SIZE EFFECT ON PERFORMANCE OF CONCRETE FILLED

STEEL TUBE CIRCULAR COLUMN

MSc. THESIS

BY

YOHANNES KEBEDE KASSA

MAR, 2022

ARBAMINCH, ETHIOPIA
 SIZE EFFECT ON PERFORMANCE OF CONCRETE FILLED
STEEL TUBE CIRCULAR COLUMN

BY

YOHANNES KEBEDE KASSA

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY, INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY, SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES, AND FACULTY OF
CIVIL ENGINEERING IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIRMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTERS SCIENCE IN
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING.

MAR, 2022

ARBA MINCH, ETHIOPIA

 DECLARATION

I hereby announce that this MSc. Thesis is my original work and has not been
presented for a degree in any other university. All related works used as a reference
contributed to this research. The research work was done under the guidance of Dr.
Tesfaye Alemu (principal advisor) and Mr. Amanuel Lemi (co-advisor) in
Arbaminch University Institute of Technology, Arbaminch, Ethiopia.

YOHANNS KEBEDE KASSA

Signature: _________________

Date: _____________________
 ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY

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supervision. Therefore, we recommend that the student has fulfilled the requirements and hence
hereby can submit the thesis to the department for defense.

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 ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY

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kebede kassa Id. No PRAMIT/354/11 have examined and evaluated his thesis entitled “Size effect on
the performance of concrete filled steel tube circular column”,. This is, therefore, to certify that
the thesis has been found qualified for partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master
of Science with specialization in Structural Engineering.

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 Acknowledgments

First of all, I am grateful to thank Ethiopian Ministry of Education (MoE) for giving me a chance to
improve (update) my knowledge on structural engineering courses. Now a day it becomes difficult to
afford private financial budget for educational purpose, but thanks to MoE the problem is somehow
decreased for some researchers. My deepest and heart feel gratitude belongs to my principal advisor;
the consistent, polite, kind, and generous person, Dr. Tesfaye Alemu for his valuable, motivational
guidance and encouragement for the successful accomplishment of this thesis and also I would like to
thank Mr. Amanuel Lemi, lecturer of faculty of civil engineering in A.M.U for his critical guidance
and comments in this thesis.

I
Acronyms

CFST Concrete filled steel tube

ANOVA Analysis of variance

FC Concrete compressive strength

FCM Concrete mean characteristic strength

FY Steel yield strength

FUC Concrete cylinder strength

NS Steel poisonous ratio

NC Concrete poisonous ratio

ES Steel modulus of elasticity

EC Concrete modulus of elasticity

T Steel tube thickness

Β Intercept

Ŷ The value of the dependent variable regression

Equation

ȳ Mean value of the dependent variable

R Correlation coefficient

R2 Coefficient of determination

II
 Contents

Acknowledgments .............................................................................................................................. I

Acronyms ......................................................................................................................................... II

Contents ........................................................................................................................................... III

List of figures ................................................................................................................................... VI

List of tables .................................................................................................................................. VII

Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ VIII

CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................................ 1

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 1

1.1 High strength concrete ......................................................................................................... 1

1.1.1 Advantage of HSC ........................................................................................................ 1

1.1.2 Disadvantage of HSC .................................................................................................... 2

1.1.3 Application of HSC....................................................................................................... 2

1.2 Concrete Filled Steel Tubes (CFST) ..................................................................................... 3

1.2.1 Types of CFST Columns ............................................................................................... 4

1.2.2 Merits of CFST Structural System................................................................................. 6

1.2.3 Role of Steel Tube in Composite Columns .................................................................... 8

1.2.4 Behavior of CFST Columns .......................................................................................... 9

1.2.5 Structural Action of A CFST Section .......................................................................... 10

1.2.6 Failure Mechanism...................................................................................................... 12

1.2.7 Comparison of CFST Columns with Hollow Steel Columns........................................ 12

1.3 Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................... 13

1.4 Objective of the Study........................................................................................................ 13

1.4.1 General objectives ....................................................................................................... 13

1.4.2 Specific Objectives ..................................................................................................... 14

III
 1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Study...................................................................................... 14

1.6 Organization of the Thesis ................................................................................................. 14

CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................. 16

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES ...................................................................................... 16

2.1. Literatures on experimental works ......................................................................................... 16

2.2. Literatures on numerical works .......................................................................................... 20

2.3. Literature review on analytical work .................................................................................. 25

2.4. Design Codes ..................................................................................................................... 28

2.4.1. European Committee for Standardization (Eurocode-4)............................................... 28

2.5. Research gap ...................................................................................................................... 28

CHAPTER THREE.......................................................................................................................... 29

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY...................................................................................................... 29

3.1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 29

3.2. Validated Spacemen Details ............................................................................................... 30

3.2.1. Geometry .................................................................................................................... 31

3.2.2. Material Property ........................................................................................................ 31

