Module 1 – Quarter 1 — POLITICS, GOVERNMENT, GOVERNANCE

POLITICS AND POLITICAL SCIENCE

Aristotle, the Father of Political Science, once said, “Man is by nature a political animal”. The tendency
and interest of people toward anything political because individuals are naturally social. unlike other
species, humans rely on social interactions to survive. individuals are not self-sufficing, so they find the
need to group together as a community. Politics is one out of the social interaction.

The word politics was formulated by the Greeks during the 4th and 5th century. It come from the word
“polis” which means city state. It deals with power in society in general. It is said to be the art and
science of government. Politics was inseparable from life in the polis or a place or state shared by a
certain group of people.

According to Plato and Aristotle, there are central concepts in Politics

1. Concept of Justice — what and who is morally and politically right
2. Concept of Power — source of authority
3. Concept on the right types of constitutions and governments — different types of governments
and states
4. Concept on Political structures — different ideologies in a state
5. Concept on the right and virtuous leaderships — who should lead in a certain political system

Heywood (2013) defined Politics as an activity that involver the interaction of people, whose
relationship is characterized by conflict and cooperation, and who come together to solve such
disagreement through binding solutions. However, politics is no Utopian solution. These are disparities
that remains as such.

Political Science is a social science discipline that studies the state and the government. It is a
systematized body of knowledge based on facts which deals with experimentation and observations.

based on the given definition, there are four elements to become a science.
1. body of knowledge
2. based on facts
3. Deals with experiments
4. Observation

Major Schools of Thought in Political Science Heywood (2013)

 Philosophical Tradition — (otherwise known as political philosophy) is regarded as the
traditional approach to politics. The Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle are usually
associated with this tradition as they ask what “should” or “ought” instead of what “is”. This
tradition underscored the analytical study of doctrines that have become the major focus of
political thought.
 Empirical Tradition — political scientist who advocate this approach believe that any account of
political reality must be impartial and should thus be tested through observation. Those who
work on this tradition therefore seek to analyze and explain, and not to offer recommendations,
as in the philosophical tradition.
  Scientific Tradition — this tradition promotes objective and quantifiable ways of studying
politics. The scientific tradition was further pushed with the rise of behavioralism, or the belief
that social theories should arise from observation and quantifiable data.

State
— is a community of person more or less numerous, permanently occupying a portion of territory,
independent from external control and possessing a government which the great body of
inhabitants render habitual obedience.

FIVE (5) ELEMENTS OF THE STATE

(A) People — is one of the basic elements of the state. A state can have millions and even billions of
people regardless of gender. The Vatican city is the smallest city in the world and has the least
number of people while China is considered as the biggest city and has the biggest number of
population in the world.
(B) Territory— Is the scope of land, sea, and air areas or boundaries where the population of the
state resides.
A territory Is divided into three domains:
— Terrestrial (Land)
— Maritime and Fluvial (water)
— Aerial Domain

(C) Government — is the machinery of the people where their hopes and aspirations are expressed,
formulated, and realized. The government is the basic agency of the State to carry its
obligations.
(D) Sovereignty — is the supreme power to command and enforce obedience (Aruego, principles of
political science)
(E) Recognition — is the process where the state is granted international status. It can be implied or
expressed.

Government and Governance

Government — Is defined as group of people with the authority to govern a country or state, a
particular ministry in office (Oxford Dictionary). is the instrument of the state through which the will of
the people is expressed, carried out, and formulated. Thus, The government serves as the bridge that
connects the people to the state.

Governance — is defined as the process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are
implemented. At present, the terms government and governance I also used with confusion to a large
extent. As an institution, it is the government which concretizes the policies and addresses the problems
of the state. Good governance spring up when the government involves the people in its agenda and in
the process of policymaking. The extent, therefore, to which democratic participation is encourage
determines whether governance exists

Characteristics of Good Governance

— Participation
— Rule of Law
— Transparency
— Responsiveness
 — Consensus
— Oriented
— Effectiveness and efficiency
— Accountability
3 types of Government by level:
1. Executive
2. Legislative
3. Judiciary

Module 2 – Quarter 1 — POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES

An ideology is more or less a coherent set of ideas that direct or organize a specific political action. It
consist of belief and value systems, a discussion of existing power relationships, an exploration of how
political change is achieved in line with these power relations and an illustration of a desired future
(Heywood 2013).

