Types of literature

Prose - The most typical form of language, characterised by an ordinary grammar and a
common structure (Ex. - Novel, Essay).

Novel - A fictitious prose narrative, with some degree of realism, and of book length.

Essay - Works (literary criticism, political manifestos, observations) where the opinion of the
author is dominant.

Diary - A handwritten record that reports something that happened to the author. Those
reports may or may not be real, as they can also be put at the beginning of a novel.

Myth - Sacred narrative usually explaining how the world and mankind came to be in its
present form.

Folktale - General term for different varieties of traditional narrative. It is common to many
cultures, as it’s an oral tale to be told for everybody.

Comedy - Not necessarily an entirely comic work, as it can also allow some kind of
reflection on the context or the character.

Drama - A work represented in performance.

Tragedy - Form of drama based on human suffering, that leads the audience to the
catharsis. It played an important role in the definition of the western civilization.

Fable - A literary genre characterised by a brief fictional story that features animals or
inanimate objects which are anthropomorphised and given human qualities.

Legend - Narrative of human actions that takes place within human history.

Fiction - Any work that deals with imaginary or theoretical facts, invented by the author.

Biography - An account of someone’s life that highlights many aspects of his life.

Poetry - A form of literary art that uses aesthetic qualities of language to evoke something in
the reader. It can be interpreted to catch higher and subjective meanings.

Lyric - A song sung with a lyre, with a personal point of view.

Epic - A depiction of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or a nation.

Elegy - A mournful poem usually written to a dead person.

Eulogy - A speech or writing in praise of someone.

Ballad - A form of verse often set to music. Ballads were typical of popular poetry.

Song - A composition sung and accompanied by musical instruments.

Narrative - A constructive format as a work of speech, writing, song, film etc. that describes
a series of non-fictional or fictional events.
 English humanism

In england, politics and religion were always connected, so the spirit of humanists applied to
all fields of society, including politics. Humanists [Those who focused their studies on men,
society and institutions] such as Francis Bacon and Thomas More (who wrote Utopia, the
first utopian work that many centuries later will be followed by Orwell’s dystopia) used
classical themes to explore such themes. Both authors contributed to the revival of classical
studies and the reshaping of the nation; that means giving a new order and structure to a
society that hardly has one. In response to this, the Utopia becomes a form of critique, acting
as a counterpart or as an opposition to that time’s society.

Humanist society was dominated by illiteracy, bigotry and puritanism, that was a
consequence of the strong presence of religion in everyday life. It didn’t allow any kind of
social mobility, so the members of the lower class were stuck in their position. Therefore,
humanist society can be divided into two main groups: wealthy men and outcasts.

Renaissance

Discoveries and the circulation of ideas - The works published during this period tackled
almost every kind of subject that the author could imagine.
A significant element in the reshaping of culture and the circulation of ideas was the
development of printing. Thanks to Gutenberg’s printing press (1450), book production rose
steadily, and protestant ideas spread very quickly.
Because of a very limited alphabetization process, the only method to spread morality and
ethics was the bible, orally spread by priests. Religion’s purpose was to affect the people’s
behaviour, staying always in accordance with politics. It was like a device for crowd control.

Universities played an important role in spreading ideas and culture too. They had the
mission of creating the future leading class (Students were mostly upper class and clergy
members).
As literacy increased, and people renewed their interest in classical education, universities
began to teach also more secular [laico] subjects, such as science and law, as well as
grammar, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music.

The renaissance was also a time of mobility, both within europe and abroad. as the power of
both the holy roman empire and the catholic church weakened, italy’s city-states and
england’s monarchy increased in importance. With this development, Rome was no longer
the intellectual and cultural center of Europe, and renaissance scholars began to travel
elsewhere. Therefore, exploration outside europe was on the rise, and new lands were being
discovered. Only the members of the upper class travelled, mostly because they were the
only ones who could afford it. Everything obtained by these journeys, both cultural and not,
was obtained by them, which made them more powerful. Even though travelling remained
expensive and often dangerous, more and more people experienced it.

The origins of drama - The origins of theatre were religious. During the middle age drama
was used by the church to educate people from an ethical and moral point of view. Parts of
the liturgy were transformed into dramatic dialogues performed by the clergy in latin. These
dramatic scenes developed into early plays known as mystery or miracle plays, a genre
evolved in the 14th and 15th century.
To allow the citizens of growing cities to enjoy these performances, the representation of
these scenes moved from inside the church to the streets. One short play was presented on
a movable wagon called a pageant, which then moved on to leave the scene to another
wagon, where another short play was staged. Latin was gradually replaced by english, and
the roles were represented by laymen [uomini laici], rather than the clergy.

Cycle plays were founded by “guilds”, associations of men who had their own pageants.
These guilds were also known as masteries or mysteries, which is why they came to be
called mystery plays.

From the point of view of the content, plays can be divided into scriptural, morality and
hagiographical plays.

Scriptural plays are short plays based on the old and new testaments, whose aim was to
illustrate how men could reach salvation.

Morality plays focused on the battle between good and evil for the possession of a man’s
soul. Their protagonists are often symbols for the human vices and virtues.
An example can be the play Everyman (15th century). It tells the story of everyman, the
symbol of any human being who, unexpectedly called by death and informed that he has to
die, needs to give account of all his actions (Bergman’s Seventh Seal). During his journey
towards death everyman learns the true value of life, and he is helped only by Good Deeds
(symbol of the good things he did in life). Its moral is as explicit as possible.

Hagiographical plays tell the lives of saints and their miracles, with the purpose of teaching
christian values. They create a series of values to whom men have to inspire.
Just a few of them survived.

Elizabethan theatre

Under Queen Elizabeth’s reign, theatre starts to evolve. It doesn’t belong just to the religious
sphere, but secular themes start to be represented too.
During the renaissance, religious plays began to decline in popularity. In particular, after the
reformation, control over such performances passed from the church to the crown, which
used theatre to pursue a political purpose (they understand that the strongest power is the
one that affects a person’s mind).
Also the content of the plays changes, men are faced with themselves and their flaws. Even
though religion isn’t abandoned yet, the themes gradually detach from it.

The king’s control over religious plays often meant censorship, so that writers began to look
elsewhere for inspiration for their books, in particular to italian or classical theatre. Another
great change during the renaissance was the introduction of theatres built specifically for the
purpose of staging plays. No more wagons or churches, plays were staged indoors:
university halls, private homes, schools and inns of court (where lawyers were formed).
Companies of actors, which traditionally travelled throughout the country, began to want their
own permanent theatres, and some began to form companies which worked under the
patronage of wealthy men.
In order to avoid problems of censorship, companies looked for approval from the crown;
They had to be allowed to perform, so they could often be threatened, for instance, by the
closure of theatres, by censorship, which prevented certain plays from being performed, and
by the moralist attacks of the puritans, who considered theatre-going as an occasion to sin.
So companies could only offer actors a little security.
In public theatres there were no lights, no stage curtain and no scenery. There were a few
pieces of furniture and decoration (props), which could also be given different symbolic
meanings, and the dialogues provided the description of the setting. The Elizabethan age is
often considered as the golden age of theatre; Queen Elizabeth was a great supporter of
arts, and this stimulated activity in the theatre.
Much merit of the growth of this form of entertainment is traditionally given to a group of
young men graduating from Oxford or Cambridge between 1575 and 1588 who created the
forms of Elizabethan drama, abandoning the techniques and practices of the preceding
generations. Because of their education, these authors are now known as the university wits.

