energies

Article
Diurnal Thermal Behavior of Photovoltaic Panel
with Phase Change Materials under Different
Weather Conditions
Jae-Han Lim 1, * ID
, Yoon-Sun Lee 1 and Yoon-Bok Seong 2
1 ELTEC College of Engineering, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 03760, Korea; cjswo194@naver.com
2 Center for Climatic Environment Real-scale Testing, Korea Conformity Laboratories, Chungbuk 27873,
Korea; ybseong@kcl.re.kr
* Correspondence: limit0@ewha.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-2-3277-6874

Received: 16 October 2017; Accepted: 27 November 2017; Published: 1 December 2017

Abstract: The electric power generation efficiency of photovoltaic (PV) panels depends on the solar
irradiation flux and the operating temperature of the solar cell. To increase the power generation
efficiency of a PV system, this study evaluated the feasibility of phase change materials (PCMs)
to reduce the temperature rise of solar cells operating under the climate in Seoul, Korea. For this
purpose, two PCMs with different phase change characteristics were prepared and the phase change
temperatures and thermal conductivities were compared. The diurnal thermal behavior of PV panels
with PCMs under the Seoul climate was evaluated using a 2-D transient thermal analysis program.
This paper discusses the heat flow characteristics though the PV cell with PCMs and the effects of
the PCM types and macro-packed PCM (MPPCM) methods on the operating temperatures under
different weather conditions. Selection of the PCM type was more important than the MMPCM
methods when PCMs were used to enhance the performance of PV panels and the mean operating
temperature of PV cell and total heat flux from the surface could be reduced by increasing the heat
transfer rate through the honeycomb grid steel container for PCMs. Considering the mean operating
temperature reduction of 4 ◦ C by PCM in this study, an efficiency improvement of approximately 2%
can be estimated under the weather conditions of Seoul.

Keywords: photovoltaic panel; phase change materials (PCMs); specific heat capacity; thermal
conductivity; solar energy

1. Introduction
The electric power generation efficiency of photovoltaic (PV) panels depends on the solar
irradiation flux, and operating temperature of the solar cell. This means that the power output
of PV panels is dependent mostly on direct sunlight. In addition, atmospheric conditions, such as
dust and clouds can affect the power output. Moreover, the power generation output decreases with
increasing operating temperature of the PV panels. For example, silicon-based PV shows an electric
power drop at panel temperatures above 25 ◦ C with a temperature coefficient ranging from −0.3%/K
to −0.65%/K [1]. Therefore, the basic environmental variables and numerical parameters of a PV
system should be examined carefully with a specific mounting geometry or building integration level
to estimate the operating temperatures. For this reason, various mathematical equations have been
developed to describe the operating temperature of different PV types and weather conditions [2].
In general, the solar irradiation cannot be controlled due to various weather conditions. Therefore,
it is important to maintain the low operating temperature of solar cells for the better power generation
efficiency. Several studies have examined passive and active heat removal technologies. To lower
the operating temperature of a solar cell, free cooling on the back side of panel the due to the natural

Energies 2017, 10, 1983; doi:10.3390/en10121983 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2017, 10, 1983 2 of 14

convection can generally be applied. In addition, passive cooling using phase change materials (PCMs)
can also be used for heat absorption or release during the power generation process. Brinkworth
examined the passive cooling performance in a free-standing PV panel with a duct, in which the heat
removal depends on the buoyancy-driven air flow [3]. He suggested how the operating conditions
and the proportions of the duct affect the air flow and heat transfer characteristics graphically.
Yun et al. revealed a complex interrelationship between a ventilated PV façade and the overall energy
performance of a building and suggested that a maximum 5 ◦ C temperature reduction in the monthly
average temperature can be anticipated due to the buoyancy air flow behind the PV façade [4].
Tonui et al. reported the use of a suspended thin flat metallic sheet at the middle, or fins at the back
wall of an air duct as heat transfer augmentations in an air-cooled photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T)
solar collector to improve its overall performance [5,6]. Huang et al. examined the passive cooling
of BIPV with PCMs due to the experiments and simulations. They concluded that the operating
temperature of the PV system could be reduced by more than 30 ◦ C using PCMs with a single flat
aluminum plate, and PCMs could be an effective means of reducing the operating temperature in PV
devices [7–9]. Hasan et al. analyzed the energy efficiency and financial benefits of a PV system with
PCMs [10]. They concluded that a PV system with PCMs were expected to be attractive systems in
hot climates, such as Pakistan, but not in moderate climates, like Ireland. This means that the power
generation efficiency and cost effectiveness can be strongly dependent on the climatic conditions for the
application of PCMs to PV panels. Therefore, when PCMs are applied to a PV system, it is important
to evaluate the annual thermal behavior of a PV panel under different weather conditions. The PCM
based passive cooling technique for PVs could only be an option in future terms if a significant PCM
material price drop were to occur. Furthermore, the future development of passive cooling techniques
could be focused on the research of hybrid cooling options [11]. Recently comprehensive analysis of
pork fat was addressed in Nižetić et al. for passive cooling applications in photovoltaics as a potential
phase change material [12].
Since 2012, the Korean government decided to introduce a renewable portfolio standards (RPS)
program to gradually increase the production of renewable energy by electricity companies [13].
In this respect, electricity companies in Korea have investigated a range of new and renewable energy
resources, such as solar energy. In particular, to meet the government’s target through this RPS
program, PV systems have been propagated as a desirable renewable energy source in urban areas
of Korea.
The main objective of this paper was to examine the feasibility of PCMs to reduce the temperature
rise of solar cells under various weather conditions in Seoul, Korea to increase the power generation
efficiency of a PV system. For this purpose, two different PCMs with different phase change
characteristics were prepared and the phase change temperatures and thermal conductivities were
compared. The diurnal thermal behavior of a PV panel with PCMs under the different weather
conditions of Seoul was evaluated using the 2-D transient thermal analysis program. The heat
flow characteristics of the PV cell with PCMs and effects of the PCM types and the macro-packed
PCM (MPPCM) methods on the operating temperatures under the different weather conditions
were examined.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Thermal Properties of PCMs

