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DETERMINATION OF RADON CONCENTRATION IN WATER USING RAD7 AND

RAD H 2 O ACCESSORIES

Conference Paper · November 2014

DOI: 10.1063/1.4915231

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 DETERMINATION OF RADON CONCENTRATION IN
WATER USING RAD7 AND RAD H2O ACCESSORIES
M.F.I. Abdul Malika,*, N.A. Rabaieeb, and M.S. Jaafarb
a
Science and Engineering Research Centre (SERC), Universiti Sains Malaysia, Seri Ampangan Nibong Tebal
14300 Penang, Malaysia
b
School of Physics, Universiti Sains Malaysia,
11800 Penang, Malaysia

Abstract. In the last decade, the radon issue has become one of the major problems of radiation protection. Radon exposure
occurs when using water for showering, washing dishes, cooking and drinking water. RAD7 and Rad H20 accessories were used
in order to measure radon concentration in water sample. In this study, four types of water were concerns which are reverse
osmosis (drinking water), mineral water, tap water and well water. Reverse osmosis (drinking water) and mineral water were
bought from the nearest supermarket while tap water and well water were taken from selected areas of Pulau Pinang and Kedah.
Total 20 samples were taken with 5 samples for each type of water. The measured radon concentration ranged from 2.9±2.9 to
79.5±17 pCi/L, 2.9±2.9 to 67.8±16 pCi/L, 15.97±7 to 144.25±24 pCi/L and 374.89±37 to 6409.03±130 pCi/L in reverse osmosis
(drinking water), mineral water, tap water and well water. Well water has the highest radon compared to others. It was due to
their geological element such as granite. Results for all types of water are presented and compared with maximum contamination
limit (MCL) recommended by United State Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) which is 300pCi/L. Reverse osmosis
water, mineral water and tap water were fall below MCL. However, well water was exceeded maximum level that was
recommended. Thus, these findings were suggested that an action should be taken to reduce radon concentration level in well
water as well as reduce a health risk towards the public.

Keywords: Radon, Water, Radiation, Environment.

PACS: 23.60. +e

Introduction that released to air from water [8]. It has been

There are three naturally occurring isotopes of radon;
Radon-222, Radon-219 and Radon-220 [1]. In this
study, term radon refers specifically to Radon-222,
which is a decay product of U-238 and the half life of
3.824 days and emitting alpha (∝) particle. It is also
soluble in water and organic solvents , the only gas
that has radioactive isotopes under normal condition,
occurs naturally, whose density is 7.5 times higher
than air and responsible for a large percentage of
natural radiation exposure; considered a health
hazard due to its radioactivity reported as major
causes of lung cancer [2,3,4]. It also caused cancer
death by drinking the water [5]. By the late of 1970s,
a program to reduce public exposure to waterborne
radon was initiated because they discovered that
cases in which groundwater concentration was
exceeded 1 million pCi/L [6]. Over exposure to the
radon gas and consequent decay product may lead to
lung cancer [7].
In 2004, WHO recommended the Reference
Dose Level (RDL) of the committed effective dose
equal to 0.1 mSv from 1 year consumption of
drinking water. However, the risk is smaller for radon
determined that inhalation of radon dissolved in and
released from water for human consumption accounts
for 89 % of radon related cancers (USNRC) [9]. The
ground and surface waters generally have different
radon concentration because radon in groundwater
has its origin in the radioactive decay of radium and
reflect not only in chemical form but also in
structural properties of rock in the aquifer [10,11].
Several different methods of measuring
radon in water have been developed and used such as
gamma spectrometry and liquid scintillation counting
(LSC) techniques which is method based on solid
state nuclear track detector and charcoal canister
(SSNTD). Tayyeb in his study said SSNTD
technique is simple and cheap as compared to the