Content radically changes: plays are not about religion anymore, but about education, that
can be reached without any type of religious medium.
Secular themes grow in importance, and thanks to the university wits there’s a will of
transforming theatre. They want to create a new type of theatre that resembles society,
equally in a state of transition.
Among these educated young dramatists was Christopher Marlowe, whose plays made him
famous in his lifetime. He’s considered to be the foremost dramatist of that period, and some
scholars also believe that he deeply influenced William Shakespeare. Marlowe was the first
to achieve critical notoriety for his use of blank verse, which became the standard for the
Era. Marlowe is now considered a typical “renaissance man”, who insisted on the freedom
and intellectual capacities of the individual, but at that time his reputation of free thinker often
got him into trouble with the authorities.
Critics often described him as a disreputable character (he hung around in slums, he was a
drunk, etc.), but considering the intellectual impact that he had, all of this is tolerable.

By placing emphasis on a direct relationship between man and god, without the mediation of
the clergy, the reformation had made it harder for the individual to find the traditional support
of an external system of morality. Faith and the sense of ‘self’ had to be built from the inside,
leaving much room for the uncertainty and conflict within the individual himself.

Standing on the shoulders of giants

Renaissance knowledge and philosophy hugely relied on classical authorities. New thoughts
had to be justified by past references. A break with the past was made thanks to Francis
Bacon, who combined the works of Aristotle and Plato to claim that the scientist should look
directly at nature rather than trust what has been written in books.
Bacon thought that tradition should be considered, but at the same time a new culture had to
be created. A new culture based on a new perception of reality. This renewed attitude
towards nature matched the way man looked at man, so that physical exploration went
together with inner examination. Many of this period’s authors focus on the analysis of the
self, together with his conscience.
We can say that there’s a radical shift from the past, because authors increasingly
concentrate on the inner world of the self.
A master in such exploration of the human psyche is certainly William shakespeare. Several
of his characters appear to consider the problem of the self: King Lear in Hamlet and
Macbeth represent a deep analysis of individual behaviour and responsibilities.

Sir Thomas More

When talking about Thomas More we have to highlight his knowledge of latin at a very early
age. He studied at Oxford University, but his father wanted him to pursue a legal career.
More’s interest in religion and catholic church encouraged him to study christian texts such
as saint Augustine’s De Civitate Dei, which had a great influence on his ideas of a perfect
community on earth.
More believed that Humasimsm had to combine faith and reason, so once he was part of the
english parliament he criticised the church and the government’s inefficiency, something that
angered King Henry VII. As a consequence of that, More was forced to retire temporarily
from public life.

Under the reign of king Henry VIII he was sent on several diplomatic missions abroad.
During one of these diplomatic missions he began to work on his Utopia.
When King Henry started his battle to divorce Queen Catherine and marry Anne Boleyn,
More did not make a secret of his disapproval of the king’s behaviour. For his defiance to the
King, More was first dispossessed of his roles and privileges, and then imprisoned and
executed, in 1535.

Utopia (1516) is his most famous work, firstly published in Latin.

The book is in the form of a travel account where the narrator, Raphael Hythloday, a seaman
who has travelled to the new world, describes an idealised and imaginary commonwealth.
His dreamland has no poverty, no exploitation, no luxury, no idle rich.
Utopia is an island where an authoritarian society has suppressed individualism and private
property for the benefits of his citizens, and everything is designed to encourage uniformity.
Private property is abolished, and the citizens work together to achieve economic self-
sufficiency.
Utopia is founded on compassion and tolerance. Health care is universal, even though few
get sick. Society even gently encourages euthanasia when it comes to mortally ill people.
More’s progressive view diverges from the churches’ bigoted opinion on this topic.
In his depiction of Utopia More’s ultimate goal is to show areas of improvement for christian
society, still accepting the idea of an afterlife and of god’s punishment.
Besides the etymology [u-topia (no-place) / eu-topia (better place)] this ideal place is an
imaginative place where the human thirst for justice and peace is appeased and the
contradictions of reality are finally resolved.
More’s forward-looking vision somehow anticipates what other thinkers (like Marx) will
advocate centuries later.

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

At a very young age, while he was attending Cambridge university, Bacon started to
question the course of study he was following, showing an early personal attitude to
learning. During a period of political inactivity, he devoted himself to writing, mostly working
on essays, and during the reign of James I he occupied prestigious political positions.
He wrote The Advancement of Learning, published in 1605, which represents his first step
towards the formulation of a new method of looking at the natural world, without any false
notion or idle that distorts the truth.
Novum organum, published in 1620, contains Bacon’s ideas about the correct method of
scientific inquiry. It determines a practical approach to observation, more similar to the
modern scientific thought, and emphasising the inductive method.
After he had reached the zenith of his power, bacon was accused of corruption by old
enemies. He had to resign from his office, and was eventually banished from court. At the
time of his death, in 1926, he had not yet received full pardon from the king.
His work New Atlantis, from 1627, resembles More’s Utopia, not only because Bacon
describes his own utopia, but also because he does it in latin.
Bacon takes inspiration from More’s work and Plato’s myth of Atlantis, the city mysteriously
sunk into the ocean. However, Bacon's vision does not emphasise new governmental and
social institutions. His imaginary island of Bensalem consists of a society of scholars and
scientists labouring together and living by the rules of science. Bacon occasionally describes
Bensalem’s rituals, and offers no physical or psychological details of its inhabitants.
The depiction of this ideal society occurs almost exclusively through monologues or
dialogues between an unidentified narrator and three other main characters - The governor
of the island, a merchant of the city, and The Father, the head of an ideal scientific society.

William Shakespeare

Shakespeare's comedies focus on the mutability of human nature. The plots are often based
on love mixed with other themes, such as political power, and show various recurrent
dramatic devices (disguises, cross-dressing, misunderstanding and comic elements).
Shakespeare's tragedies mainly deal with the abstract and universal themes of ambition,
power, love, death and the human response to the workings of destiny. All these elements
depict the individual in its complexity, that’s why the critic Harold Bloom considered
Shakespeare as the inventor of the human, suggesting that much of what the modern world
understands about human nature began with him.
Basically Shakespeare was the first author to analyse man’s mind, and his characters seem
real because they respond to situations showing a complete range of human emotions.

Fate and free will - Shakespeare made the contrast between fate and free will his distinctive
trait. He investigates the relationship between the two elements, making the audience
wonder whether the character can choose what he wants to do, or whether he’s simply
destined to participate passively.
Shakespeare’s characters are never fully fictional, and besides his depiction of human
passions, he emphasizes on the characters’ ability of making choices, whether they can or
cannot.
On the one hand we have Fate, an element that takes part in men’s life, and to whom they
have to submit. Fate as a dominating force is evident from the very beginning of Romeo and
Juliet. The chorus describes Romeo and Juliet as “star-crossed” and “death-marked”,
showing how the two lovers’ destiny is determined by their families’ ambition and conflict.
The characters themselves seem to believe that their lives are controlled by destiny and
luck, but at the same time both Romeo and Juliet often act against what they believe their
destiny is. Their Free Will makes them act this way, not considering that they have to know
which events they can control and which events are inevitable.

Stylistic Features - Shakespeare’s tragedies follow the typical structure of the tragic plot.
The climax (the highest point of the protagonists’ fortunes) is represented, in Romeo and
Juliet, by their wedding and Mercutio and Tybalt's deaths. After these events the
protagonists’ fortunes are reversed and the play moves towards the final catastrophe.

The language of the play is rich in images taken from different semantic areas ranging from
religion, to heavenly bodies and nature.

The great chain of being - The Elizabethan conception of world-order was in its outlines
[schemi, confini] medieval. Any imperfection was the work not of God but of man.
The Great Chain of Being is a concept derived from ancient greek philosophy. It is a
hierarchical structure of all matter and life, thought in medieval Christianity to have been
decreed [decretata] by God. The chain starts with God and progresses downward to angels,
humans, animals, plants, and minerals.

This structure was picked up by Shakespeare in Macbeth. The protagonist tries to overthrow
the natural order of things by taking the king’s throne, and since he cannot go against fate,
against god, he walks into certain death.
Teoria degli umori - With the birth of the novel, inner examination of the self becomes more
and more important.
Because of the specularity between the outer and inner world, the feelings of a character,
that may be positive or negative, affect the actions of a character.
At the root of this theory, originated from Greek culture, there are 4 elements: Water, Fire, air
and Earth, that determine the emotions (the temper) and therefore the actions of a person.