The operating temperature of a PV system can be affected by different weather conditions [2,14]
and previous research has shown that the maximum PV temperature in southern Libya is
approximately 125 ◦ C, resulting in a 69% power reduction [15]. In general, the operating temperatures
of a PV module should be below 85 ◦ C to prevent the temperature-induced power failure and PV cell
delamination. In the case of a PV panel integrated with the PCMs, the operating temperature rise
depends on the thermal characteristics of the PCMs because PCMs can absorb excess heat until the PCM
Energies 2017, 10, 1983 3 of 14

has melted completely. On the other hand, as the operating temperature decreases, the solidification of
the PCM can act as an insulation material due to the low thermal conductivity of the PCM. In previous
research, Cellura et al. reported that a PCM with a melting temperature between 28 ◦ C and 32 ◦ C can
Energies
improve the2017, 10, 1983
power generation efficiency by 20% in summer [16]. To reduce the operating temperature 3 of 14

under different weather conditions, the thermal properties, such as phase change temperature and
28 °C and 32 °C can improve the power generation efficiency by 20% in summer [16]. To reduce the
specific heat capacity,
operating temperature are under
very important when conditions,
different weather PCMs are the applied
thermalto properties,
PV modules. such In
as this
phasestudy,
two different PCMs were prepared to compare the thermal behaviors due
change temperature and specific heat capacity, are very important when PCMs are applied to PV to the different phase change
characteristics.
modules. In In thisthis research,
study, fatty acid
two different PCMsester
were (coconut
prepared to oil,compare
referred theto as PCM1)
thermal and due
behaviors petroleum
to
jelly (Vaseline,
the differentreferred to as PCM2)
phase change were obtained
characteristics. from the
In this research, fattyKorea Similac
acid ester Corp.
(coconut oil,of Hanam,
referred to asSouth
KoreaPCM1) and petroleum
and DukSan Corp. of jelly (Vaseline,
Seoul, Southreferred
Korea,torespectively
as PCM2) were andobtained
prepared from the Korea
as PCMs for Similac
a PV panel,
Corp. of Hanam, South Korea and DukSan Corp. of Seoul, South
which possess different phase change temperatures [17,18]. The phase change temperatures and Korea, respectively and prepared
as PCMs
specific for a PV panel,
heat capacities of thewhich
PCMspossess different phase
were analyzed change temperatures
by differential [17,18]. The phase
scanning calorimetry (DSC: TA
change temperatures and specific heat capacities of the PCMs were analyzed by differential scanning
instrument Q 1000). The temperature accuracy and calorimetric precision of DSC equipment were
calorimetry (DSC: TA instrument Q 1000). The temperature accuracy and calorimetric precision of
±0.1 ◦ C and ±1%, respectively. DSC measurements were carried out at a 5 ◦ C/min heating-cooling
DSC equipment were ±0.1 °C and ±1%, respectively. DSC measurements were carried out at a
rate, 5and a temperature range ofand
0–75 ◦ C. The latent heat capacity of the PCMs was calculated by
°C/min heating-cooling rate, a temperature range of 0–75 °C. The latent heat capacity of the
numerical
PCMs integration
was calculated of by
thenumerical
area under the peaks
integration at area
of the the under
state of thethe phase
peaks transitions.
at the state of the The
phase phase
change temperatures
transitions. of PCM1
The phase and temperatures
change PCM2 are around of PCM124 ◦ Cand
andPCM2 44 ◦ C,are
respectively,
around 24 and Figure
°C and 44 1°C,shows
the specific heat capacities.
respectively, and Figure 1The showsthermal conductivities
the specific of the
heat capacities. The PCMs
thermalwere measured through
conductivities of the PCMsthe TCi
were measured through the TCi thermal conductivity analyzer. The
thermal conductivity analyzer. The precision and accuracy of this equipment were better than 1% precision and accuracy of this
and 5%equipment
according were better than
to ASTM 79841% and 5% according
respectively. The thermal to ASTM 7984 respectively.
conductivities of PCM1 The
andthermal
PCM2 are
conductivities of PCM1 and
0.321 W/m·K and 0.18 W/m·K, respectively. PCM2 are 0.321 W/m·K and 0.18 W/m·K, respectively.

Figure
Figure 1. 1.Latent
Latentheat
heat capacities
capacities of
ofprepared
preparedPCMs.
PCMs.

2.2. Thermal Model for PV Panel with PCMs

2.2. Thermal Model for PV Panel with PCMs
The operating temperature of the PV panel can be affected by the physical variables of the PV
The operating
cell materials, temperature
module structureofandtheitsPV panel can be
configuration, affected
outdoor by the
weather physicaland
conditions, variables of the PV
surrounding
cell materials, module
environment. structure
In general, the PVand its configuration,
panel outdoor
is composed of various weather
layers conditions,
depending and surrounding
on the application of
environment. In general,
the PV system. In this the PVapanel
study, is composed
polycrystalline of various
PV module was layers depending onThis
under consideration. theisapplication
made of of
the PV system.silicon
crystalline In thiswhich
study,is athepolycrystalline PV modulematerial
dominant semiconducting was under consideration.
applied Thisfor
to PV technology is made
the of
products
crystalline of solar
silicon cells.isThese
which solar cells semiconducting
the dominant were assembled into PV panels
material to generate
applied electric power
to PV technology for the
from of
products sunlight. PV module
solar cells. These has solarfour
cellsdifferent layers, as shown
were assembled into PVin Figure
panels2:toagenerate
glass covering with
electric power
anti-reflective coating (ARC), PV cells, ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) layer,
from sunlight. PV module has four different layers, as shown in Figure 2: a glass covering with and a metal back sheet
with a polyvinyl fluoride (PVF) layer. Table 1 lists the physical properties of the PV layers. In this
anti-reflective coating (ARC), PV cells, ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) layer, and a metal back sheet with
study, PCM layer was attached to the backside of a PV panel not only by the macro-type container in
a polyvinyl fluoride (PVF) layer. Table 1 lists the physical properties of the PV layers. In this study,
the nylon bag, but also the honeycomb grid steel container to improve the conduction and convection
PCMheatlayer was attached
transfer through the to external
the backside
surface. ofThe
a PV panel of
thickness not
PCMonly by is
layer the macro-type
0.01 m. PCMs werecontainer
assumedin the
nylontobag,
be assembled on the metal back sheet of the PV panel, so that some part of the thermal energy from heat
but also the honeycomb grid steel container to improve the conduction and convection
transfer through
solar the external
irradiation surface.heat
and conduction Thetransfer
thickness of be
could PCM layer is
absorbed by0.01
the m.
PCM.PCMs were
It was assumed
assumed that to be
assembled on the
there was metal
no heat back sheet
transfer in the of the PV panel,
cross-section so that
direction some
of the PCM part of the thermal energy from solar
layer.
Energies 2017, 10, 1983 4 of 14

irradiation and conduction heat transfer could be absorbed by the PCM. It was assumed that there
was no heat
Energies transfer
2017, 10, 1983 in the cross-section direction of the PCM layer. 4 of 14