1. ANARCHISM
— Political authority in all its form, and especially in the form of the state, is both evil and
unnecessary (anarchy literally means ‘without rule’).
— The sovereign, compulsory, and coercive authority of the state is seen as a nothing less than
legalized oppression operating in the interests of the powerful, propertied, and privileged.
— Anarchist prefers a stateless society. Individuals can best manage their own affairs through
voluntary agreement and cooperation.
2. CONSERVATISM
— Tradition must be conserve. These traditions include established customs, institutions, and
ways of doing things that have endured through time.
— The belief in pragmatism highlights the limits of human reason. As a belief, pragmatism
emphasizes that the action should be shaped by practical circumstances and goals.
— Human imperfection presents the pessimistic view of conservatives on the individual.
Accordingly, individuals are morally corrupt and are therefore the sources of crime and
disorder. Order could thus be achieved through a strong state.
— Conservatives believe that society is an organic whole and is a living entity, more than being an
artifact of human ingenuity. This belief is known as organicism.
— Conservatives also believe that social position and status are only natural. With this, hierarchy is
thought to be inevitable.
— Authority must be exercised from above. Leadership is provided to guide and support those
who lack knowledge and education and those who have little capacity to act for their own
interest.
— Conservatives look at property as significant because it is the individual’s source of security and
independence from the government.
3. FACISM
— Ultranationalist ideology. As such, it subscribes to the idea of a supreme race, whose members
should enjoy the natural resources. It is by nature exclusive as it excludes nonmembers of the
race.
— Manifested during Mussolini’s facist dictatorship in Italy and Hitler’s dictatorship in Germany.
— Common values upheld are struggle, leadership, power, heroism, and war.
 — The “new man” or a hero who is motivated by duty, honor, and self-sacrifice;
— and gives unrelenting obedience to the supreme leader is a fascist ideal.
— Fascists believe in a unified national community of strength through unity. As such, individual
identity is not as important as that of the social group or
— community.

4. FEMINISM
— A diverse but its unifying theme is the desire to enhance the social role of women.
— Society is characterized by sexual or gender equality.
— The structure of male power must be overturned, hence the belief in gender
— equality.
— Its strands include liberal feminism, socialist feminism and radical
— feminism.
5. LIBERALISM
— Belief in individualism underscores the importance of the human individual compared to any
other group.
— Liberty of the individual must be protected. An individual has freedom when he or she is able to
act as he or she pleases.
— Reason can lead individuals to make wise judgments, which could solve issues or differences.
— Equality implies that individuals are born equal, at least in moral terms. Equal rights and
entitlements are at its core. It must be noted , however, that liberals do not endorse social
equality or equality of outcome,
— Tolerance is willingness of individuals to allow others to think and behave in ways they do not
approve. It is a guarantee of individual liberty.
— Authority and social relationships must also be based on agreement and consent.
6. SOCIALISM
— Belief in the community highlights the degree to which the individual is connected with others.
Identify is therefore a product of social interaction more than innate qualities.
— Brotherhood or fraternity speaks of a shared common humanity Socialist thus prefer
cooperation rather than competition and collectivity rather than individualism.

Module 3 – Quarter 1 — POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES ACCORDING TO HEYWOOD (2013)

Ideology may be defined as ‘a political belief system’ (Heywood). As a phenomenon, it is the mainspring
of an individual’s way of looking at politics and political life. Just like any other belief, an ideology is like a
lens through which we see the world, and our perception affects the way we behave.

The term ideology originates from French ideologie, itself deriving from idea and logos, “study of”. The
term word, and the system of ideas associated with it was coined in 796 by Antoine Destutt de tracy
while in prison pending trial during the reign of terror, where he read the works of John Locke and
Etienne Bonnot de Condillac. Hoping to form a secure foundation for moral and political sciences, Tracy
devised the term for a “science of ideas,” basing such upon two things: 1. The sensations that people
experience as they interact with the material world; and 2. The ideas that form in their minds due to
those sensations.
The following are several definitions of political ideology according to Heywood (2013).
 An action-oriented set of political ideas
 The ideas of ruling class
 The world-view of a particular social class or group
 Political ideas that embody or articulate class or social interests
 Ideas that propagate false consciousness amongst the exploited or oppressed
 Ideas that situated the individual within a social context and generate a
sense of collective belonging
 An officially sanctioned set of Ideas used to legitimize o political system or
regime
 An all- embracing political doctrine that claims a monopoly of truth
 An abstract and highly systematic set of political ideas