[Con la nascita del romanzo, le caratteristiche più importanti dei personaggi sono quelle
interiori, e data la specularità tra il mondo esterno e interiore, le emozioni di un personaggio,
che siano positive o negative, influiscono sulle azioni di esso.
Alla base della teoria, originaria della cultura greca, ci sono 4 elementi: Acqua, fuoco, aria e
terra. Hanno un influsso determinante sulle emozioni e quindi sulle azioni di una persona]

Macbeth

Macbeth è definita da molti come la tragedia dell’ambizione per eccellenza, ma come dice
Agostino Lombardo nella sua prefazione, l’opera racchiude moltissimi temi al suo interno,
tutti sviluppati approfonditamente da Shakespeare. É una delle tragedie più rappresentative
dell’autore, non solo per i temi trattati, ma anche per la presenza di alcuni elementi che
hanno reso Shakespeare una delle figure più importanti della letteratura mondiale; Prima su
tutti è l’analisi introspettiva dei personaggi, ma anche un linguaggio che in alcuni casi è
enigmatico e simbolico (su tutti i dialoghi delle streghe).

Atto Primo - L’opera si apre con l’ormai celeberrima scena di introduzione delle tre streghe.
In una brughiera, uno dei molti spazi aperti della tragedia, queste tre streghe incontrano
Macbeth e Banquo, di ritorno dalla campagna contro il traditore del Re, il barone di Cawdor,
e profetizzano l’ascesa di Macbeth a Barone di Cawdor, Barone di Glamis e re di Scozia,
oltre che l’ascesa al trono di Scozia dei discendenti di Banquo. Macbeth rimane colpito e si
convince delle parole delle streghe, mentre Banquo è più scettico e dubbioso.
Da subito una delle profezie si avvera: Macbeth diventa barone di Cawdor. Questo spinge il
protagonista a riflettere sull’accaduto e ad essere sempre più schiavo delle sue emozioni.
Una volta accolto dal re Duncan, Macbeth è sempre più deciso a diventare re, e per farlo è
disposto anche a commettere un regicidio, facendosi così dominare dalle passioni e
dall’ambizione.
Viene a conoscenza dell’incontro tra Macbeth e le streghe anche Lady Macbeth, che sembra
ancor più decisa del marito a far avverare le profezie. Sarà Lei infatti a far crollare le ultime
esitazioni del protagonista sull’assassinio, facendo leva sulle sue debolezze.
Entra così in gioco la contrapposizione tra Fate and Free Will, dinamica chiave in
Shakespeare. l’omicidio del re è dipeso per la maggior parte da Macbeth e Lady Macbeth;
saranno loro stessi quindi a decidere il proprio destino.

Atto secondo - Ormai deciso a compiere il regicidio, Macbeth è preda ad un delirio, ha

quella che sembra essere la visione di un pugnale insanguinato, e non ha altra scelta se non
quella di abbandonarsi alla sua Furia omicida.
La morte del re è simbolicamente rappresentata da una campana, che rintocca nel momento
dell'assassinio e nel momento in cui viene scoperto il cadavere del re.
Dopo le sue azioni, Macbeth è in preda al rimorso e ai sensi di colpa; L’unica che sembra in
un certo senso mantenere la sua razionalità è Lady Macbeth, sempre ferma e decisa nelle
sue parole.
Il giorno dopo, una volta ritrovato il corpo esanime di Duncan, Macbeth non sembra essersi
ripreso ancora del tutto, e anzi, con la sua frase “il vino della vita è stato spillato” sembra
voler sottolineare la consapevolezza di aver commesso un’azione deplorevole.
I figli del re, Malcom e Donaldbain, sentendosi minacciati, deciso di fuggire.
Atto terzo - Dati i sospetti sempre più evidenti di Banquo nei confronti di Macbeth, il
protagonista decide di assoldare degli assassini per uccidere lui e suo figlio Fleance
(cercando così di nullificare anche il vaticinio delle streghe), ma i sicari riescono solo a metà
nella loro impresa, infatti Fleance fugge dopo la morte del padre.
Macbeth, sempre più in preda ai sensi di colpa, dopo la morte di Banquo ha una visione del
suo fantasma, che provoca in lui una sorta di esaurimento nervoso davanti ai suoi servi.
Macbeth decide quindi di incontrare di nuovo le “sorelle fatali” per sapere il suo destino.

Atto quarto - Il vaticinio delle streghe è oscuro: Macbeth resterà re di Scozia fin quando la
foresta di Birnam non gli muoverà contro, e nessun "nato da donna" potrà nuocergli. Spinto
dalla convinzione di essere ormai inarrestabile, Macbeth decide di attaccare il castello di
Macduff (uccidendo la moglie ed il figlio) che, come conseguenza di ciò, decide di radunare
insieme a Malcolm un esercito per ribellarsi al “tiranno”.

Atto quinto - Nell’ultimo atto si completano quelli che sono il processo di deumanizzazione
di Macbeth, ormai diventato un folle logorato dal potere, e la totale perdita di senno di Lady
Macbeth, che vaga per il castello tentandosi di ripulirsi le mani da macchie di sangue
incancellabili (ovviamente simboliche).
Malcolm, insieme a Macduff e Seyward, guida l’esercito contro il castello di Dunsinane,
dimora di Macbeth. Ai soldati, accampati nel bosco di Birnam, viene ordinato di tagliare dei
rami di alcuni alberi e porli davanti a loro per nascondere il loro vero numero. Si realizza così
la profezia delle streghe.
Alla notizia della morte della moglie (probabile suicidio), Macbeth reagisce con indifferenza,
e si preoccupa solo dell’imminente battaglia.
Negli scontri finali Seyward viene ucciso da Macbeth, che non può nulla però contro
MacDuff, che “fu strappato prima del tempo dal ventre della madre”. Macbeth viene quindi
ucciso, e la sua testa viene consegnata a Malcolm, nuovo re di Scozia.

John Milton

John Milton received a very good education, thanks to his father. He started to write poems
in latin, italian and english while he was still studying, and during a literary apprenticeship he
measured his abilities against the great masters of European tradition.

After his apprenticeship, Milton travelled to France and italy. When he returned to England,
in 1640, the country was on the verge of civil war. In his works Milton focused on religious
and social issues. They all share a concern with power in all its forms, a theme that was like
an obsession for him.
He clearly felt empowered by god to write his radical pamphlets and, with his Eikonoklastes,
he created the rhetoric and language of insubordination.

A few months before his death, in 1674, he published, despite being completely blind, the
complete edition of his epic Paradise Lost, a poem in 12 books (which contained Paradise
lost and Paradise Regained), which ensured his success, making the poet one of the most
powerful figures of english literature.

Blake, in his poem “Milton”, dealt with Milton’s work as well as with the man. While Blake
admired Milton’s creative inspiration, he also condemned his puritan ideas.

Paradise lost

In his Preface to Paradise Lost, C.S. Lewis wrote, "Every poem can be considered in two
ways - as what the poet has to say, and as a thing which he makes. From the one point of
view it is an expression of opinions and emotions; from the other, it is an organization of
words which exists to produce a particular kind of patterned experience in the readers".