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2. Thermal model for PV panel with PCMs: (a) schematic diagram of thermal model;
Figure 2. Thermal model for PV panel with PCMs: (a) schematic diagram of thermal model; (b) and
(b) and example of a polycrystalline PV panel; and (c) an example of a PCM and macro-type container
example of a polycrystalline PV panel; and (c) an example of a PCM and macro-type container in the
in the nylon bag.
nylon bag.
Table 1. Physical properties of PV layers and PCMs.
Table 1. Physical properties of PV layers and PCMs.
Conductivity Density Specific Heat
Layer Name Thickness (m)
Layer Name Thickness (m)
(W/m·K)
Conductivity (W/m·K)
(kg/m3
Density (kg/m )
3) Capacity (J/kg·K)
Specific Heat Capacity (J/kg·K)
Glass covering 0.003 1.8 3000 500
Glass covering 0.003 1.8 3000 500
PV cells
PV cells 0.00022 0.00022 148 148 23302330 677677
EVA EVA 0.00050 0.00050 0.35 0.35 960 960 2090
2090
Metal Metal
back sheet
back sheet 0.00001 0.00001 237 237 27002700 900900
PCM1 0.01 0.321 872 Refer to Figure 1
PCM1 0.01 0.321 872 Refer to Figure 1
PCM2 0.01 0.18 850 Refer to Figure 1
PCM2 0.01 0.18 850 Refer to Figure 1

To simulate
To simulate thetheoperating
operatingtemperature
temperature of of the
the PVPVpanel
panelwith
with PCMsPCMs under
under different
different weather
weather
conditions, heatheat
conditions, transfer
transferthrough
throughsolarsolarirradiation, convection
irradiation, convection and
and radiation
radiation should
should be considered
be considered
altogether.
altogether. In addition,
In addition, thetheheat
heatcapacity
capacity of aa PV PV cell
celland
andPCMs
PCMs should
should be be
modelled
modelledfor transient
for transient
conditions. To evaluate the thermal model for a PV panel with PCMs, the
conditions. To evaluate the thermal model for a PV panel with PCMs, the thermal analysis program, thermal analysis program,
BISTRA,
BISTRA, waswas usedused
forfor transientheat
transient heattransfer
transfer with
withaatwo-dimensional
two-dimensional geometry
geometry [19].[19].
In this
Inprogram,
this program,
the dynamic calculation parameters of time step interval and automatic triangulation and view factor
the dynamic calculation parameters of time step interval and automatic triangulation and view factor
calculation module were included. Multiple calculation cycles of linear equations for solving
calculation module were included. Multiple calculation cycles of linear equations for solving non-linear
non-linear properties were applied. All the temperature calculations at time intervals were carried
properties were applied.
out through All the temperature
the Cranck-Nicolson calculations
finite difference method.atIntime intervals
a previous werethe
study, carried out through
heat transfer
the Cranck-Nicolson
model of PCM was finite difference
validated for themethod.
predictionIn of
a previous study, the
the heat storage and heat transfer
dissipation model of PCM
characteristics of was
validated
PCM for the prediction
concrete of the heatinstorage
for the application buildings.andThedissipation characteristics
verification results showed of PCM concrete
that the for the
overall
application
thermalin buildings.
behaviors The the
of both verification
experiment results showed that
and simulation the overall
of PCM concretethermal behaviors
were similar ofthis
[20]. In both the
program,and
experiment thesimulation
outdoor weatherof PCM conditions
concreteare weredescribed
similarwith[20].the external
In this user-defined
program, functions
the outdoor weather
based on the typical weather data given at a fixed time interval. PCMs
conditions are described with the external user-defined functions based on the typical weather have the non-linear thermal data
givenproperties.
at a fixedThetimespecific heatPCMs
interval. capacityhaveof the
thePCMs refer to
non-linear temperature-dependent
thermal functions,
properties. The specific which
heat capacity
are described in the external text file inputs, between which linear interpolation is used. Direct and
of the PCMs refer to temperature-dependent functions, which are described in the external text file
diffuse solar irradiation data were used to consider the solar irradiation from the sun. For the fixed
inputs, between which linear interpolation is used. Direct and diffuse solar irradiation data were used
time interval, the direct solar irradiation and diffuse solar irradiation on a horizontal surface were
to consider
derived the
fromsolar irradiation from
the corresponding the data.
climate sun. The
For solar
the fixed time
position wasinterval, thefrom
calculated directthesolar
time irradiation
of the
and current
diffusetime-step
solar irradiation on a horizontal surface were derived from the corresponding
and the geographical location (latitude, longitude, time zone). To consider the solar climate
data.position
The solar position was calculated from the time of the current time-step
under the different climate seasons, a latitude of 37.6 N and longitude of 127 E in Seoul wereand the geographical
location (latitude, longitude, time zone). To consider the solar position under the different climate
Energies 2017, 10, 1983 5 of 14

seasons, a latitude of 37.6 N and longitude of 127 E in Seoul were assumed. The position of the sun
was described by azimuth angle (horizontal clockwise angle from the south to the sun) and elevation
angleEnergies
(vertical
2017, angle
10, 1983 from the horizon to the sun). 5 of 14
Natural convective heat transfer from the panel surface to the surrounding air was considered
basedassumed.
on ISO The 6946position of the
[21]. The sun was described
convective by azimuth
heat transfer angleat
coefficients (horizontal
the front clockwise angle
and rear of thefrom
PV panel
the south to the sun) and elevation angle (vertical angle from the horizon to the sun).
were determined by the following equations. For each case of the front and rear surface, the parameters
of C2 andNatural
C3 were convective heat transfer from the panel surface to the surrounding air was considered
given different values.
based on ISO 6946 [21]. The convective heat transfer coefficients at the front and rear of the PV panel
were determined by the following equations. For each case of the front and rear surface, the parameters
hc = 2 × C2 × (∆θsa )C3 (1)
of and were given different values.
∆θsa = max
ℎ = (∆|, |θ)s max − θ a |)
(|θ2a×− θs×min (1) (2)

where hc is convective heat transfer ∆ coefficient

= (| from
− surface
|, | − C
to air, |)2 and C3 are parameters based(2) on
heat flow direction, ∆θsa is the greatest difference between air temperature and surface temperature,
where ℎ is convective heat transfer coefficient from surface to air, and are parameters based
θ a is an air temperature, θs min∆is theisminimum
on heat flow direction,
surface temperature in contact with boundary condition,
the greatest difference between air temperature and surface
and θtemperature,
s max is the maximum
is an airsurface temperatureisinthe
temperature, contact
minimum withsurface
boundary condition.
temperature In the RADCON
in contact with