3.2.3. Loading and Boundary Conditions .............................................................................. 32

3.3. Finite Element Analysis Procedures ................................................................................... 33

3.3.1. Elemental Idealizations ............................................................................................... 33

3.3.2. Mesh Sensitivity Study ............................................................................................... 35

3.3.3. Analysis Type ............................................................................................................. 35

3.4. Finite element Parametric Study ......................................................................................... 36

3.4.1. Geometry and Parameters (Variables) ......................................................................... 36

3.5 . Regression ...................................................................................................................... 37

CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................................ 39

IV
RESULT AND DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................... 39

4.1. Introductions ...................................................................................................................... 39

4.1. Finite Element Validation Analysis Results ........................................................................ 39

4.2. Finite Element Parametric Study results ............................................................................. 39

4.2.1. Effect of concrete grade .............................................................................................. 40

4.2.2. Effect of steel thickness .............................................................................................. 42

4.2.3. Effect of steel grade .................................................................................................... 44

4.2.4. Regression and correlation formula result ................................................................... 46

CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................................. 50

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ................................................................................ 50

5.1. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 50

5.2. Recommendations and future works ................................................................................... 52

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................ 53

APPENDICES ................................................................................................................................. 58

Appendices A: macro code for validated spacemen ( ANSYS 2020R2) ........................................ 58

Appendices B: macro code for parametric study of CFST column (ANSYS 2020R2) ................... 62

Appendices C: macro code for concrete damage plots (ANSYS 2020R2) ..................................... 67

V
 List of figures

Figure 1.1: Types of Concrete filled steel tube ................................................................................... 5

Figure 1.2: Typical CFST cross sections............................................................................................ 5
Figure 1.3: Axial compressive behavior of CFST Stub Column ......................................................... 6
Figure 1.4: Stress diagram for concrete core and steel tube .............................................................. 11
Figure 1.5: Failure mechanism of CFST columns ............................................................................ 12
Figure 1.6: Axial strength Vs. Axial shortening for CFST and HST stub columns ........................... 13

Figure 3.1: Experimentally tasted CFST columns ............................................................................. 30

Figure 3.2: Loading and testing: (a) Test setup; (b) Schematic diagram of the layout of displacement
transducer and strain gauge .............................................................................................................. 32
Figure 3.3: FEM modeled CFST column ......................................................................................... 34
Figure 3. 4 Mesh sensitivity study for different mesh size ................................................................ 35

Figure 4. 1: Validation result ............................................................................................................ 39

Figure 4. 2: Load- displacement graph of different concrete grade ................................................... 41
Figure 4. 3: % Load capacity difference for d/t concrete grade ........................................................ 41
Figure 4. 4: Concrete damage plot for d/t concrete grade ................................................................. 42
Figure 4. 5: Steel tube damage plot for d/t concrete grade................................................................ 42
Figure 4. 6 : Load-displacement graph for d/t steel thicknes ............................................................ 43
Figure 4. 7 : % Load capacity difference for d/t steel thickness......................................................... 43
Figure 4. 8 : Concrete damage plot for d/t steel thickness ................................................................ 44
Figure 4. 9 : Steel tube damage plot for d/t steel thickness ............................................................... 44
Figure 4. 10: Load-displacement graph for d/t steel grade................................................................. 45
Figure 4. 11: % Load capacity difference for d/t steel grade ............................................................. 45
Figure 4. 12: Concrete damage plot for d/t steel grade ...................................................................... 46
Figure 4. 13: Steel tube damage plot for d/t steel grade ..................................................................... 46
Figure 4. 14 : (a) % Load capacity difference from regression, (b) % Load capacity difference from
........................................................................................................................................................ 48

VI
 List of tables

Table3.1: Geometric property CFST to be validated ........................................................................ 31

Table3.2: CFST material property of spacemen BZ600-1 for validation .......................................... 31
Table3.3: geometry and parameters of CFST columns ..................................................................... 36

Table 4.1: FEM load result .............................................................................................................. 40

Table 4.2: Correlation results ........................................................................................................... 47
Table 4.3: Regression results ............................................................................................................ 47
Table 4.4: Load result comparison ................................................................................................... 48

VII
 Abstract

This study aims at investigating the size effect on the performance of high strength CFST columns
under axial load and to create regression formula for better estimation of the capacity of the column
as the parameters increases by unit. The nonlinear finite element analysis program ANSYS2020R2 is
used to study the performance of the column and SPSS to create the regression formula and to identi-
fy the correlation behavior of the parameters with the capacity of column. A displacement controlled
loading type is used. Concrete and steel damage plots and load-displacement graphs are the main out-
put from ANSYS2020R2 and the correlation and regression coefficients are the outputs from SPSS.
The result from the finite element analysis (ANSYS2020R2) has been validated by the experimental
result from literature.
A parametric study is conducted using 64 circular CFST columns to investigate the load carrying ca-
pacities, to determine the correlation and regression coefficients. Here, the main parameters are steel
grade, Diameter of the column, thickness of the steel tube and grade of concrete. The performance
(axial load carrying capacity) of columns for C-50MPA increases by an average value of 11.59 % as
the column size increases by 10mm Diameter of the column. For 60MPA and 70MPA grade of con-
crete the load capacity of the column increases by12.55% & 12.78% respectively for 10mm incre-
ment of diameter of the column. For small size of the column there is a 0.02% average difference b/n
FEM analysis result and result from regression formula. And for large size of the column there is
8.98% difference b/n the FEM & regression formula load result. As the size of the column increas-
es, the accuracy of the regression formula decreases.