MAJOR POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES AND THEIR KEY TENETS (Heywood 2013)

1. MARXISM
 Historical materialism or the materialist conception of history provides that the economy (mode
of production) conditions all other aspects of social life- including law, government, politics and
education.
 The dialect, a process of interaction between competing forces, drives change and leads to a
higher stage of development. Historical change is therefore a consequence of contradictions in
the mode of production, as reflected in class conflict.
 The exploitation of the proletariat (workers) by the capitalists would develop class
consciousness among the former, hence ushering a proletarian revolution which will facilitate
the creation of a communist society.
 A communist society - one that is classless and stateless- will arise when class antagonisms fade
2. SOCIAL DEMOCRACY
 Social democrats stand for a balance between the market and the state, and between the
individual and the community
 This ideology promotes compromise between the acceptance of capitalism and the distribution
of wealth according to moral, rather than market principles.
 Social democratic thought is concerned with the weak, the vulnerable, and the underdog.
 Compassion, common humanity, freedom, equal opportunities, paternal duty, and care are
among the values social democracy recognizes.
3. GREEN POLITICS/ ECOLOGISM
 This ideology is linked with the emergence of environmental movement. It also rose as a revolt
against industrialization.
 It is concerned with the damages brought by economic development and by the declining
quality of human existence.
 Conventional ideologies are a vehicle of ecologism. Ecosocialism looks at the destruction of the
environment due to capitalism; ecofeminism traces this crisis to male power; and
ecoconservatism links the cause of conservation to the desire to preserve tradition and
institutions
4. COSMOPOLITANISM
 Ideological expression of globalization
 It is a belief in a cosmopolis or a word state. It is thus associated with the
 project of world government.
  Modern cosmopolitanism tends to have a moral or a cultural character,
 believing that the world constitutes a single moral community.
 Cosmopolitanism focuses on the idea that all other people in the world have
 obligations to each other regardless of nationality, ethnicity, and the like.

Module 4 – Quarter 1 — Analyze the nature, dimensions/types and consequences of Power

What is Power?
Power is - It is the probability that one actor within a social relationship will be in a position to carry out
his own will despite resistance, regardless of the basis on which this probability rest (Weber, 1947).
- It is among other thing, the ability to enforce one’s moral claims (Gouldner, 1970).
-The ability to make a difference, to change things from what they would otherwise have been (Giddens,
1997)

NATURE

1. Latent – Power is something that people have and may not choose to use .
2. Relative – The power one person has over another depends largely on thing such as the expertise of
one person to another and the hierarchical level of one relative to the other.
3. Perceive – Power is based on one person’s belief that another has certain characteristics.
4. Dynamic – Power relationships evolve over time as individuals gain or lose certain types of power
relative to others.

TYPES
5 types of POWER identified by John R.P. French and Bertram Raven in 1959, here as follows:

1. Legitimate – This comes from the belief that a person has the formal right to make demands, and
expect others to be compliant and obedient.
2. Reward – This results from one person’s ability to compensate another for compliance.
3. Expert – this based on a person’s high levels of skills and knowledge .
4. Coercive – this comes from the belief that a person can punish others for
noncompliance.
5.Referent – this is a result of a person’s perceived attractiveness,,worthiness and right to others’
respect.
Bertram Raven added an extra Power in 1965:
6.Informational – This result from a person’s ability to control the information that others need to
accomplish something.

DIMENSION

1. Physical Power – power derived from the material or physical advantage. Individually, it can come
from strength or skill, such as the power of physical strength of an athlete.
2. Information Power – this is derived from knowledge. For example: If I know your weaknesses I could
leverage this knowledge when trying to persuade you.
• Power often comes from the control of access to information, where you can permit or offer access to
others.
3. EmotionalPower – this is social power of affect, using emotion to get what you want. Charisma is a
form of emotional power, including the power of oratory and the use of subtle body language.

CONSEQUENCES

Compliance – It is the state of being too willing to conform to the request, more likely, if it is perceived
to be within the leader’s scope of authority.
 It is also the state of being too willing to do what other people want.
 Reward and legitimate powers are most likely to produce compliance.
Commitment – it is an even more desirable outcome because of the trust and emotional pledge that it
engender.
 Commitment is most likely when the powers used are expert and referential
Resistance – Is the most likely outcome when coercive power is used by leader.
 Avoid using coercion except when absolutely necessary, because it is difficult to use and it is
likely to result in undesirable side effects such as anxiety and resentment.