct placement of instruments within fill using the following
techniques.
a) Extensometers and settlement gauges:
• magnet;
• plate; and
• rod.
b) Lateral or horizontal movements measured by:
• inclinometers;
• tilt sensors
• inverted pendulums; and
• magnet plate gauges.
c) Total stress monitored using:
• hydraulic cells;
• vibrating-wire cells;
• push-in type cells; and
• interface pressure measurements.