Key words: CFST, high strength concrete, Size effect, regression, finite element model

VIII
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Size effect on the performance of a structural element gives insight how the structural member
behaves with different parameters as size of the member increases. The size effect is a fundamental
phenomenon in concrete structures. A notable size effect is observed in the failure of RC columns
under axial compression (e.g., Němeček and Bittnar 2004; Şener et al. 2004). Furthermore, Bažant
(1984) introduced the cracked band model to explain size effects and proposed a classic size effect
law (SEL) based on linear elastic fracture mechanics. Carpinteri and Ferro (1994) proposed a quite
different size effect law based on the fractal properties of fissures in several materials. Weibull (1951)
explained the commonly observed stress reduction of structural elements with size as a consequence
of the random distribution of the local material properties. In addition, Hu et al. (2017) proposed the
boundary size effect law for concrete materials. All these semi theoretical and semi empirical
theoretical formulas have been demonstrated to be suitable for concrete materials.

1.1 High strength concrete

The classification of HSC is not static and it has tended to increase with the passage of time. ACI
3601 defines HSC as concrete with a cylinder strength f’c greater than 41 Mpa, but this may be
amended to 55 Mpa in future. ACI 3601 also states that the choice of grade 41/51 as the lower limit
for HSC does not imply that a drastic change in the material properties or production techniques
occur at this strength. Alternatively, ACI, 4412 defines HSC as concrete with strength greater than
grade 70/80, whereas most other international codes define HSC as concrete greater than grade 50/60.

From the above, it is evident that there is no specific strength beyond which concrete is no longer
NSC and suddenly becomes HSC. Instead, the transition in the behavior starts with the NSC of grade
40/50 and is fully evident in grade 80/100.

1.1.1 Advantage of HSC

High-strength concrete has a lot of advantages when compared to normal strength-concrete such as:-

 It resists loads that cannot be resisted by normal strength concrete.

 It increases the strength per unit cost, per unit weight, and per unit volume.

1
  Such type of mixes (HSC) typically has an increased modulus of elasticity, which increases
stability and reduces deflection.
 It provides higher compressive strength, higher tensile strength,
 It reduces creep effect, and greater durability than normal-strength concrete.

1.1.2 Disadvantage of HSC

Along with the inherent advantages of high-strength concrete, several less clearly defined
disadvantages can materialize. Most of these disadvantages are due to a lack of adequate research
under field conditions, although many of the issues are currently being alleviated though the use of
improved admixtures. Some of the disadvantages are:-

 The use of high quality materials

 Minimum cover over reinforcement or minimum thickness of members may restrict the
realization of maximum benefit.
 Available pre stress force in a member may be inadequate to achieve maximum strength.
 Low water to cementitious materials ratios require special curing requirements.
 Since serviceability conditions such as deflection can control design, increased capacity may
not be fully utilized.

1.1.3 Application of HSC

In engineering projects with concrete components that must withstand high compressive loads, high
strength concrete is necessary. In the construction of high-rise constructions, high-strength concrete is
commonly used. It has been employed in components such as columns, shear walls, and foundations
(particularly on lower levels where the loads will be the largest). Bridges with high strengths are also
employed on occasion. In many nations, high-strength concrete has been employed in high-rise
structures. A structure over 30 stories is considered a high rise structure suited for high-strength
concrete use. Special concrete has not only made such structures possible due to load capacity, but it
has also allowed for smaller columns and beams. As a result of the lower dead loads, the loads
associated with foundation design are reduced. Additionally, owners profit financially since the
amount of rentable floor space increases, particularly on lower floors, as the area occupied by
columns reduces. It is estimated that utilizing 8000 psi concrete instead of 4000 psi concrete will
reduce column widths by approximately 33% in a 50-story skyscraper with 4-foot diameter columns.
High-strength column is occasionally used in the construction of highway bridges. High-strength

2
concrete permits reinforced or pre stressed concrete girders to span greater length than normal-
strength concrete girders. Also, the greater individual girder capacities may enable a decrease in a
number of girders required. Thus, an economical advantage is created for concrete producers in that
concrete is promoted for use in particular bridge project as opposed to steel.