module in BISTRA, each
boundary condition, and grey surface is connected to a black surface node and all
is the maximum surface temperature in contact with boundary black surface nodes
are connected
condition. toIn each other in module
the RADCON a so-called star diagram.
in BISTRA, Radiative
each grey surface isheat transfer
connected to between the real
a black surface surface
node
with and
given all emissivity
black surface nodes
and are connected toblack
the corresponding each other
surface in awas
so-called
given star diagram. Radiative heat
as follows.
transfer between the real surface with given emissivity and the corresponding black surface was
given as follows. ε
Qr = A · ·hrb ·(θsb − θs ) (3)
1−ε
= ∙ ∙ℎ ∙( − ) (3)
where Qr is the radiative heat transfer between 1 − real grey surface and black surface, A is the surface
area,where is the radiative
ε is the surface heat transfer
emissivity, between real
hrb is radiation heat grey surfacecoefficient
transfer and black surface,
of the blackis the surface θ is
surface, sb
area, is the surface emissivity, ℎ
surface temperature of black surface, and θs is the surface temperature of the real surface. Thereiscan be
is radiation heat transfer coefficient of the black surface,
surface temperature of black surface, and is the surface temperature of the real surface. There can
a resultant radiation heat flow from the sky environment to the material surface.
be a resultant radiation heat flow from the sky environment to the material surface.
At the outer surface of the glass covering, an angle-dependent reflection factor, which is defined
At the outer surface of the glass covering, an angle-dependent reflection factor, which is defined
by a by
function referred
a function to to
referred Figure
Figure3,3,waswasconsidered.
considered. For Fornormal
normalincident
incident solar
solar irradiation,
irradiation, the solar
the solar
properties of the
properties outer
of the surface
outer surface ofofthe
theglass
glasscovering
covering are are as
as follows:
follows:ρ0ρ=0 0.08
= 0.08andand 0 = 0.83.
τ0 =τ0.83. Here,Here,
the subscript 0 refers to to
thethe
incident ◦ irradiation normal to the PV panel surface. It was
the subscript 0 refers incidentangle
angle of
of 00°,, irradiation normal to the PV panel surface. It was
assumed
assumedthatthat
thethePVPVpanel
panelfaced
facedthethesouth
south and
and thethe tilt
tiltangle
anglefrom
from thethe horizontal
horizontal surface
surface was fixed
was fixed
◦
to
to 30 . 30°.

Figure
Figure 3. Reflectionfactor
3. Reflection factorof
ofglass
glass material
materialaccording
accordingto to
thethe
incidence angle.
incidence angle.
Energies 2017, 10, 1983 6 of 14
Energies 2017, 10, 1983 6 of 14

2.3.
2.3. Validationofofthe
Validation theThermal
ThermalModel
Modelfor
for PV
PV Panel
Panel with
with PCMs
PCMs
The
The thermalmodel
thermal modelfor forPV
PV panels
panels with
with PCMs
PCMs waswasvalidated
validatedthrough
throughthe experimental
the experimental results.
results.
For this purpose, field experiments were carried out at Seosan, South Korea where a PV system
For this purpose, field experiments were carried out at Seosan, South Korea where a PV system
coupled with PCM1 (coconut oil) was investigated. As shown in Figure 2b,c, polycrystalline PV panel
coupled with PCM1 (coconut oil) was investigated. As shown in Figure 2b,c, polycrystalline PV
was installed to the south and a PCM layer was attached to the backside of the PV panel by the
panel was installed to the south and a PCM layer was attached to the backside of the PV panel by the
macro-type container in the nylon bag. The PV cell temperatures were measured by attaching a
macro-type container in the nylon bag. The PV cell temperatures were measured by attaching a T-type
T-type thermocouple between PCM container and the backside of the PV panel. Outdoor
thermocouple
temperaturesbetween
and solar PCM container
irradiations andautomatically
were the backside measured
of the PV panel.
every fiveOutdoor
minutestemperatures
near the testand
solar irradiations were automatically measured every five minutes near the test
facility from sunrise to sunset. These data were converted into input data in one hour intervals facility from sunrise
for to
sunset. These data were converted into input data in one hour intervals for verification
verification of the thermal model for PV panels with PCMs using the BISTRA program. Based on the of the thermal
model for PVclimate
measured panelsdatawithandPCMs usingthermal
specific the BISTRA program.
property Based on the
data, numerical measured
simulations climate
were data and
conducted
specific thermal property data, numerical simulations were conducted for the case
for the case of PCM1. Figure 4 shows the comparison of simulation results and experimental results, of PCM1. Figure 4
shows
where thethere
comparison of simulation
is good agreement results
between theand experimental
simulation resultsresults, where thereresults.
and experimental is goodBased
agreement
on
between the simulation
the validation results, itresults
can beand experimental
concluded that theresults.
thermalBased
modelon forthe
PVvalidation
panel withresults,
PCMs itofcan
the be
BISTRA program
concluded that the is acceptable
thermal modelto evaluate the thermal
for PV panel with PCMsperformance of PV-PCM
of the BISTRA systems
program and that it to
is acceptable
can provide
evaluate reasonable
the thermal results. of PV-PCM systems and that it can provide reasonable results.
performance

Figure4.4.Comparison
Figure Comparison of
of the
the simulation
simulationresults
resultsand
andexperimental
experimentalresults.
results.

2.4. Weather Conditions and Simulation Methods

2.4. Weather Conditions and Simulation Methods
2.4.1.
2.4.1. Weather
Weather Conditions
Conditions
The climate of Seoul is temperate with four distinct seasons. In summer, it is very hot and humid
The climate of Seoul is temperate with four distinct seasons. In summer, it is very hot and humid
with temperatures soaring as high as 35 ◦°C due to the influence of the North Pacific high-pressure
with temperatures soaring as high as 35 C due to the influence of the North Pacific high-pressure
zones. Most of the precipitation falls in summer between June and September. In winter, Seoul is
zones. Most of the precipitation falls in summer between June and September. In winter, Seoul is
influenced by the Siberian high-pressure zones and temperatures drop to as low as −20 °C. Figure 5
influenced by the Siberian high-pressure zones and temperatures drop to as low as −20 ◦ C. Figure 5
shows the four different weather conditions of Seoul, which are based on the typical weather data
shows
fromthe thefour different
Korea weather conditions
Meteorological of Seoul,
Administration whichThese
(KMA). are based
data on
werethereferenced
typical weather
to thedata from
input
thefunctions
Korea Meteorological Administration (KMA). These data were referenced to the input
of the outdoor temperatures (To), direct solar irradiation (Edir), and diffuse solar irradiation functions
of (E
the outdoor temperatures (To ), direct
dif). In the case of an intermediate seasonsolar
with irradiation
cloudy skies(E dir ),moderate
and and diffuse solar irradiation
temperature, the outdoor (Edif ).
In temperatures
the case of an intermediate season with cloudy skies and moderate temperature,
range from 10 °C to 19.5 °C, and the maximum direct and diffuse solar irradiation the outdoor
temperatures range from230 ◦ C to
10 W/m ◦ C, and2 the maximum direct and diffuse solar irradiation
19.5 65
reaches approximately 2 and W/m . In the case of summer with clear skies and hot
reaches approximately
temperatures, the outdoor W/m2 and 65range
230 temperatures W/m 2 . In the case of summer with clear skies and hot
from 21 °C to 29.5 °C, and the maximum direct and
temperatures, the outdoor
diffuse solar irradiation temperatures
reaches range 650
approximately from 21 2◦and
W/m C to260
29.5W/m◦ C,2and the maximum direct and
. In the case of summer with
cloudy
diffuse skies
solar and hot temperatures,
irradiation the outdoor
reaches approximately W/m2 and 260
650temperatures range W/mfrom2 . In
21 the
°C to 29.5
case of °C, and the
summer with
cloudy skies and hot temperatures, the outdoor temperatures range from 21 C to 29.5 C, and the ◦ ◦
Energies 2017, 10, 1983 7 of 14
Energies 2017, 10, 1983 7 of 14