In The Reason of Church Government, Milton declares his desire to write a work that will
serve to glorify England as earlier poets had glorified their native lands and cultures, that’s
why he writes in English rather than another language, such as latin.
When he ponders what genre to adopt (epic, tragic, or lyric), it was not simply a matter of
seeking the perfect medium for his story, but the desire of a writer wanting to place himself in
the poetic tradition.
In deciding to write an epic, Milton consciously places himself in the tradition of prior epic
writers.
Paradise Lost contains many classical and Renaissance epic conceits: it begins in medias
res; it concerns heavenly and earthly beings and the interactions between them; it uses
catalogues of people and places, invocations to a muse; and it contains themes common to
epics, such as war, nationalism, empire, and stories of origin.
Paradise Lost has no easily identified hero. Critics and writers such as William Blake and
Percy Bysshe Shelley believed Satan to be the hero of Paradise Lost. Yet the problems
inherent in viewing Satan as a hero have led modern critics to reject this idea.
Satan is too atypical for a hero, and Milton tries to bring out some aspects of him that make
him seem more human(-like).
The other most likely protagonist is Adam. He resembles Aeneas in many respects: he is the
father of a new race, responsible for founding civilization on earth. But unlike Aeneas,
Adam's primary heroic act is not heroic at all: it is disobedience.
The hero is not the only epic tradition to be reconfigured in Paradise Lost; the poem also
plays on readers' expectations about epic form. The poem contains elements of many other
genres; The theme of the Fall of man is one of the most tragic events of human history, and
by writing the poem around it, it becomes a tragedy of some sort.
Throughout the poem Milton makes use of soliloquy, another tragic convention.

"Things invisible to mortal sight": Milton's God - Unlike the gods and goddesses of
classical epics, more similar to men, Milton's God is invisible and omnipresent.
Milton portrays God as if he were an individual, when he is really something much greater.
Therefore, everything relating to God in Paradise Lost should be understood as a kind of
metaphor, a device used to place the divine in human terms.
Milton does more than merely portraying the Christian God; he is, according to William
Empson, "struggling to make his God appear less wicked than the traditional Christian one".
He wants, in a sense, to portray a different god from the bible’s one; Perhaps this is why
Milton's God often explains how Adam and Eve fall because of their own free will, and not
because he decreed it, he justifies God.
William Blake found Milton's depiction of God so inferior to his depiction of Satan that he
considered Milton to be an unaware Satanist. There seems to be good evidence for it: God's
language is "flat, uncolored, unmetaphorical," compared with Satan's vivid and inspiring
rhetoric. But many critics present a different theory: Milton deliberately lets Satan seduce the
reader, who is first seduced by Satan's impressive logic, then slowly realizes that the logic is
in fact twisted and nonsensical. The reader emerges from the experience renewed with a
greater sense of faith, which is the ultimate goal of the poem.
Satan's doubts about God are unfounded and sinful, not because they are evil, but because
God’s authority should never be questioned.

Characters in paradise lost

Satan is the first major character introduced in the poem. Formally called Lucifer, he can be
described with his quote “better reign in hell than serve in heaven”. His desire to rebel
against his creator stems [deriva] for his unwillingness to be subjugated by god, claiming that
angels are self-begot (born), and thereby denying god’s authority over them as their creator.

Sin is personalized as Satan’s daughter, who comes out of his father's head. She's half
woman half serpent, while her middle is made of hellhounds. Her double form
(woman/serpent) recalls the temptation that led to Adam and Eve's fall.

Death is Satan’s son by his daughter Sin. The relations between Satan, Sin and Death
mimic the holy trinity, acting as an evil counterpart.
Adam is the first human who rules over the garden of eden. His complete infatuation with
Eve eventually contributes to his joining her in disobedience to god. Unlike the biblical Adam,
before he leaves paradise he is given a glimpse of the future of mankind.

Eve is far from the christian model of a good wife, as she’s often unwilling to be submissive
towards Adam. Even though she’s in love with Adam, she may feel suffocated by his
constant presence. In fact, she convinces him to split up and work different parts of the
garden, and in her solitude, she’s tempted by Satan to sin against god.

The son of god is basically jesus christ, though he’s never named explicitly. He’s the
ultimate hero of the epic, who single-handedly defeats Satan and his followers, and drives
them into hell.
It’s the son of god that tells Adam and Eve about god’s judgment after their sin. When he
reaches his human form he represents the connection between god and men.

God the father is the creator himself. He's an omniscient and infinitely good being who can’t
even be overthrown by Satan and his army of angels.
The purpose of the poem is to justify the ways of god to men, so god often converses with
the son of god revealing his reasons regarding his actions. The poem also portrays god’s
process of creation in the way that Milton believed it was done

Raphael is an archangel sent by god to warn Adam about Satan's infiltration of Eden and to
warn him that Satan is going to curse him and Eve.

Michael is a mighty archangel who fought for god in the angelic war. In the first battle he
wounds Satan with his sword, and after Adam and Eve's disobedience, he’s sent by god to
escort them out of Eden.
Before he does this, Michael shows Adam visions of the future which cover an outline of the
bible, from the story of Cain and Abel, up through the story of Jesus christ.

The Restoration and the Augustan age

The rise of journalism - During the 18th century there was a gradual growth in literacy. As
the market expanded at the beginning of the century, production rose to meet demand. The
rising middle classes were the readership [lettori] for many daily and weekly newspapers and
journals founded at this time.
The Tatler and The Spectator were the most famous and appreciated ones, portraying
London life through its lively stories and reports of London society, treating several topics
and expressing the middle-class perspective on them. Then, when novels rose, journals and
newspapers began to be more politically engaged.

During the augustan age the novel became the dominant genre among the reading public. It
was not a sudden innovation, as it originated from travel accounts (like More’s Utopia).
However, the 17th and 18th centuries witnessed a shift towards english middle-class way of
thinking, so, through fiction, english readers could see their values displayed. Another major
topic dealt by the novels of this time is the growing emphasis on the individual (the most
covered theme of the 20th century). Fiction could well represent the character’s personal
growth and development, along with his relationship with society.
In the 18th century everyone (especially the middle-class) was expected to conform to the
rules established by both family and society. It worked like a juxtaposition that highlighted
the patriarchal society reigning in that period.

The novels of Daniel Defoe are fundamental to understand the development of the novel as
a genre and the ways of thinking of the 18th century. Robinson Crusoe is a key text to
comprehend the middle-class and the dynamics at work in the society of the time.

The upper class was formed by powerful men related to economy and politics, while women
were linked only to domesticity, that’s why novels like Pamela, or virtue rewarded, by
Samuel Richardson, try to give moral advice to women by suggesting virtue and chastity as
the only viable safe-conduct in life.

Fielding's Tom Jones highlights the hypocrisy of a society that searches for virtue even
where there is none.

The novels of Jane Austen already testify of a change in sensibility. She used the novel as a
guide to social behaviour, introducing themes that are considered to be at the base of the
romantic movement. She shows how the two (considered) opposites of society can coexist
[sense & sensibility - representative of Women and men].
Unlike Wollstonecraft, Jane Austen seems more patronizing, but she still doesn’t accept
what’s proposed by society and thinks that it should change.

The Romantic age

An age of revolution - With the term romanticism we mean a cultural phenomenon

involving the whole western world in a specific time in history. Its roots can be found in the
sturm und drang movement (1760s-1780s), which celebrated subjectivity and feelings.
These ideas spread all over the world, where they were adapted by different cultures, so
there are different variations of romanticism, however, all of these forms share the original
stress on the individual and emotions, on the role of nature, as well as a radicalism in
politics. English romanticism conventionally begins in 1798, the year of publication of the
Lyrical ballads by Wordsworth and Coleridge, and ends in 1832, with the first reform act,
which extended the right to vote to a wider section of english society. English romanticism
also comprises a phase called protoromantic, in which a new sensibility begins to form
alongside classical ideals, while romanticism is traditionally divided into a first and a
Second generation of romantic poets.

The outcome of english philosophy - After the Seven Years’ war against France, Great
Britain experienced the social and financial effects that a war can have on a nation. High
taxation, poor harvests and debates about industrialization had created a state of turmoil
[tumulto/agitazione]. In search for resources, the British government had also begun to
exploit the American colonies, at that time willing to obtain independence from London. That
eventually culminated in the creation of the United States of America.