1.2 Concrete Filled Steel Tubes (CFST)

Cold-formed steel tubular members have become popular in seismic regions, especially for high rise
structures (Liu Z. & Goel S., 1988).tests have been performed by Walpole w, (1996),Jain et al.(1980),
Sherman & sully (1994) and Grzebieta et al. (1997) on cold formed hollow section members. The
result shoud that the capacity of cold –formed tubular members reduced significantly due to local
buckling in the section and the magnitude of the local buckles became tremendous under different
loading.

Many types of composite material systems have recently been widely used in concrete column design
to give improved strength, stiffness, ductility, and seismic resistance. Fully enclosed steel sections,
partially encased steel sections, and concrete filled steel tube are all examples of composite columns.
The concrete-filled steel tube (CFST) column system is one of the most effective composite concrete
column systems among them. The CFST column is a composite material system that takes the
benefits of multiple materials and integrates them in a steel tube column that is filled with concrete.
The advantages of CFST columns over equivalent steel, reinforced concrete, or steel-reinforced
concrete columns are numerous. Great tensile strength and ductility are advantages of steel columns,
while high strength and rigidity are advantages of concrete columns. Steel and concrete are combined
in composite columns, resulting in a column that combines the best of both worlds. The steel tube
acts as a formwork for pouring concrete, lowering construction costs. The tube serves as longitudinal
and lateral reinforcement for the concrete core, therefore no additional reinforcement is required.
Furthermore, the positioning of the steel and concrete in the cross-section maximizes the section's
strength and stiffness. The steel in the CFST is located on the outside perimeter, where it performs
best in tension and resisting bending moment. Similarly, the concrete-filled column's stiffness is
considerably increased since the steel is located farthest from the centroid, where it contributes the
most to the moment of inertia. The steel tube provides continuous confinement to the concrete core,
which improves the core's strength and ductility. The concrete core delayes the local buckling of the
steel tube preventing inward buckling, while steel tube prevents the concrete from spalling (Lu and
Zhao, 2010; zeghiche & Chaoui, 2005).
3
Over the last half-century, concrete-filled steel tube columns have been widely employed in the
construction industry in various regions of the world, primarily for low- to medium-rise buildings. It
has been well documented that for short, circular CFST columns, the composite section has an
increase in strength relative to its uniaxial capacity and is ductile. The steel encasement's lateral
confinement concrete infill is responsible for this effect. Despite the advantages and benefits of this
type of construction, it has not been widely used in Ethiopian construction, likely due to a lack of an
appropriate design code and local technical data, as well as a lack of knowledge of CFST columns.

For the last few years, there have been a plenty number of theoretical and experimental
studies on circular CFST columns with several D/t ratios with combinations of various material
properties Lu & Zhao (2010) and Chen et al. (2011), found experimentally that the axial bearing
capacity of circular CFT changed little with increasing size. EL-Heweity M. M., (2012), found the
increase in yield stress of steel tube has a minimal effect but pronounced effect on concrete ductility.
Since the experimental investigation of axial load carrying capacity of CFST columns extensively
attracts the interests of researchers.
Concrete filled steel Tubular columns are ideal structural components for buildings, bridges, trussed
structures, and deep foundations due to their good structural performance, high strength, and ductility.
When employed as structural columns, particularly in high-rise buildings, composite members may
be subjected to strong shear forces as well as moments caused by wind or seismic forces. It should be
highlighted that when CFST columns are built using high-strength materials, mechanical and
economic benefits can be realized. In comparison to regular strength concrete, high strength concrete
infill contributes more damping and stiffness to CFST columns. Furthermore, to handle the load,
High-strength CFST columns require a smaller cross-section, which architects and building engineers
enjoy.

1.2.1 Types of CFST Columns

Tomii (1991) described that due to the limited bond in the CFST cross section, the composite action
cannot be classified as either non composite or fully composite. In a non-composite action no bond or
interaction would exist and uniaxial conditions remain. For a fully composite action to occur, bond
would need to be sufficient to prevent any differential movement between the steel and concrete.
Therefore the materials would essentially act as a uniform material. In fact, the true action of a
circular CFST column may be described as 'partially composite' falling between the two extremities.
In current practice there are two basic types of CFST composite column.
4
  The bare steel tubular column with a plain concrete infill without external fire
protection
 The bare steel tube with reinforcement bars in the concrete infill (or, in some cases,
another tube) also without external fire protection.

A concrete filled steel tubular (CFST) structure consists of steel tube of square, rectangular or circular
cross-section filled with plain or reinforced concrete. Figure 1.2, depicts three typical column cross-
sections, where the concrete is filled in a circular hollow section (CHS), a square hollow section
(SHS) or a rectangular hollow section (RHS), where D and B are the outer dimensions of the steel
tube and t is the wall thickness of the tube. It is noted that the circular cross section provides the
strongest confinement to the core concrete, and the local buckling is more likely to occur in square or
rectangular cross-sections. However, the concrete-filled steel tubes with SHS and RHS are still
increasingly used in construction, for the reasons of being easier in beam-to-column connection
design, high cross-sectional bending stiffness and for aesthetic reasons. Fig 1.1 shows that different
types of concrete filled steel tube.