maximum
maximum direct
directand
anddiffuse
diffusesolar
solarirradiation
irradiationreaches
reachesapproximately W/m2 2and
approximately 520 W/m and200
200W/m
W/m 2 . the
2. In In the
case
case ofof winterwith
winter withcloudy
cloudyskies
skiesand
andcold
cold temperatures,
temperatures, the
the outdoor
outdoortemperatures
temperaturesrange
rangefrom
from −4−°C 4 ◦C
4 ◦4C,
to to °C, andthe
and themaximum
maximumdirect
directand
anddiffuse
diffuse solar
solar irradiation
irradiation reaches
reachesapproximately
approximately230
230W/m
W/m 2 and2 and

100100
W/mW/m. .
2 2

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure5. 5.Four
Figure Fourdifferent
different weather
weather conditions
conditions of
of Seoul:
Seoul: (a)
(a)cloudy
cloudysky
skyand
andmoderate
moderatetemperature
temperature
(intermediate season); (b) clear sky and hot temperature (summer season); (c) cloudy sky and hot
(intermediate season); (b) clear sky and hot temperature (summer season); (c) cloudy sky and hot
temperature (summer season); (d) cloudy sky and cold temperature (winter season).
temperature (summer season); (d) cloudy sky and cold temperature (winter season).

2.4.2. Simulation Methods

2.4.2. Simulation Methods
For the application of PCMs in buildings, leakage of the liquid-state PCM should be prevented.
For thisthe
For application
purpose, manyofstudies
PCMshavein buildings, leakagetoofevaluate
been conducted the liquid-state PCM should
the possibility be prevented.
of a container that
For this purpose, many studies have been conducted to evaluate
can prevent the leakage of liquid-state PCM using the shape-stabilized PCM (SSPCM), the possibility of a container
or
that can prevent thePCM
microencapsulated leakage of liquid-state
(MPCM), or macro-packed PCM PCM using(MPPCM)
the shape-stabilized PCM
[22–25]. In this (SSPCM),
study, the
orMPPCMs
microencapsulated
are applied toPCM (MPCM),
the backside of aorPVmacro-packed
panel not only by PCM (MPPCM) container
the macro-type [22–25]. in Inthe
this study,
nylon
thebag
MPPCMs are applied
[17], but also to the grid
the honeycomb backside of a PV panel
steel container not only
to improve by the macro-type
the conduction container
and convection heat in
thetransfer
nylon through
bag [17],thebut also the
external honeycomb
surface grid steel
[26]. Therefore, container
to evaluate to improve
the thermal the conduction
behavior of a PV paneland
with different
convection PCMs under
heat transfer the the
through different
externalweather
surfaceconditions of Seoul,
[26]. Therefore, totwo MPPCM
evaluate methodsbehavior
the thermal were
ofselected
a PV panelas the
withsimulation
different cases.
PCMsAs listedthe
under indifferent
Table 2, weather
there areconditions
five different simulation
of Seoul, cases
two MPPCM
according
methods wereto the different
selected MMPCM
as the methods
simulation cases.andAsPCM
listedtypes. Case1
in Table is the are
2, there general PV panel simulation
five different without
PCMs,
cases and other
according tocases are PV panels
the different MMPCM with PCMs.
methods In this
andstudy,
PCM the calculation
types. Case1 istime-step was 10
the general PVmin.
panel
without PCMs, and other cases are PV panels with PCMs. In this study, the calculation time-step was
10 min.
Energies 2017, 10, 1983 8 of 14

Table 2. Details for the simulation cases.

Simulation Cases MMPCM Methods PCM Types

Case1 - -
Case2 PCM1 Honeycomb grid steel container Fatty acid ester (Coconut oil)
Case2 PCM2 Honeycomb grid steel container Petroleum jelly (Vaseline)
Case3 PCM1 Nylon bag container Fatty acid ester (Coconut oil)
Case3 PCM2 Nylon bag container Petroleum jelly (Vaseline)

3. Results and Discussion

The thermal behavior of a PV panel with PCMs under the different weather conditions of Seoul
was evaluated using the 2-D transient thermal analysis program, BISTRA. The total heat flux from a
PV cell with PCMs to the surroundings and the effects of the PCM types and the MPPCM methods on
the operating temperatures under different weather conditions are discussed.