In the 18th century, the old world’s political systems, still far from democracy, stood upon
hierarchies and the exclusion of a large portion of society from power. If the american
revolution created the basis for an egalitarian society, the unexpected development of the
french revolution created doubt about the justification of rebellion against an unjust
government; So european Intellectuals polarised between support and opposition to
radicalism. Usually, those who believed in the potential and freedom of the individual,
supported the French revolution in its initial phases, but turned away from what seemed a
betrayal of its promises.

Early aesthetic movements - The rise of romantic sensibility in england did not occur
suddenly with the publication of the lyrical ballads. In the mid 18th century poets had begun
to write about themes such as nature, emotions and feelings. Elegy written in a country
churchyard by Thomas Gray is one of the most notable examples of the so-called graveyard
poetry, also influenced by gothic novels. Another phenomenon of the proto-romantic is the
growing interest in the primitive, and especially celtic, cultures. This poem is testified by the
popular success of the Poems of Ossian by James Macpherson (he claimed his poem was a
translation from an ancient gaelic cycle by the warrior and poet oisìn), who demonstrate the
necessity of finding in primitive elements something that reminds us of an ancient culture.

The nature of poetry - Romantics didn’t try to imitate reality, but they disclosed [divulgato]
it. So, poetry as a genre was considered the most powerful mean to get access to reality. It
was a way to “express” the world, emphasising the process of knowledge of an individual.
The poet, a figure with a greater sensibility, was seen as a mediator between common
people and higher truths. Blake considered him as a prophet who can see deeply into reality,
while Wordsworth saw him as a “man speaking to men”. So, images and symbols are now
used to convey the privileged perception of the poet.

The poetry of nature - The increasingly urbanized and industrialized landscape encouraged
poets of the so-called first generation to place an enormous emphasis on nature as a place
of spiritual truth.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau claimed that in the state of nature men were happy and peaceful.
Society, on the contrary, spoiled the innocence of humankind. Contact with nature could
therefore become a spiritual experience, evoking in men the feeling of the sublime, fear and
wonder.

Developments of romantic poetry - The so-called second generation of romantic poets

(Keats, Shelley and Byron) had their predecessors’ work as a model but felt that something
new was needed.
Keats treated themes like beauty and love, while Shelley focused more on political and
social questions.

The novel in the romantic period - During the 18th century novelists brought new themes
and approaches to the novel. The notion of the sublime was source of inspiration for the
gothic novel, where terror and emotions are exaggerated. Gothic novels continued to be
written throughout the 19th century, as Emily Bronte's Wuthering Heights shows.
Sir Walter Scott started the genre of the historical novel (Ivanhoe)

William Blake

Blake didn’t receive a formal education, and he worked as a craftsman for an engraver.
During this period he also began to experiment with poetry, publishing his first work, Poetical
sketches (1783). As a romantic, Blake believed in the potential of arts for changing people's
minds. He believed that poetry in particular could challenge his readers to move away from
passive conformism to either political or religious ideologies.
He developed the Theory of contraries, psychic or mental opposites which can coexist in the
mind and produce a heightened perception. Good/evil, purity/corruption, innocence/
experience cannot be separated.
At the time of his death, Blake was known more as a painter than as a poet, but his poetical
work was increasingly appreciated by his successors.

Songs of innocence and of Experience - Blake's theory of the complementarity of

opposites is the principle governing Songs of innocence and of experience. Blake wrote
songs of innocence in 1789 depicting the world through the eyes of a child, but in 1794,
influenced by the horrors of the French Terror, Blake published songs of innocence and of
experience juxtaposing poems to show the two contrary - but interdependent - states of the
human soul.

In Blake’s ideals, Innocence is not naïve, but a condition where evil is not present. On the
other hand, experience is not the condition of possessing knowledge, but an acceptance that
Good and Evil might coexist. Innocence and experience cannot be fully understood if not
considered as a whole.

William Wordsworth

Lake district, where Wordsworth spent most of his life, contributed to his love for nature. His
meeting with Samuel T. Coleridge, with whom he started a long friendship, marked a turning
point in his literary career. The first edition of the Lyrical Ballads (1798) was the product of
the two poets’ literary cooperation, and the second edition (1800) also included a preface by
Wordsworth, which is considered the Manifesto of the english romantic poetry.

Lyrical Ballads - The poet turned to nature and humble people as the most powerful source
of inspiration, certainly influenced by his upbringing in the environment of the Lake District.
Wordsworth developed a pantheistic view of nature.
His poetic tenets [principi] are expressed in the preface to the lyrical ballads, where the poet
states that the poetic process necessarily starts with sensory experience. The poet feels
certain emotions that he will later recollect in Tranquillity and transfigure into a poetic form,
as exemplified in I wandered lonely as a cloud.
As for language, he used a simple language; The choice of the ballad form for the first
collection of poems marked a break with neoclassical and classical verse, and looked back
to the Middle Ages. Ballads well-suited Wordsworth’s conception of poetic art. Most poems
convey the message that Wordsworth and Coleridge wanted to create something completely
new, and even when they used other traditional forms such as sonnets, the themes, the
atmosphere and the simple language of these poems make them definitely romantic.
Female writers - In the 18th century one of the most important writers, from a social point of
view, is Mary Wollstonecraft. Because of her ideas, she was considered a rebel.
Conservatives (women too) criticised her, they simply didn’t accept the fact that a woman
could escape from her condition of domesticity. This was due to the fact that society didn't
see women as active components of society.
Her Vindication of the rights of woman is written to make society reconsider the role of the
woman. She offers a multi-faceted depiction of the woman, being a bit too harsh and
aggressive for some people.
The writer highlights also the difference between reason and sensibility; At that time it was
believed that men had reason, while women had sensibility. Wollstonecraft thought that both
could coexist in a person, either male or female.
To the misconception of an intellectual superiority of men, Wollstonecraft opposes the
necessity of an awareness of women’s intellectual capacity. That’s why Vindication is mainly
addressed to men, and then to middle-and-upper class women.
 A vindication of the rights of woman

In questo saggio l’argomento principale è l'istruzione femminile. MW ha fatto esperienza

della mancanza di istruzione (da donna appartenente alla middle-class), e demolisce lo
stereotipo del tempo secondo cui erano gli uomini a dover gestire l’istruzione per loro.
A quei tempi l’obiettivo dell’istruzione femminile era quello di preparare le giovani donne ad
essere delle buone mogli, ma Wollstonecraft ribadisce il diritto delle donne ad un’istruzione
decente, portando anche esempi pratici (una scarsa istruzione per le donne reca danni
anche agli uomini, che vengono cresciuti da loro).

Capitolo 1 - Mary Wollstonecraft identifica nella ragione, nella virtù e nella conoscenza gli
elementi che distinguono ogni individuo. Riconosce i vari difetti della società del tempo, su
tutti il potere da lei definito “arbitrario” e “regale”, cioè il potere aristocratico. Come possono
essere sagge le persone ordinarie, se non lo sono i sovrani? La scrittrice va contro questo
tipo di autoritarismo e trova impensabile mettere nelle mani di poche “weak fellow creature”
le vite di così tante persone.

Capitolo 2 - La scrittrice, nel secondo capitolo, sostiene che le differenze tra uomini e donne
esistono principalmente per il modo in cui vengono cresciute ed educate le donne, ed è
quindi un problema insito nella società. MW sostiene inoltre che l’istruzione di una persona
debba essere basata sul singolo individuo, rimanendo sempre in linea con i costumi della
società. A quei tempi, però, l’educazione era riservata esclusivamente agli uomini.
La scrittrice critica anche opere sull’istruzione femminile scritte da uomini, che secondo lei
rendono le donne ancora più artificiali e deboli di quanto lo siano. La scrittrice mette in
discussione soprattutto Rousseau, di cui critica la sua concezione idealizzata e innaturale
delle donne, e John Gregory (A Father's Legacy to his Daughters ), che consigliava alle donne
come vivere la loro vita (per questo era un regalo frequente per le ragazze del XVIII secolo).