Figure 1.1: Types of Concrete filled steel tube (EUROCODE 4)

Figure 1.2: Typical CFST cross sections (yang et al., 2012)

5
1.2.2 Merits of CFST Structural System

Concrete-filled steel tube structural members have several advantages over equivalent steel,
reinforced concrete, and steel-reinforced concrete structural members. In terms of structural
performance and construction system, such structural systems provide a variety of significant
advantages. Due to their superior static and earthquake resistant features, such as high strength,
ductility, and huge energy absorption capacity, circular concrete filled steel tubes (CCFST) are
commonly employed in practical civil engineering projects. High tensile strength and ductility are
advantages of steel members, while high compressive strength and rigidity are advantages of concrete
members. Steel and concrete are combined in composite members, resulting in a member that has the
best of both worlds Concrete-filled steel tube structural members have several advantages over
equivalent steel, reinforced concrete, or steel-reinforced concrete structural members. In terms of
structural performance as well as building system, such structural systems offer a variety of
significant advantages. Due to their superior static and earthquake resistant features, such as high
strength, ductility, and huge energy absorption capacity, circular concrete filled steel tubes (CCFST)
are being employed frequently in practical civil engineering projects. Steel has strong tensile strength
and ductility, while concrete has high compressive strength and stiffness. Steel and concrete are
combined to create composite parts, which have the best of both worlds. The concrete core delays
local buckling of the steel tube by preventing inward buckling, while the steel tube prevents the
concrete from spalling. Comparison of axial compressive behavior of CFST stub column done by
Han et al. (2014) is presented in Figure 1.3. The main advantages of CFST structural system in
comparison with ordinary steel or reinforced concrete system are listed below.

Figure 1.3: Axial compressive behavior of CFST Stub Column (Han et al. 2014)
6
1.2.2.1 Advantage over Reinforced Concrete

 The steel tube keeps the concrete infill contained. The concrete core in steel tubes gains
strength and ductility as a result of this confinement effect.

 The concrete infill prevents the steel tube from bowing locally.

 The combined steel and concrete capacity of CFST columns greatly boosts their stiffness and
ultimate strength, making them ideal for columns and other compressive parts.

 The steel tube acts as a longitudinal reinforcement and permanent formwork for the concrete
core, allowing for quick construction and significant material savings.

 Prior to the pumping of wet concrete, the steel tube may also support a significant amount of
construction and permanent loads.

1.2.2.2 Improvement of Structural Performance Due to material properties:

 External reinforcement is provided by the steel tube. The CFST cross section has a
substantially higher steel ratio than the reinforced concrete sections.

 Because it is positioned on the exterior of the section, the steel of the CFST section is well
plasticized under bending.

 The strength loss after local buckling is decreased due to the restraining influence of concrete,
and the distinctive buckling problem of thin-walled steel tubes is managed due to the presence
of the concrete in-fill.

 Concrete shrinkage and creep are substantially less than in typical reinforced concrete.

1.2.2.3 Improvement of Constructional Performance During fabrication :

 In comparison to traditional reinforced concrete, where trained personnel are required to cut
and bend intricate forms of reinforcement, they are simple to fabricate and construct.

 CFST columns are commonly made of steel tubes that are less than 40 mm thick and readily
available. As a result, they are simple to fabricate and assemble.

 Construction process is quick due to the ease of handling and erection.

7
1.2.2.4 As a sustainable construction
In comparison to a normal building, a "green" building improves energy efficiency, conserves natural
resources, produces less waste, and provides healthier places for occupants. There is increasing
pressure these days to design all living and working places in such a way that they utilize the least
amount of precious resources like electricity and water and have the least societal and environmental
impact. By removing the formwork and using concrete manufactured from recycled aggregates, the
environmental impact can be decreased. The CFST system meets all of the criteria for being classified
as a Sustainable Construction System since it cuts construction costs in many of the ways outlined
above and helps to save resources. Above all steel which is a major constituent material of CFST
frame, itself being almost totally recycled material is a green material.
Because of the benefits outlined above, replacing a steel or RCC construction with a CFT structure
results in a higher cost performance. The compactness of concrete surrounding the beam-to-column
connection, especially in the case of inner and through type diaphragms, is a major shortcoming of
the standard CFST system. However, using super plasticizers, self-compacting concrete is a
widespread building method these days to produce a high-quality concrete with low water content
and good workability. Despite the advantages and benefits of this type of construction, it has been
difficult to catch on in the Ethiopian construction industry, partly due to a lack of a relevant design
code and local technical data.