3.1. Mean Opeating Temperatures of PV Cells

In this section, to evaluate the thermal behavior of a PV panel with PCMs, the mean operating
temperatures of a PV cell were analyzed under different weather conditions. Figure 6 presents the
results of the operating temperatures of a PV cell under different weather conditions. Due to the
different phase change temperature ranges of which PCM1 and PCM2 were around 10 to 30 ◦ C and
30 ◦ C to 60 ◦ C, respectively, the thermal behavior of the PV cells with PCMs were different. Especially
since the phase change temperature of PCM1 is in the range of 10 ◦ C to 30 ◦ C, the thermal performance
of Case3 PCM1 becomes worse than Case1 when the mean operating temperature of the PV cell
becomes higher than 30 ◦ C. In the morning, the mean operating temperatures increase gradually due
to the solar heat gain and convective heat transfer at the panel surfaces. In the case of an intermediate
season with cloudy skies and moderate temperatures, the mean operating temperatures of a PV
cell with PCM1 and PCM2 decrease in the morning by 1.5 ◦ C and 3.2 ◦ C, respectively, compared to
Case1. On the other hand, the mean operating temperatures of Case1 decrease considerably after
15:00 compared to those of PV cells with PCMs. This is related to the specific heat capacity and low
thermal conductivity of PCMs. Owing to the small specific heat capacity of PCM1 compared to PCM2,
the heat absorption rates of a PV cell with PCM1 can be smaller than the rates of a PV cell with
PCM2. In addition, the heat release rates in Case2 and Case3 are reduced due to the low thermal
conductivity of PCMs. Using a honeycomb grid steel container to increase the thermal conductance,
a slight reduction of the mean operating temperatures is anticipated due to the low convective heat
release to the surroundings.
In the case of summer with clear skies and hot temperatures, the mean operating temperatures of
the PV cell with PCM2 decreased in the morning by 4.0 ◦ C in the Case2 PCM2 and 2.5 ◦ C in the Case3
PCM2 compared to Case1. On the other hand, the mean operating temperatures of a PV cell with
PCM1 decreased before 10:00 a.m. but increased after 10:00 a.m. In addition, in the case of summer
with cloudy skies and hot temperatures, the results were similar to the case of summer with clear
skies and hot temperatures. This means that PCM1 is unsuitable for use in thermal storage due to the
small specific heat capacity in summer. In the case of winter with cloudy skies and cold temperatures,
the mean operating temperatures of the PV cell with PCM2 was 2.0 ◦ C lower until 16:00 compared
to Case1. On the other hand, the mean operating temperatures of the PV cells with PCM1 were
similar to Case1. As shown in Figure 5, the operating temperature drop using a PCM2 with a phase
change temperature of 44 ◦ C was higher than that using a PCM1 with a phase change temperature of
24 ◦ C under the weather conditions of Seoul due to the thermal properties, such as the phase change
temperature, and specific heat capacity, and thermal conductivity. Therefore, the selection of PCM
type was more important than the MMPCM methods when the PCMs are used for the performance
enhancement of a PV panel.
Energies 2017, 10, 1983 9 of 14
Energies 2017, 10, 1983 9 of 14

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 6. Mean operating temperatures of PV cell under the different weather conditions: (a) cloudy
Figure 6. Mean operating temperatures of PV cell under the different weather conditions: (a) cloudy
sky and moderate temperature (intermediate season); (b) clear sky and hot temperature (summer
sky and moderate temperature (intermediate season); (b) clear sky and hot temperature (summer
season); (c) cloudy sky and hot temperature (summer season); and (d) cloudy sky and cold temperature
season); (c) cloudy sky and hot temperature (summer season); and (d) cloudy sky and cold temperature
(winter season).
(winter season).
3.2. Total Heat Flux from the PV Panel to the Surroundings
3.2. Total Heat Flux from the PV Panel to the Surroundings
In this section, the total heat flux from a PV panel to the surroundings was analyzed to estimate
theInheat
this balance
section, ofthea total heat flux
PV panel under from a PV panel
different weatherto the surroundings
conditions. Figurewas analyzedthe
7 compares to estimate
mean
theoperating
heat balance of a PV of
temperatures panel
a PVunder
cell anddifferent weather
total heat conditions.
flux from a PV panel Figure
under7 clear
compares
skies andthe mean
hot
operating
temperatures in summer. In Case1, the total heat flux changed with the solar irradiation and outdoorhot
temperatures of a PV cell and total heat flux from a PV panel under clear skies and
temperatures
temperatureindue summer.
to the In Case1,
small heatthe total heat
capacity flux
of the PV changed
panel. Inwith
thethe solar irradiation
afternoon, there wasand outdoor
a sudden
temperature
change in the due to the
time small
of the totalheat
heatcapacity
flux because of the PVsudden
of the panel. decrease
In the afternoon,
in absorbed there was
solar a sudden
irradiation
due to
change inthe
thereflection
time of thefactor
totalofheat
the glass covering.
flux because ofWhen the sundecrease
the sudden was notin shining,
absorbed the solar
total heat flux
irradiation
from the PV panel showed little change. The maximum heat flux was approximately
due to the reflection factor of the glass covering. When the sun was not shining, the total heat flux from 14.5 W/m when
thethe
PVtotal
panelsolar irradiation
showed was at aThe
little change. maximum
maximum during
heatthefluxday.
wasInapproximately
Case2 PCM1, 14.5 the total
W/mheat fluxthe
when
changed
total slightly until
solar irradiation was 10:00,
at a but this increased
maximum duringabruptly
the day. after 10:00.PCM1,
In Case2 This isthe
because the specific
total heat heat
flux changed
capacity
slightly of 10:00,
until PCM1but wasthis
tooincreased
small. In the afternoon,
abruptly afterthe difference
10:00. This is in the total
because theheat flux was
specific heatsimilar
capacityto of
that of Case1. In Case2 PCM2, the total heat flux from the PV panel was smaller
PCM1 was too small. In the afternoon, the difference in the total heat flux was similar to that of Case1. than that of Case1
due to the thermal effect of PCM2. The maximum total heat flux was approximately 12.1 W/m when
In Case2 PCM2, the total heat flux from the PV panel was smaller than that of Case1 due to the thermal
there was a sudden decrease in the absorbed solar irradiation due to the reflection factor of the glass
effect of PCM2. The maximum total heat flux was approximately 12.1 W/m when there was a sudden
covering. When the sun was not shining in the afternoon, total heat flux from the PV panel decreased
decrease in the absorbed solar irradiation due to the reflection factor of the glass covering. When the
gradually to 3 W/m. In Case3 PCM2, the total heat flux change process was similar to Case2 PCM2.
sun was not shining in the afternoon, total heat flux from the PV panel decreased gradually to 3 W/m.
On the other hand, the maximum total heat flux of approximately 14.4 W/m was somewhat higher
In Case3 PCM2, the total heat flux change process was similar to Case2 PCM2. On the other hand, the
than Case2 PCM2 due to the difference in the heat transfer rate with the MPPCM methods. This
maximum total heat flux of approximately 14.4 W/m was somewhat higher than Case2 PCM2 due to
the difference in the heat transfer rate with the MPPCM methods. This means that the mean operating
Energies 2017, 10, 1983 10 of 14
Energies 2017, 10, 1983 10 of 14

means that the mean operating temperature of the PV cell and total heat flux from the surface can be
temperature of the PV cell and total heat flux from the surface can be reduced by increasing the heat
reduced by increasing the heat transfer rate through the honeycomb grid steel container for PCMs.
transfer rate through the honeycomb grid steel container for PCMs.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 7. Comparison of mean operating temperatures of PV cell and total heat flux from panel to
Figure 7. Comparison of mean operating temperatures of PV cell and total heat flux from panel to
surrounding under the clear sky and hot temperature (summer season): (a) Case1; (b) Case2 PCM1;
surrounding under the clear sky and hot temperature (summer season): (a) Case1; (b) Case2 PCM1;
(c) Case2 PCM2; and (d) Case3 PCM2.
(c) Case2 PCM2; and (d) Case3 PCM2.