MW aggiunge che i sentimenti di inferiorità delle donne sono dovuti al modo in cui vengono
viste dalla società; Ma solo se si danno alle donne delle opportunità, e loro dimostrano di
non essere al pari degli uomini, si può stabilire la superiorità dell’uomo.

Capitolo 4 - Secondo la scrittrice le donne sono state “degradate” da tutta una serie di
fattori: la società, la mancanza di istruzione e l’atteggiamento degli uomini nei loro confronti.

In genere le persone credono che lo scopo dell'istruzione sia quello di preparare un bambino
al mondo, ma MW crede che l’istruzione sia un aiuto per l’individuo, che attraverso essa può
avvicinarsi alla perfezione, sia spirituale che intellettuale.

É la società che impone alle donne di concentrarsi sulle sensazioni e sui sentimenti. Questo
focus sulle emozioni non fa altro che indebolire la parte razionale delle donne, che
sottostanno a questa situazione semplicemente perché non ne conoscono di altre.
La società inoltre si aspetta una moglie e madre in grado di gestire la propria casa e la
propria famiglia, ma se queste madri non vengono educate, come possono riuscire
nell’impresa? La scrittrice riprende anche la sua opinione sul matrimonio, che secondo lei si
deve basare più sull’amicizia che sull’amore, sulla poligamia e sul cosiddetto "Marriage with
the left-hand" [Matrimonio tra persone di classi sociali diverse], di cui Wollstonecraft ha fatto
esperienza.

Maria; or the wrongs of woman

Il romanzo si apre con la reclusione di Maria Venables in un manicomio, per mano di suo
marito George Venables, che le ha portato via anche sua figlia. Il manicomio ha un valore
simbolico, ed è inteso come la società che tiene d’occhio tutto. La struttura di esso ricorda il
Panopticon, progettato da Bentham, dato che i carcerieri sono in grado di sorvegliare tutti i
detenuti allo stesso tempo. L’autrice vuole rappresentare una società che controlla
l’individuo in qualsiasi momento, un po’ come il grande fratello Orwelliano.

Maria guadagna la fiducia di una guardiana dell'istituto di nome Jemima, la quale, una volta
resasi conto che la donna è sana, decide di aiutarla portandole dei libri da lei richiesti. Alcuni
di questi libri hanno delle note scritte da un altro paziente, Henry Darnford, e Maria finisce
per interessarsi ad esse (e a lui). I due cominciano a comunicare e successivamente
Jemima riesce ad organizzare loro un incontro di persona. Costui racconta alle due donne di
come è stato internato, svegliandosi nel manicomio dopo una notte di bevute e non
riuscendo a convincere i secondini della sua sanità mentale. Maria comincia ad innamorarsi
di lui e i due diventano amanti.

Anche Jemima racconta la storia della sua vita a Maria e Darnford. Spiega come sua madre
sia morta poco dopo il parto e come il padre abbia sposato una donna che la odiava.
Jemima quindi si trova costretta ad essere una serva, prima a casa di suo padre e
successivamente per un padrone che la maltrattava. Quando la moglie del padrone vede il
marito stuprare Jemima, questa fa ricadere la colpa dell’accaduto su di lei, cacciandola di
casa. Jemima nel frattempo rimane incinta del padrone, che non fa nulla per lei, se non darle
un abortivo. La donna quindi per sopravvivere è costretta a prostituirsi e diventa la
governante di un uomo buono, ma quando questo muore, Jemima si ritrova senza casa e
senza soldi. Dopo varie vicissitudini, che vedono anche Jemima in prigione per sei mesi, lei
diventa una guardiana del manicomio dove Maria è internata.

Dopo la storia di Jemima, Maria le chiede di andare a vedere come sta sua figlia. Jemima
ritorna e dice a Maria che sua figlia è morta. La madre è affranta dalla notizia, rifiuta le visite
di Darnford e gli dà le memorie dirette alla figlia.
Nelle memorie Maria racconta la sua vita; Spiega come i suoi genitori preferissero suo
fratello Robert agli altri figli, e di come sia stato lo zio di Maria ad occuparsi di lei. Per fuggire
da questa situazione familiare, Maria visita i vicini, i Venable, diventa amica della figlia, e
successivamente si innamora del figlio, George Venables. Costui sembra, agli occhi ingenui
di Maria, un giovane d’onore e rispettabile, così lo zio della ragazza, affezionato a lei e
inconsapevole del vero carattere di Venable, organizza un matrimonio e dà lei una dote di
£5.000.

Dopo il matrimonio, Maria si accorge da subito del vero carattere del marito, che si rivela un
cattivo marito e una cattiva persona, che sperpera soldi in alcol e prostitute. Nel frattempo
Maria scopre che Robert ha perso molti dei soldi del padre, e gli fa visita con lo zio. Sarà lui
ad aiutarla a sanare la situazione economica della famiglia. Quando Maria torna a casa da
George, dopo la scoperta di un suo figlio illegittimo, lui si mostra pentito del suo tradimento e
supplica Maria di perdonarlo. Maria, impietosita dal marito, dopo un rapporto sessuale con
lui rimane incinta.

Dopo il tentativo da parte di George di offrire ad un suo amico (Mr. S) Maria, in cambio di
denaro che gli serviva per sanare dei debiti, Maria si stufa di lui e tenta di lasciarlo.
Inizialmente si nasconde da lui, ma George la trova sempre. Maria decide così di lasciare
l’inghilterra con sua figlia neonata, e con l’eredità dell’ormai decesso zio. Grazie all’eredità
riesce a sanare i debiti del padre e a dare £500 a suo marito, affinché lasci stare lei e sua
figlia. Maria assume una domestica di madrelingua francese per accompagnarla. Questa
domestica è però in combutta con george, droga Maria e le ruba la bambina. Quando la
donna si riprenderà, si troverà già nel manicomio.

Dopo un’appendice che specifica che il resto del romanzo è prevalentemente incompiuto,
questo continua; Henry Darnford e Maria continuano a vedersi, ma la donna riceve la visita
del marito che, tramite il suo avvocato, chiede la metà dell’eredità dello zio di Maria, che
spettava alla figlia ormai deceduta. Maria però si rifiuta, insinuando che sia stato lui ad
ucciderla per accaparrarsi il denaro.

Quando il sorvegliante del manicomio lascia improvvisamente il manicomio, Maria e Jemima

colgono l’occasione per fuggire. Darnford viene rilasciato solo due giorni dopo, e i 3 si
incontrano a Londra, dove Henry e Maria possono vivere come marito e moglie.

La donna, per scoprire il vero destino della figlia, fa visita alla balia che la teneva, e questa
conferma le parole di Jemima e George, consegnandole un pezzo di vestito della bambina
tessuto dalla madre. Maria fa visita anche all’avvocato di George, proponendogli di pagare i
debiti del marito, a patto che lui lasci stare lei e Henry. George accetta.

Jemima diventa la governante della coppia, che nel frattempo scopre che George ha fatto
causa a Henry per “seduzione e adulterio”. Persino gli amici di Maria cercano di starle alla
larga, vedendola come una poco di buono.

Al processo, Darnford si dichiara colpevole solo di adulterio. Maria, non potendo

testimoniare, scrive una lettera che funge da prova per l’innocenza di Darnford. In questa
lettera la donna descrive le atrocità commesse da George Venables, tra cui il tentativo di
“venderla” al suo amico e quello di tentare di accaparrarsi l’eredità della figlia. Nella lettera,
inoltre, Maria esprime la sua opinione, esigendo un divorzio per allontanarsi dal marito,
rivelatosi inadatto a lei. É una lettera molto potente, ma non riesce comunque a far cambiare
opinione al giudice, che non le concede il divorzio.

Per quanto riguarda la conclusione, Mary Wollstonecraft aveva diverse idee; Ci sono infatti
diversi finali, solo abbozzati, che vanno dal classico happy ending al suicidio di Maria.