1.2.3 Role of Steel Tube in Composite Columns

In composite column with concrete filled circular sections, the confinement effects of concrete
increases the concrete resistance, but at the same time reduces the axial resistance of the steel section.
Strength and ductility of plain concrete are highly dependent on the degree of confinement. As
concrete is axially compressed, the rate of lateral expansion is a function of the axial shortening by a
stable value of Poisson’s ratio up to approximately 50% of the compressive strength. During this
stage, stable propagation of the bond cracks between cement and aggregate occurs, and negative
volumetric strain indicates compaction of the concrete mass. Approximately 50% of the strength,
micro cracks develops within the matrix causing the concrete to behave in highly non-linear manner
and the lateral stain also increases in a non-linear manner.
However, up to the crucial stress level of approximately 87 percent of compressive strength, the
volumetric strain is still negative. After this loading stage, the volumetric strain and lateral strain
begin to increase at a considerably faster pace, evolving into prominent cracks that propagate inside
the concrete mass and cause failure. Controlling the lateral expansion of concrete by confinement is
8
thus seen to be the key to improving the strength and ductility of concrete. Casting concrete in a steel
tube is one method for achieving confinement. When the concrete is axially loaded, the tube partially
restrains lateral expansion, causing radial pressure at the interface. The amount of radial pressure
depends on the stiffness of the steel tube in the circumferential direction. As the load increases, the
tendency for lateral expansion increases and the confining pressure also increases. Because the
material properties of the steel tubes are typically linear and (or) elastic linearly, the induced
confinement is variable.
For steel tubes, after the steel yields, the confining pressure is constant and independent of the axial
load level

1.2.4 Behavior of CFST Columns

The ultimate load capacity and stress-strain relationship of a CFST column is influenced by complex
interactions between the steel tube and concrete core components. In short columns such actions are
governed by the strength and characteristics of the materials. Short composite columns exhibit a
failure mechanism characterized by yielding of steel and crushing of concrete. Medium length
columns behave in-elastically and fail because of partial yielding of steel, crushing of concrete in
compression and cracking of concrete in tension. Stocky concrete filled tubes are also susceptible to
local buckling of the outer skin, and this is of importance in very thin walled tubes which are
nowadays often used in building construction. Flexural buckling will not occur in a short or stocky
column, albeit local buckling may occur. The material strengths of the concrete and steel parts are
used to design stocky columns.
The full interaction between the concrete and steel elements is assumed in all column analysis
methodologies utilized at both ultimate and serviceability limitations. This means that the strain
profile across the segment stays uni-linear, with no step shift or slip strain at the steel/concrete
contact, as is commonly anticipated in composite beam design. This assumption is appropriate
because the contact area is generally and relatively big, resulting in a good bond at comparatively low
bond stresses. It is worth noting that the bond stresses in composite columns are generally lower than
those in beams, because the columns are mainly subjected to compression.

1.2.4.1 Short term behavior

In short axially loaded filled steel tube, the core concrete is acted upon by a confining stress, which
results in higher axial strength of the column than another column, if the concrete was not confined.
The results of axially loaded tests on concrete have exhibited this, where concrete underwent a lateral

9
pressure called confining pressure which can withstand a substantially larger axial load than
unconfined concrete, Yan Xiao et al. (2005). In fact, this condition holds in a reinforced concrete
column with spirally wound laterals reinforcements; provides lateral stress that causes an increase in
the axial load capacity of the core concrete.

1.2.4.2 Long term behavior

Under continued loading, creep of the in-filled concrete induces an increase in the lateral deflection of
composite columns and therefore a reduction in its strength as well as stiffness. The main reason for
this is the reduction in the moisture loss that has impact on the creep and particularly shrinkage
properties. Many researchers carried out experiments to measure the creep and shrinkage responses of
concrete in thin circular steel tubes. The report of the researchers concluded that the moisture loss that
took place in such concrete in-filled tubes was very small or eliminated totally with a consequent
reduction in the effects of creep and shrinkage. Creep and shrinkage may have a considerable effect
on the service load behavior of the composite columns that are subjected to mainly continuous loads.
The composite columns behaves in a similar way as that of reinforced concrete columns but the
behavior is obviously varied from a composite column in-filled with concrete in a steel tube where
the ingress of moisture from the concrete is certainly hindered by the steel tube.

1.2.5 Structural Action of A CFST Section

It is noted that the ultimate axial strength of concrete in-filled tubular columns is quite larger than the
sum of individual strength of steel and concrete at failure loads. The enhancement in the failure load
is due to the confining effect of steel tube on the concrete.
The structural behavior of concrete in-filled tubular sections is regarded as affected in terms of
concrete micro cracking theories and by the difference between the Poisson’s ratio of the concrete
and steel tube (Guiaux and Janss, 1970; Cai, 1987). In the initial stage of loading the steel tube
withstands most of the load and is about to undergo yield. In the initial stages of loading prior to the
development of micro cracking, the Poisson's ratio of the steel (ν s) is greater than that of the concrete
(νc). This implies that there would be a tendency for separation to occur between the two materials
due to the greater lateral expansion of the steel tube. Thus the steel tube has no confining effect on the
concrete. If bond stresses at the concrete-steel interface were sufficient to restrict separation, lateral
tension would develop in the outer surface of the concrete core. This type of interaction is generally
neglected as bond stresses are small between 1.0 and 1.8 MPa (Tomii, 1984). The two materials are
therefore assumed to act under uniaxial stress states. There is a stage of load transfer from the steel