Figure 8 compares the mean operating temperatures of a PV cell and the total heat flux from the
PVFigure 8 compares
panel under cloudythe mean
skies andoperating
moderate temperatures
temperatures in of intermediate
a PV cell andseason.
the totalIn heat
Case1,flux
thefrom
totalthe
PVheat
panelfluxunder cloudy
changed withskies andirradiation
the solar moderate temperatures in intermediate
and outdoor temperature due toseason.
the smallIn heat
Case1, the total
capacity
heat fluxPV
of the changed with
panel. In the solar
addition, irradiation
when andnot
the sun was outdoor
shining,temperature dueflux
the total heat to the
fromsmall heat capacity
PV panel showed of
thelittle change.
PV panel. In The maximum
addition, when total
the sunheat
wasflux
notwas approximately
shining, the total heat5.0flux
W/mfromwhen the direct
PV panel showed solar
little
irradiation
change. was a maximum
The maximum during
total heat fluxthe
was day. Although the5.0
approximately specific
W/mheat when capacity
the directof PCM1 was too
solar irradiation
wassmall, the heat storage
a maximum effect
during the of Although
day. PCM1 can the be found
specificbyheat
comparing
capacitytheof total
PCM1 changes
was too in small,
heat flux
the in
heat
Case1 with those in Case2 PCM1. The approximately two hour time delay effect
storage effect of PCM1 can be found by comparing the total changes in heat flux in Case1 with those in was confirmed.
Under
Case2 the intermediate
PCM1. climatic conditions
The approximately two houroftimelow solar
delayirradiation
effect was intensity and moderate
confirmed. Under the temperatures,
intermediate
the mean operating temperature generally decreased in the morning and increased
climatic conditions of low solar irradiation intensity and moderate temperatures, the mean operatingin the afternoon. This
is because the
temperature amount of
generally heat absorbed
decreased in theinmorning
the PCMsand in the morninginisthe
increased released to the atmosphere
afternoon. This is becausein thethe
afternoon. On the other hand, there was no large change in the mean operating temperature using PCM1
amount of heat absorbed in the PCMs in the morning is released to the atmosphere in the afternoon.
because the amount of direct solar irradiation during the day was less than approximately 230 W/m2 and
On the other hand, there was no large change in the mean operating temperature using PCM1 because
the specific heat capacity of PCM1 was low.
the amount of direct solar irradiation during the day was less than approximately 230 W/m2 and the
specific heat capacity of PCM1 was low.
Energies 2017, 10, 1983 11 of 14
Energies 2017,
Energies 10,10,
2017, 1983
1983 1114
11 of of 14

(a) (b)
(a) (b)

(c)
(c) (d)
(d)
Figure
Figure 8. 8. Comparisonofofmean
mean operating temperatures
temperatures of PV cell and total heat flux from panel to to
Figure 8. Comparison
Comparison of meanoperating
operating temperaturesofofPV PVcell
cell and
andtotal heat
total heat flux from
flux frompanel
panel
surroundingunder
surrounding underthethecloudy
cloudy sky
sky and
and moderate
moderate temperature
temperature (intermediate
(intermediate season):
season): (a)(a)
Case1;
Case1;
to surrounding under the cloudy sky and moderate temperature (intermediate season): (a) Case1;
(b)(b)
(b)
Case2
Case2
Case2
PCM1;(c)
PCM1;
PCM1;
(c)Case2
Case2PCM2;
(c) Case2
PCM2;and
and (d)
PCM2; and
(d) Case3
Case3 PCM2.
(d) Case3 PCM2.
PCM2.

Figure
Figure 9 9compares
comparesthe themean
meanoperating
operating temperatures
temperatures of ofthe
thePV
PVcell
celland
andthe
thetotal heat
total flux
heat from
flux from
PVFigure 9 compares
panel under cloudythe mean
skies andoperating temperatures
cold temperatures of theAPV
in winter. cell and the
comparison total heat
of Case1 withflux from
Case2
PV panel under cloudy skies and cold temperatures in winter. A comparison of Case1 with Case2
PVPCM1
panelshowed
under that
cloudy
the skies and was
difference coldnot
temperatures in winter.
significant due A comparison
to the small specific heatofcapacity
Case1 with
of PCM1Case2
PCM1 showed that the difference was not significant due to the small specific heat capacity of PCM1
PCM1 showed
in winter. thatPCM2
Using the difference
for the PVwas not the
panel, significant due
total heat fluxto can
the be
small specific
changed dueheat capacity
to the of PCM1
heat storage
in winter. Using PCM2 for the PV panel, the total heat flux can be changed due to the heat storage
in effect of PCM2,
winter. but thefor
Using PCM2 meantheoperating
PV panel,temperature change
the total heat fluxwascan not large during
be changed duetheto day.
the heat storage
effect of PCM2, but the mean operating temperature change was not large during the day.
effect of PCM2, but the mean operating temperature change was not large during the day.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)