other methods [12]. However, this method lacks of
sensitivity to detect radon at the lower levels as it is
now considered important [6]. In comparison with
other detector, RAD H20 offers a method as accurate
as LSC that was recommended by EPA with
additional advantages. RAD H20 is faster to the first
reading, portable, less labour intensive and less
expensive.
Material and method
Four types of domestic water were taken
into account which is drinking water, mineral water,
tap water and well water. This sample was chosen
because there is the common domestic water used for
drinking in Malaysia. Mineral water and drinking
water with different branding were bought from the
nearest supermarket. Tap water’s samples were taken
from different area around Penang and Kedah,
Malaysia. The sample is taken from Sungai Dua,
Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Bukit Gambir,
Baling and Kampung Mengkuang. Another five
samples of well water was collected from Masjid
Batu Uban, Bukit Mertajam, Kampung Charok
Kapas, Kampung Bukit Hitam (1) and Kampung
Bukit Hitam (2). Total 20 samples of water from four
types of common drinking water was concerned in
this studied. 250 ml of water sample was used in each
study. A larger sample size was chosen because it
will improve sensitivity and precision at low radon
concentrations.
The water samples should not contacting
with air during collecting the sample and also not
been through a charcoal filter or been sitting for days
in a hot water tank. For collecting tap water, water
was allowed to flow about 10 minutes to ensure an
accurate radon content of water can be collected from
the underground water supplies. Then, the bottles
were closed rapidly and tight to avoid radon leakage.
The samples that had taken were analysed in the
Medical Physics Laboratory, School of Physics,
Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Penang, Malaysia.
Decay correction was applied to give a more accurate
calculation of radon if the sample was analysed more
than three hours after sampling. This is due to the fact
that sampling and measurement of radon present
complications due to its volatility and relatively short
half-life.
The RAD7 (manufactures by Durridge
Company) with Rad H20 accessory was used to
measure radon in water over the concentration range
from of less than 10pCi/L to greater than 400 000
pCi/L. The Rad H20 requires the desiccant be used at
all times to dry the air stream before it enters the
RAD7. The good desiccant is in blue colour. If the
desiccant was changed to pink colour, it needs to heat
in the oven for 2 hours with 2000C – 2250C before
proceeding to the next measurement. For water
sample analysis, the small drying tubes is necessary
to avoid using the large drying tube as its much larger
volume would cause improper dilution of the radon.
Humidity reading for RAD7 has to remain below
10% and must be free of radon and dry before start
the measurement. It is convenient to use the larger
laboratory drying unit during the initial purging
process to save the small drying tubes for the actual
measurement in water. They are a source of radon-
free (or relatively radon free) air or inert gas to purge
the system.
RAD7 calculates the sample water
concentration by multiplying the air loop
concentration by a fixed conversion coefficient that
depends on the sample size. This conversion
coefficient was derived from the volume of the air
loop, the volume of the sample and the equilibrium
radon distribution coefficient at room temperature.
Conversion coefficient is 25 for 40mL sample
volume and 4 for 250mL sample volume. There is no
correction for the temperature of the water sample.
Theoretically, the correction would slightly improve
the analytical accuracy for the larger sample volume
(25mL), but it would make little or no difference in
the smaller sample volume. The results of the sample
were corrected from the time of the sample was
drawn to the time it was counted. Decay correction
can be used for samples counted up to 10 days after
sampling, though analytical precision will decline as
the sample gets weaker and weaker.
 