10
tube to the concrete for the second time. Thereafter, the steel tube shows a continuous drop off in load
sharing causing the concrete to reach its maximum compressive strength. Thereafter, a stage of
redistribution of load from concrete to the steel tube takes place where the steel exhibits a hardening
behavior which is fundamentally similar to that of the uni-axial stress-strain hardening relationship.
Under the application of further load, longitudinal strains increase to a point at which micro cracking
within the concrete propagates, producing a lateral dilation of the core. As the concrete bears outward
against the tube wall, an opposing restraining pressure is applied by the steel. Consequentially the
steel tube develops a biaxial stress state sustaining longitudinal compression (σ Sl) and transverse hoop
tension (σst). It is known that the steel tube in a biaxial state of stress cannot withstand the normal
yield stress which causes a transfer of load from the steel tube to the concrete (Muhammad Naseem
Baig et al. 2006). A triaxial stress condition is subsequently created in the concrete core by radial
confining pressure (cr) and axial compression (cl). As the confinement pressure increases, the
concrete's axial capacity and ductility increase as well. The confining stress cr inhibits the spread of
micro cracking in laterally confined concrete, which has been known from the early twentieth
century. As a result, the concrete core may withstand stress and strain intensities that are greater than
those that would cause failure under uniaxial conditions. At the same time, due to the biaxial stress
condition, the longitudinal steel tube capacity is reduced. The net effect is an enhancement in the
strength the composite section relative to its nominal uniaxial capacity (N 0) determined from material
strengths.

Figure 1.4: Stress diagram for concrete core and steel tube (William shelton clark.
1994)

11
1.2.6 Failure Mechanism

Generally combined actions of steel yielding and concrete crushing are failure mechanisms generally
displayed by Short composite columns. Inelastic behavior associated with partial steel yielding,
crushing of concrete in compression and cracking of concrete in tension occurs in columns of
medium length as shown in Figure 1.5. Research on time dependent deformations of concrete filled
tubes has proven to reduce creep and shrinkage response.

Figure 1.5: Failure mechanism of CFST columns ( Han et al. 2014)

1.2.7 Comparison of CFST Columns with Hollow Steel Columns

The CFST columns increase earthquake resistant capabilities due to the concrete filling inside the
steel tubes and are particularly suitable for buildings subjected to large axial compressive stress.
Moreover, the columns are fire resistant and reduce the thickness of traditional fire resistant coating
or even eliminate the need for it. Thus the columns simplify the construction process and increasing
interior space in a building. Conventional structures like reinforced concrete structures can be
replaced by CFST structures system with a high degree of generality and at the same time reduce
costs to a minimum. It is especially useful in high-rise buildings where high work speed is required
and flexibility of open space is desired for a maximum range of applications.
CFST columns may also be used in a situation where the cross sections of hollow columns are
unacceptably large. There are numerous applications for which composite columns provide excellent
solution to structural problems when compared with hollow steel column (HST). The composite

12
column has superior load retention at higher temperature, are more resistance to local buckling,
greater stiffness and abrasion resistance when compared with hollow steel column. The composite
column supports more thrust than any other traditional reinforced concrete column of the same
dimension (see Figure 1.6).

Figure 1.6: Axial strength Vs. Axial shortening for CFST and HST stub columns (Han
et al. 2014)
1.3 Statement of the Problem

In the past, various researchers studied in concrete filled RC concrete column, however yet no size
effect on the performance of concrete filled high strength column was investigated. This research
work fills the in perceived gap in literature by numerically investigation of size effect on performance
of concrete filled steel tube column. From literature, the experimental work is conducted on the
performance of concrete filled steel tube column for different type of concrete (high titanium slag
concrete, Semi-high titanium slag concrete & Ordinary concrete). In this study high strength concrete
column is used and regression formula is created.

1.4 Objective of the Study

The aim of this study is to attain the following general and specific objectives

1.4.1 General objectives

The general objective of this study is to numerically investigate effect of size on the
performance of concrete filled steel tube column.
13
 .

1.4.2 Specific Objectives

 To simulate the behavior of concrete filled steel tube columns and the estimation of ultimate
loading and average incremental percentage difference on the capacity of different size of
column.
 To investigate the stress behavior of different size of the column.
 To identify the correlation between the parameters (steel thickness, Column area, steel grade
& concrete grade) with the capacity of high strength CFST column.
 To create regression formula on the performance of concrete filled steel tube column.