Figure 9. Cont.
Energies 2017,
Energies 10,10,
2017, 1983
1983 1214
12 of of 14

(c) (d)
Figure 9. Comparison of mean operating temperatures of PV cell and total heat flux from panel to
Figure 9. Comparison of mean operating temperatures of PV cell and total heat flux from panel to
surrounding under the cloudy sky and cold temperature (winter season): (a) Case1; (b) Case2 PCM1;
surrounding under the cloudy sky and cold temperature (winter season): (a) Case1; (b) Case2 PCM1;
(c) Case2 PCM2; and (d) Case3 PCM2.
(c) Case2 PCM2; and (d) Case3 PCM2.
3.3. Discussions about the Improvement of Power Generation Efficiency
3.3. Discussions about the Improvement of Power Generation Efficiency
Several studies have expressed the PV cell temperature as a function of the weather variables,
such as thestudies
Several outdoor have expressedand
temperature thethe
PVwind
cell temperature
speed, as well as aasfunction of the weather
solar irradiation intensity variables,
with
such as the outdoor temperature and the wind speed, as well
system-dependent properties. In general, the effect of the PV cell temperature on the poweras solar irradiation intensity with
system-dependent
generation efficiency properties.
of a PV In cell
general,
can betherelated
effect oftothe thePVfillcell temperature
factor on the power
(FF), open-circuit generation
voltage, and
efficiency of a PV
short-circuit cell can
current. As be
therelated to the fill factor
thermally-excited (FF), begin
electrons open-circuit
to dominatevoltage,the and short-circuit
electrical properties current.
of
AsathePV thermally-excited electrons
cell, both the open-circuit begin
voltage to the
and dominate
FF decreasethe electrical
substantially properties of a PV cell,
with temperature, both the
whereas
the short-circuit
open-circuit current
voltage and increases slightly. substantially
the FF decrease The electrical power output of a PVwhereas
with temperature, module can the be derived
short-circuit
from increases
current the standard test conditions
slightly. prepared
The electrical powerby the manufacturer
output of a PV module of the
canmodule.
be derived Many
from correlations
the standard
testhave been reported
conditions prepared forbyPVthepower generated of
manufacturer as the
a function
module.ofMany the cell/module
correlations operating
have been temperature
reported for
and basic environmental variables [27]. Many of them are linear equations,
PV power generated as a function of the cell/module operating temperature and basic environmental whereas others are more
complex, nonlinear multivariable regression equations [28]. In
variables [27]. Many of them are linear equations, whereas others are more complex, nonlinear the case of PCM applications,
however, it isregression
multivariable difficult toequations
predict the[28].
PV cell temperature
In the case of PCM based on existing studies
applications, however, because the heat to
it is difficult
transfer characteristics are different from those of existing products. The PV cell temperature can be
predict the PV cell temperature based on existing studies because the heat transfer characteristics are
predicted by evaluating the dynamic thermal behavior of the PCM, as in this study, and the
different from those of existing products. The PV cell temperature can be predicted by evaluating the
improvement of the power generation efficiency can be evaluated using these results. In a typical PV
dynamic thermal behavior of the PCM, as in this study, and the improvement of the power generation
panel, high operating temperatures induce an efficiency drop at an approximate rate of 0.5%/°C over
efficiency can be evaluated using these results. In a typical PV panel, high operating temperatures
a nominal PV cell operating temperature of 25 °C, as determined by the standard test conditions
induce an efficiency drop at an approximate rate of 0.5%/◦ C over a nominal PV cell operating
(STC) [29]. Considering the mean operating temperature reduction of 4 °C by PCM in this study, an
temperature of 25 ◦ C, as of
efficiency improvement determined
approximately by the
2% standard test conditions
can be estimated. (STC)hand,
On the other [29]. the
Considering
effect of PVthe
mean operating temperature reduction of 4 ◦ C by PCM in this study, an efficiency improvement of
cell temperature reduction by PCM depends on the climatic conditions, such as solar irradiation and
approximately 2% can be
outdoor temperature. estimated.
Therefore, it isOn the othertohand,
necessary designtheandeffect of PVthe
evaluate cellperformance
temperatureconsidering
reduction by
PCM depends on the climatic
the annual climate characteristics. conditions, such as solar irradiation and outdoor temperature. Therefore,
it is necessary to design and evaluate the performance considering the annual climate characteristics.
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
To lower the operating temperature of a solar cell, free cooling on the back side of the PV panel
due tolower
To the operating
the natural convection temperature
can be applied.of a solar cell, free
Nowadays, PVcooling
systemson thePCMs
with back side of the PV
are expected topanel
be
due to the natural
attractive systemsconvection can be
in hot climates. Toapplied.
apply PCMs Nowadays, PV systems
to PV systems, it is with
importantPCMstoare expected
evaluate the to
beannual
attractive systems
thermal in hot
behavior of climates.
a PV panelTo apply
under PCMs weather
different to PV systems,
conditions.it isEspecially
importantinto evaluate
Korea, therethe
are four
annual distinct
thermal seasons,ofsoa the
behavior PV effect
panel of PCMs
under on the power
different weather generation
conditions. efficiency should
Especially be clearly
in Korea, there
evaluated depending on the different climate conditions. This study aimed
are four distinct seasons, so the effect of PCMs on the power generation efficiency should be clearly to examine the feasibility
of phasedepending
evaluated change materials
on the(PCMs)
different to climate
reduce the temperature
conditions. Thisrise studyof aaimed
solar cell under thethe
to examine climate in
feasibility
of Seoul,
phase Korea.
changeFor this purpose,
materials (PCMs) the to
diurnal
reduce thermal behavior of rise
the temperature a PVofpanel with
a solar PCMs
cell was
under evaluated
the climate in
under
Seoul, the different
Korea. For thisweather
purpose, conditions
the diurnal of Seoul
thermal through the 2-D
behavior of atransient
PV panel thermal
with PCMsanalysis was program.
evaluated
under the different weather conditions of Seoul through the 2-D transient thermal analysisand
The heat flow characteristics though the PV cell with PCMs and the effects of the PCM types the
program.
The heat flow characteristics though the PV cell with PCMs and the effects of the PCM types and the
Energies 2017, 10, 1983 13 of 14

macro-packed PCM (MPPCM) methods on the operating temperatures under the different weather
conditions were discussed.
In this study, two different PCMs were prepared by considering a melting temperature range,
and thermal properties (specific heat, thermal conductivity) were measured. The phase change
temperatures of PCM1 and PCM2 were around 24 ◦ C and 44 ◦ C, respectively. Thermal conductivities
of PCM1 and PCM2 were 0.321 W/m·K and 0.18 W/m·K, respectively. To evaluate the thermal model
for a PV panel with PCMs, thermal analysis program, BISTRA, was used for transient heat transfer
with a two-dimensional geometry. Thermal model for PV panel with PCM was validated through the
experimental results. Based on the validation results, it can be concluded that the thermal model for
PV panel with PCMs of BISTRA program is acceptable to evaluate the thermal performance of the
PV-PCM system and it can provide reasonable results.
The total heat flux from a PV cell with PCMs to the surroundings and the effect of the PCM
types and MPPCM methods on the operating temperatures under different weather conditions are
discussed. Considering the mean operating temperature reduction of 4 ◦ C by PCMs in this study,
an efficiency improvement of approximately 2% can be estimated under the weather conditions of
Seoul. The selection of the PCM type was found to be more important than the MMPCM methods
when the PCMs are used for the performance enhancement of a PV panel and the mean operating
temperature of the PV cell and total heat flux from the surface can be reduced by increasing the heat
transfer rate through the honeycomb grid steel container for PCMs. An improvement in the power
generation efficiency of a PV panel can be anticipated by adding PCMs to the backside of PV panels.

Acknowledgments: This research was supported by a grant (15CTAP-C098006-01) from Technology Advancement
Research Program funded by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport of Korean government.
Author Contributions: Jae-Han Lim conceived and designed the simulations, and analyzed the data and wrote
the paper; Yoon-Sun Lee performed the simulations; Yoon-Bok Seong contributed materials and analysis tools.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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