● Maria and Darnford having a child

● Maria becoming pregnant and having a miscarriage
● Maria having a miscarriage and committing suicide
● The granting of a separation by the court and Darnford receiving his inheritance
● The granting of a separation by the court and Maria and Darnford moving to the country

L’unico finale completo è presente nel romanzo: Qui Jemima scopre che la figlia di Maria
non è realmente morta, e riesce a consegnargliela proprio prima che la madre si suicidi.
Quando scopre che la figlia è viva, la donna trova finalmente un motivo per vivere.

Emma

Quando inizia a stendere l’opera, Jane Austen scrive: “Sto lavorando a un’eroina che non
piacerà a nessuno se non a me”; Riprendendo un po’ la nota ironia della scrittrice, rivolta
questa volta verso i lettori.
Emma Woodhouse è un personaggio con molti pregi, ma anche molti difetti: È bella,
intelligente, ricca, ma allo stesso tempo viziata e snob. Eppure, malgrado I suoi difetti e i
suoi errori.
Knightley è l’unico a non viziare Emma e ad esprimerle le sue critiche, cosa che li porterà
spesso a litigare, ma che porterà anche Emma ad innamorarsi di lui.
Emma soffre di una inconfessata e inconsapevole insicurezza: Non è mai sicura di se
stessa, pur essendo convinta sempre di essere nel giusto; cerca costanti conferme sul
proprio aspetto e ha bisogno di essere rassicurata dalla vicinanza di un'amica come Harriet.
È soprattutto attraverso le parole di Emma nei confronti della signorina Bates che si nota
questo lato nascosto della protagonista. Questa vecchia zitella logorroica e poco intelligente
attiva nel testo un meccanismo che rivela le motivazioni inconsce del comportamento di
Emma: È l'avversione di Emma nei confronti della signorina Bates a farci capire che
l'anziana signora rappresenta ciò che la protagonista, malgrado la sua volontà di non
sposarsi, teme di diventare. La signorina Bates viene ritratta come una donna ossessionata
dal desiderio di compiacere gli altri, al punto da adattarsi camaleonticamente alle situazioni.
Per alcuni è considerato l'ennesimo esempio di ironia Austeniana, che critica velatamente
un sistema in cui la donna non sposata mendica la simpatia e la comprensione degli altri.

Riassunto: Emma Woodhouse è una giovane donna che vive a Hartfield con suo padre.
Essendo orfana di madre, è stata cresciuta principalmente dalla sua governante, la signorina
Taylor. Quest’ultima si è appena sposata con il signor Weston, causando la tristezza di
Emma e del padre. Nonostante ciò, la giovane si vanta con il suo amico, nonché fratello del
marito di sua sorella Isabella, il signor Knightley, di aver fatto conoscere i due novelli sposi,
avendo così in un certo senso combinato il matrimonio. Come conseguenza di ciò, Emma
dice di voler combinare un altro matrimonio, non appena ne capiterà l’occasione.

Dopo aver conosciuto ad una cena a casa sua Harriet Smith, una dolce ragazza
diciassettenne, decide di presentarla al vicario del villaggio, Mr. Elton. Per fare ciò, però, la
spinge a rifiutare la proposta di matrimonio del signor Martin, un giovane agricoltore,
scrivendo lei stessa la lettera di rifiuto indirizzata al giovane. Questo fa adirare Knightley,
che vedeva in Mr. Martin un buon compagno per Harriet.
Si crea così uno dei tanti misunderstanding presenti all’interno del romanzo: Mr. Elton
(vicario) fa la proposta di matrimonio non ad Harriet, bensì ad Emma, che rimane stupefatta.
Il giovane era interessato a sposare una donna che gli garantisse un’agiatezza economica,
ma una volta rifiutato lascia Hartfield.
Dopo la partenza del vicario, arriva in città Frank Churchill, figliastro del signor Weston
(Marito di Mrs Taylor). Frank ha una relazione segreta con Jane Fairfax, nipote di Miss
Bates, che tiene nascosta perché sa che la sua matrigna non gli permetterebbe mai di
sposarsi con una squattrinata. Alla loro relazione, che non è svelata da subito, ci sono
spesso allusioni e riferimenti nel corso del romanzo (Quando Emma parla di una possibile
relazione tra Jane e Mr. Dixon, e lui reagisce in maniera evasiva).

Mr. Elton ritorna al villaggio portando con sé la moglie, una donna presuntuosa che cerca di
entrare in tutti i modi nella cerchia sociale di Emma, nonostante le due si detestino. La
presenza della moglie di Mr. Elton non fa altro che rattristare ancora di più Harriet.
Nel frattempo Emma e Frank diventano sempre più amici, a tal punto che lei comincia ad
innamorarsi di lui. Emma decide quindi di organizzare un ballo, ma prima che questo abbia
luogo Frank ritorna a casa della matrigna, gravemente malata.
Knightley sviluppa una sorta di antipatia per Frank. Ciò è dovuto al suo attaccamento ad
Emma, di cui Knightley è segretamente innamorato.
Quando torna Frank, questo ballo si tiene. Ad un certo punto della serata, Harriet cerca un
compagno con cui ballare, ma Mr. Elton si rifiuta, lasciando spazio a Knightley. Questo
spingerà Emma ad ammette all’amico quanto si sia sbagliata a voler combinare un
matrimonio tra Harriet e Mr. Elton.
Quando Emma capisce di non essere realmente innamorata di Frank, decide di far sì che lui
e Harriet si fidanzino, credendo che questa ne sia innamorata, dopo che Frank l’ha salvata
da un gruppo di zingari in cerca di denaro.

Durante una gita a Box Hill, Emma fa dei commenti poco simpatici su Miss Bates, e
Knightley la rimprovera, portandola a rendersi conto dei suoi errori, e successivamente a
chiedere scusa alla signora.

A Highbury si diffonde la notizia della morte della matrigna di Frank, la signora Churchill,
seguita da quella del fidanzamento di Jane e Frank, ora approvato dal patrigno di lui (Il
signor Churchill). Emma ne rimane sorpresa, non perché sia sentimentalmente coinvolta da
Frank, ma perché pensa che Harriet ne sia innamorata. Harriet però le confiderà di amare
Knightley. La gelosia apre finalmente gli occhi ad Emma: si rende conto di essere
innamorata di Mr. Knightley e lo vuole per sé.

Poco dopo questi avvenimenti Emma riceve la proposta di matrimonio da parte di Knightley,
il quale pensava che Emma fosse innamorata di Frank. Decide quindi di trasferirsi ad
Hartfield, così da non abbandonare il padre di Emma dopo il matrimonio.

Harriet, invece, allontanatasi da Emma e da Highbury, si riconcilia con Mr. Martin e ne

accetta la proposta di matrimonio. Il romanzo si conclude con i matrimoni di Emma e
Knightley, di Harriet e Martin, e di Jane e Frank.

Frankenstein, o il moderno Prometeo

Pubblicato nel 1818, il romanzo mostra molti elementi del romanticismo, come l’esaltazione
della natura (della scienza), e pone domande su questioni morali, sulla conoscenza, e in che
modo essa soddisfa l’ambizione dell’uomo. Il titolo dell’opera allude all'aspirazione degli
scienziati di poter fare tecnicamente qualsiasi cosa. Mary Shelley riprende così il mito di
Prometeo, che ruba il fuoco dall’Olimpo per salvare l’umanità (tema della ribellione contro il
destino), e che (secondo la versione di Ovidio) plasma gli esseri umani dalla creta

Victor assume la parte del demiurgo [artefice o legislatore dell'universo.]; Se c’è un’analogia
con Faustus è quella che entrambi cercano di superare i limiti dell’uomo, uno con la
negromanzia e l’altro con gli strumenti della scienza, entrambi usati per dimostrare che i
limiti dell’umano possono essere superati.

L’opera viene creata in un periodo di grande fermento scientifico, nel 1856 infatti viene
pubblicata L’origine della specie di darwin.