 () =  (/132.4hours)
Where; T is the decay time in hours.
Based on decay correction factor’s table, decay
times of less than 3 hours require very small
correction. The decay factor can be neglected for the
samples counted quickly. Thus, the actual radon
concentration for each sample was calculated as
below:
 R
  r =    
The background of RAD7 is low enough and can
be ignored it. So, there is no need to have this
background measured. Numerous experiments were
available to measure the background. The results
were negligible, especially, after the device has been
purged from radon for 15 minutes. The intrinsic
background of RAD7 is less than 1 count per hour.
Corresponding to 40ml water sample concentration
of less than 740Bq/m3 (even lower for the 250ml
sample), the background was less than 1Bq/m3 after
the air has been subtracted by loop and desiccant.
The background was ignored during the measurement
of radon in water. Nonetheless, the RAD7 was
purged for 30 minutes to remove the old radon from
the machine and purged again for 15 minutes
between the measurement and the remains.
Result and discussion.
TABLE 1 Radon concentration in pCi/L for different Table 1 represents five different brands of
sample of drinking water (reverse osmosis) drinking water (reverse osmosis) and their radon
Temperature Radon concentration that was measured using RAD7. This
Sample Source (0C) RH concentration
(pCi/L) brand was named by A, B, C, D and E. There are
A Bukit 28.15 4.50 5.81 ± 4.41 three different sources of this water before its bottle.
Jelutong, Shah Sample A and B taken from Bukit Jelutong Shah
Alam Alam. While, sample C and D taken from Taman
B Bukit 27.85 12.75 30.00 ± 11.00
Jelutong, Shah Perindustrian Shah Alam and sample E from Jalan
Alam Air Kuning Taiping. Temperature during
C Taman 27.10 10.25 2.90 ± 2.90 measurement of drinking water’s sample between
Perindustrian, 240C to 280C and relative humidity is from 4 to 12.
Shah Alam
D Taman 27.10 12.25 4.83 ± 3.90 As can be seen from table 1, brand E has the highest
Perindustrian, radon concentration with 79.5 ± 17 pCi/L. Brand B
Shah Alam has the second highest concentration, 30 ± 11 pCi/L
E Jalan Air 24.30 13.25 79.50 ± 17.00 followed by 5.81 ± 4.41 for brand A. The lowest
Kuning,
Taiping radon concentration in drinking water is brand C and
D, where 2.9 ± 2.9 and 4.83 ± 3.9 pCi/L for each of
them.
TABLE 2 Radon concentration in pCi/L for different Table 2 summarizes the radon concentration
sample of mineral water for different samples of mineral water. Temperature
Sample Source Temperature RH Radon
(0C) Concentration
during measurement is 240C to 280C and relative
(pCi/L) humidity is between 7 to 13. Each sample had
F Mukim Sabai, 28.23 9.50 3.84 ± 3.40 different source and temperature between 24 0C-280C.
Pahang There are four different sources of this mineral water.
G Mukim Ulu 28.30 9.25 2.90 ± 2.90 Sample F was taken from Mukim Sabai Pahang and
Sg Johor
H Jalan Air 27.40 13.00 15.45 ± 7.00 sample G from Mukim Ulu Sungai Johor. Jalan Air
Kuning, Kuning Perak is the source for sample H and I. The
Taiping last sample is sample J that was taken from Mukim
I Jalan Air 24.83 7.50 67.8 ± 16.00 Batang Kali, Hulu Selangor. Sample I have the
Kuning,
Taiping highest radon concentration with 67.8 ± 16 pCi/L.
J Mukim 25.28 10.00 58.15 ± 15.00 Next is sample J with 58.15 ± 15 pCi/L and 15.45 ± 7
Batang Kali, pCi/L of radon concentration of sample H. It was
Hulu Selangor then followed by sample F 3.84 ± 3.4 pCi/L and the
lowest radon concentration is brand G 2.90 ± 2.9
pCi/L
TABLE 3 Radon concentration of tap water from different Table 3 presented radon concentration for
places sample of tap water from different places. The
Sample Temperature RH Radon Concentration temperature during the measurement of radon
(oC) (pCi/L)
concentration of the tap water’s sample is between
Sungai dua 26.1 12.00 43.63 ± 13.00 24.60C and 310C. Relative humidity between 4 to 12.
USM 27.10 7.50 109 ± 20.00
Bukit 24.60 4.25 144.25 ± 24.00 Bukit Gambir have the highest radon concentration
Gambir with 144.25 ± 24 pCi/L. Followed by USM with 109
Baling 31.30 5.00 33.13 ± 9.00 ± 20 pCi/L and Sungai Dua 43.63 ± 13 pCi/L. Baling,
Kampong 31.00 6.75 15.97 ± 7.00 Kedah has only 33.13 ± 9 pCi/L of water
Mengkuang
concentration and the lowest radon concentration is
TABLE 4 Radon concentration of well water from from Kampung Mengkuang with 15.97 ± 7 pCi/L.
different places Table 4 provides the radon concentration in
Sample Temperature RH Radon the well water’s sample. The temperature during
(0C) concentration measurement between 260C to 300C while relative
(pCi/L) humidity between 4 to 12. So, Kampung Bukit Hitam
Masjid BatuUban 26.10 12.00 4692.5 ± 150.00
Bukit Mertajam 26.80 9.00 374.89 ± 37.00 (1) have the highest concentration with 6409.03 ±
Kampung Charok Kapas 31.00 7.50 2780.58 ± 130.00 130 pCi/L. Masjid Batu Uban have 4692.5 ± 150
Kmpg Bukit Hitam (1) 30.78 4.50 6409.03 ± 130.00 pCi/L.
Kmpg Bukit Hitam (2) 30.70 5.00 4110.46 ± 110.00
Next is Kampung Bukit Hitam (2) with 4110.46 ±
110 pCi/L and Kampung Charok Kapas 2780.58 ±
130 pCi/L. The lowest radon concentration in the
well water’s sample is Bukit Mertajam with only
374.89 ± 37 pCi/L.
In Malaysia, there is no regulation about radon in
water. But, other radionuclide like Ra-226 and Sr-90
together with gross alpha and gross beta in water
were included in the Malaysia Water Quality
Standard [13]. Some believe that radon in drinking
water may affect the sensitive cells in the stomach as
well as other organs once they observed into the
bloodstream [14]. Currently, the radon concentration
in drinking water is not regulated but USEPA has
proposed a MCL for drinking water is 300pCi/L or
11.1Bq/L.
Result of this study indicates that most of water is
safe to use for various purpose because most of
sample presented the values of radon concentration
below MCL. Only well water exceeded the maximum