L’elemento migliore (secondo me) del romanzo, è che esso racconta una storia senza
presentare i cosiddetti buoni e cattivi, permettendo quindi al lettore di immedesimarsi anche
nella creatura, provando un senso di empatia, soprattutto nelle fasi introspettive del
romanzo, come l’incontro tra Victor e la sua creatura, e il monologo finale della creatura,
affianco al corpo esanime del suo creatore.
Riassunto: Frankenstein è un romanzo epistolare: la storia, infatti è narrata attraverso le
lettere che il capitano Robert Walton comincia a scrivere alla sorella per raccontarle la sua
spedizione al polo Nord. Durante questa missione Walton incontra Victor Frankenstein, che
gli racconta la sua storia.

Victor è originario di Ginevra, e spinto da una passione per la filosofia naturale decide di
dedicarsi agli studi di chimica e di filosofia naturale all’università di Ingolstadt. Poco prima di
partire, però, la madre muore di scarlattina, dopo essere stata contagiata da sua nipote
Elizabeth, che viveva con i Frankenstein.
Il giovane, ossessionato dall’idea di dare la vita alla materia inanimata, trascorre diversi mesi
cercando di creare un essere vivente formato con parti del corpo di cadaveri presi dalle
tombe dei cimiteri. Una notte, lo scienziato riesce a portare in vita la creatura, ma quando
questa si presenta ai suoi occhi, Frankenstein fugge terrorizzato. La creatura da subito
appare deforme, nonché dotata di una forza inumana, e fugge, portando con sé il cappotto e
il diario personale del suo creatore. Victor, colpito da una febbre violenta e dilaniato a livello
psicologico, si affida all’amico Henry Clerval, che si prenderà cura di lui. Victor torna a
Ginevra, ma riceve dal padre la notizia che suo fratello William è stato ucciso. Victor da
subito intuisce che la creatura è l’autore del misfatto, ma la colpevolezza ricade su Justine
Moritz, la giovane governante della famiglia, che viene processata e condannata a morte.
Pur sapendo che la ragazza è innocente, Victor non può scagionarla e decide di allontanarsi
verso le montagne. Qui, presso un ghiacciaio, Victor incontra il mostro, che ammette di aver
ucciso William e che gli racconta la sua triste storia (una delle parti migliori del romanzo),
fatta di incomprensione, paura e violenza da parte degli uomini per via del suo repellente
aspetto. In realtà, il mostro si dimostra di spirito gentile, aiutando di nascosto una famiglia
assai povera che viveva vicino a lui. La creatura, stanca della sua infelicità e sempre più
convinta dell’impossibilità di conformarsi alla gente comune, cerca di convincere Victor a
creare un’altra creatura donna, simile a lui, che possa fargli compagnia e con cui ritirarsi
lontano da tutti. Victor Frankenstein decide di ritirarsi in Gran Bretagna per dedicarsi a
questo progetto, e viene seguito di nascosto dal mostro. Lo scienziato, angosciato dalle
possibili conseguenze di un altro mostro capace delle stesse azioni disumane del primo,
decide di disfarsi del corpo, gettandolo in mare. La creatura, ormai adirata e sempre più
lontana da quella sua paradossale umanità, gli giura vendetta, dicendogli che lo rivedrà la
sua prima notte di nozze.
Victor cerca di fuggire in Irlanda in barca, ma il mostro lo segue e uccide l’amico Henry,
facendo ricadere la colpa sul protagonista, che viene incarcerato. Una volta scagionato,
Victor torna in patria col padre e sposa Elizabeth, ma la giovane viene uccisa dal mostro la
notte stessa della cerimonia, come preannunciato; anche il padre di Frankenstein muore per
il dolore.
Victor segue le tracce del mostro fino al Polo Nord, dove incontra il capitano Walton. La
nave del capitano però rimane bloccata nel ghiaccio, e quindi la ciurma decide di ritirarsi e
tornare a sud. Frankenstein, che insiste inutilmente per proseguire la caccia, muore poco
dopo; Walton troverà l’essere chino sul corpo del suo creatore, intento a compiangerne la
morte e rammaricandosi per il dolore causato agli altri. Interrogato dall’uomo sulle proprie
colpe, il mostro di Frankenstein ribatte però che tutto è stato causato dall’odio immotivato
degli uomini verso di lui e il suo aspetto, e spiega che questo ormai ha scaturito in lui il
desiderio di morire, secondo lui l’unica soluzione ai suoi mali.
La creatura fugge dalla nave, dirigendosi a nord, e nessuno la vedrà più.
 Frances Hodgson Burnett - La Figlia di Lowrie (1877)

Il suo primo vero romanzo, che sottolinea gli aspetti di un ambiente culturale a metà tra le
tradizioni dell’Ottocento e la modernità del Novecento.

A Riggan tutti conoscono Dan Lowrie. Minatore manesco e aggressivo. Sua figlia, Joan, è
una donna forte ed indipendente, costretta da sempre a lavorare in miniera con il padre.
Convive con una sua amica di nome Liz, una ragazza madre abbandonata dal compagno.
Un giorno, a Riggan arrivano Paul Grace, nuovo curato, e Derrick, ingegnere a capo delle
miniere. Arriva anche la figlia del reverendo Barholm, Anice, che cercherà di aiutare tutti i
paesani, in particolare Joan.
Dopo essere stato ammonito da Derrick in miniera, Dan Lowrie aggredisce l'ingegnere, che
però riesce a difendersi. Joan dice a Derrick di guardarsi dal padre, tipo rancoroso.
Dopo una lettera anonima ricevuta da Derrick, in cui si afferma che la vita dell’ingegnere è in
pericolo, questo decide di licenziare Lowrie, che abbandona il paese. Questo
allontanamento è solo temporaneo; Lowrie torna a Riggan.
Tornando a casa in piena notte, Jud (un bambino del paese) si imbatte, vicino alla cava, in
Lowrie e altri due uomini suoi amici, che stanno escogitando un piano per aggredire Derrick.
Questi tre si accorgono della presenza del bambino e del cane, e minacciano di ucciderli se
qualcuno fosse venuto a conoscenza del loro complotto. Il ragazzo promette di non dire
niente a nessuno, e scappa. Una volta tornato a casa, Jud confessa tutto a Derrick.
Joan, venuta a conoscenza del ritorno del padre, è preoccupata per l’ingegnere. Corre verso
casa sua, e per strada nota il corpo morente di Dan Lowrie, aggredito dai suoi alleati, che lo
avevano confuso con Derrick.
Una volta a casa, Joan scopre che Liz è scappata con il suo compagno lasciandole la
bambina, che poco dopo si ammala e muore.
Dopo alcune incomprensioni con i suoi superiori riguardo gli impianti di sicurezza della
miniera, Derrick dà le dimissioni.
Prima della sua partenza, in miniera c'è un'esplosione. Molte persone, tra cui Joan, cercano
tra i detriti della cava, trovando il corpo in fin di vita di Derrick.
Quest’ultimo viene assistito da Joan e si riprende. La ragazza però decide di andare a Sud,
via da Riggan, per rifarsi una nuova vita. Raggiunge Ashley-Wold, dove vive la nonna di
Anice. Questa accoglie Joan, offrendole un posto dove vivere e un lavoro dignitoso.
Derrick, ormai guarito, raggiunge Joan ad Ashley-Wold. Lui le confessa il suo amore, che
Joan contraccambia, e le chiede di sposarlo.

I temi sociali all’interno del romanzo sono molteplici: Le precarie condizioni di lavoro di
donne e bambini all’interno delle miniere; la condizione della donna, che in base al contesto
sociale a cui apparteneva aveva o meno possibilità di vivere una vita decente; Il rapporto tra
il proletariato industriale e i padroni; L’analfabetizzazione, che ha privato molte persone di
scoprire opere letterarie, e le ha private fondamentalmente di una vita diversa (Es. Jud che
legge a Craddock Robinson Crusoe).