level that was recommended by USEPA. Five
different brands of reverse osmosis water was
measured and obtained at table 1. The results of this
study show that Brand E has the highest radon
concentration compared to others. Meanwhile, brand
I shown the highest radon concentration for mineral
water as presented on table 2. These results may be
explained by different source of water for reverse
osmosis and mineral water. Each source has different
geological element and compound. This findings
support the idea of [2] that radon concentration
varying from region to another depended on variation
of the structure of the source of drinking water.
The possible reason of reduction radon
concentration for other brands might due to radon
decay process during the water treatment procedure
including the procedures of mixing,
flocculation/coagulation, sedimentation and filtration
process before it bottled [8]. Thus, a longer time
consuming from the time it was collected and
supplied to public may reduce radon concentration in
this water. Thus, it is possible reason for high radon
concentration for brand E and I because they might
be having a short time between the dates of bottled
and measurement compared to other brand. Even
though this two is the highest, there are still low
compared to MCL that was recommended by
USEPA.
Based on table 2, the tap water at Bukit Gambir is
the highest compared to USM, Sungai Dua, Baling
and Kampung Mengkuang. These entire samples are
below MCL recommended by USEPA. It seems
possible because most of tap water comes from a
surface water source such as river, lake or reservoir.
It is due to no underground water contribution to this
surface water [5]. Plus, radon concentration on
surface water was decrease very fast because of
escape radon from water into atmosphere before
reaching water supplier or home. Thus, tap water is
safe to use for domestic purpose.
In the current study of well water, all the samples
were exceeded of MCL recommended by USEPA
and not safe for domestic purpose. The reason of this
is not clear but it may relate with source of well water
that gets their water from underground. Radon is the
decay product of Ra-226. Trace amount of uranium
and radium are present in rocks and soil. [15] in their
study said the radon gas can move freely through the
pores of soil and rocks. When these pores are filled
with water, radon is dissolved into the water and
transported with it. Therefore, radon concentration is
usually high in ground water compared to surface
water as supported by [16].
The land of Kampung Bukit Hitam (1) that was
placed at Baling is built of varies geological elements
such as granite and limestone. A strong relationship
between radon concentration and granite has been
reported in literature [10]. Thus, high radon
concentration in Baling might be due to more granite
that was containing in this land. Bukit Mertajam’s
well was found to have lowest radon concentration. It
reduce more than half compared to the Kampung
Bukit Hitam (1)’s well water which is the highest
radon concentration for well water. This
inconsistency may be due to Bukit Mertajam’s well is
a deep well and the rest is shallow well. [9] made a
study and found the radon level in shallow wells is
relatively higher compared with deep well. In the
shallow well, a stream of carbon dioxide moving
upwards and draws radon from the pores. These
gases migrating together are dissolved in the shallow
groundwater thus increasing its radon concentration.
As the literature indicated, radon concentration in
sample can also be affected due to time of sampling,
sampling technique, humidity and temperature during
measurement [4,5].
Humidity during measurement is another factor
that contributes to radon concentration. This was
supported by [8] that humidity is the greatest impact.
Humidity suppose below 10% for entire 30 minutes
of measurement. However, during measurement, the
humidity increases exceed than 10% in most of
measurement. High humidity reduces the efficiency
of collection of Po-218 atoms. So, less reading can be
obtained by the detector. RAD7 detector has unusual
ability to tell difference between new radon daughter
and old radon daughter left from previous test as
shown in table 3. The inconsistency of background
also may affect the result. This is known as
background radiation. The higher radon
concentration and longer the previous sample is held
in the cell, more daughter activity is leaves behind.
 In order to remove the background, detector is
purge and the background activity that left in the
detector is flush from the chamber.
Conclusion
This paper was to measure concentration of radon
in water. Environmental pollution has been a great
threat to humanity since the beginning of life on
earth. So it is natural for the public to be sensitive
and active against all the pollutants causing threats to
our lives. USEPA recommended that the radon
concentration in drinking water should not exceed
300pCi/L. In this study, three types of sample which
are reverse osmosis water, mineral water and tap
water have a level concentration of radon below
MCL that was recommended by USEPA. However,
the well water’s sample has exceeded the
recommended level. It is likely that well water is
significantly higher risk of radon concentration as
estimated by USEPA. These present study suggests
that concentration of radon for every water source
should be measure before distribute to public. As a
conclusion, radon concentration in reverse osmosis
water, mineral water and tap water is low and safe to
drink.
Acknowledgments
This work is supported by the research university
grant (308/AIFIZIK/415403) from Universiti Sains
Malaysia. And also we would like to acknowledge
Nabil Saleh Hadi Al-Aawr and Nisar Ahmad for
willing to assist in getting this project on the right
track and useful discussions.
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