1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Study

In the past, various researchers studied on concrete filled reinforced concrete columns,
however yet no Size effect study on performance of infilled high strength concrete column
was presented, the correlation of different parameters with the performance of concrete
column and regression formula was not created too. But this study focuses on size effect on
the performance of concrete filled high strength concrete column and to create regression
formula. This thesis includes different parameters, such as high strength concrete grades (40,
60, 80) Mpa, mild steel and high strength steel (239,495) MPA, different steel thickness (3, 4,
5&6) mm are used. Generally there are64+1 (for validation) =65CFST column models. This
study is limited to the above boundaries.

1.6 Organization of the Thesis

This thesis has been arranged in five chapters. A brief description of each chapter is given:-
 Chapter one presents the introduction of concrete filled composite columns. It also deals with
the type of concrete filled steel tubular composite columns and the objectives of the study
with statement of problems are discussed.
 Chapter two deals with a brief review of literature about the influence of confinement effects,
size effect, partially steel encased composite column, hollow steel sections, reinforced
concrete and plain concrete are widely discussed.
 Chapter three states the methodology used for modeling of CFST column in ansys 2020 R2 is
discussed with concrete and steel properties, support condition, loading and meshing

14
 properties are discussed in detail. And also validation of the model with experimental results
is discussed and parameters for analysis are presented in table form.
 Chapter four describes the analytical results from ansys 2020R2 are listed and discussed.
Here, discussions based on capacity aspect, correlation aspect, average percentage difference
on the capacity of the column has been discussed, concrete damage properties also discussed
and regression formula is created and discussed.
 Finally, conclusions based on the results and specific objectives are discussed and
recommendations for further studies are highlighted

15
 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES

2.1. Literatures on experimental works

A composite column is a type of column that has two materials or design aspects in its structure. In
other terms, a composite column is one that has a steel core encased in concrete. The concrete might
be solidly filled in around the steel portion or it can merely encapsulate the steel in a hollow space
with other internal support.

The findings of this study on the flexural strength of a steel-concrete composite column with a non-
compact section that is subjected to a constant axial stress were compared to the evaluations of
various design code provisions in the strong-axis and weak-axis directions. According to the
outcomes of the testing, the column's axial force-bending moment capability met the standards of
several countries for both axis orientations. The AISC-LRFD provisions, in particular, assess the
composite column's load-carrying capacity excessively conservatively. As a result, the AIJ and EC4
code rules are recommended for determining the axial force-bending moment capability of steel-
concrete composite columns with non-compact steel sections.[1]

To investigate the axial compression behavior of concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) columns filled
with high titanium slag, 32 specimens were used as experimental samples, including normal CFST
columns, half-high titanium slag CFST columns, and full-high titanium slag CFST columns. The
axial compression behaviors of high titanium slag CFST columns and normal CFST columns were
evaluated and compared using axial compression testing under monotonic static loading and various
parameters such as length–diameter ratio, concrete strength grade, steel tube strength grade, steel
content ratio, and so on. The results revealed that the axial compressive behaviors of high titanium
slag CFST columns with various length–diameter ratios were no different than those of regular CFST
columns in axial compression, and that both performed well. Furthermore, The length–diameter ratio
limit was set at 3.5–4.4 for short and moderately long columns. The load–deformation curve of CFST
columns was primarily influenced by the length–diameter ratio. Short column bearing capacity was
significantly affected by the casing hoop coefficient, but not medium or long column bearing
capacity. Finally, the bearing capacities of all specimens were calculated using bearing capacity

16
formulas from the European EC4, American AISC360-10, and Chinese GB50936-2014 standards.
The computed figures were extremely close to the test results.[2]

In this research test program, the performance of 27 axially loaded column specimens was
investigated, including 18 steel tubes infilled with ultra-high strength concrete (UHSC) with
compressive strength near 200 MPa, 4 steel tubes infilled with normal strength concrete (NSC), and 5
hollow steel tubes. Steel fibers were added to the UHSC to see what effect they had on ductility and
strength. It was also looked at the use of concrete-filled double-tube columns in multi-story and high-
rise structures. In tests, UHSC-filled tubular columns showed ultra-high load-carrying capacity,
however they were brittle once the maximum load was attained. Furthermore, just putting weight on
the concrete increased the ductility and strength of UHSC-filled composite columns, as did increasing
the steel contribution ratio or introducing steel fibers into the concrete core. Based on a comparison of
test results with Eurocode 4 predictions, the Eurocode 4 technique could be safely extended to
estimate the compressive resistance of UHSC filled composite stub columns. The Eurocode 4
approach underestimated resistance by 14.6 percent when the confinement effect was ignored and by
3.5 percent when the confinement effect was taken into account for all specimens containing UHSC.
To maintain acceptable ductility, it is recommended that a minimum steel contribution ratio of 0.30 or
1% steel fibers be used. Furthermore, the strength augmentation due to confinement effect should be
ignored when calculating the ultimate strength of concrete filled composite columns with Class 3
steel sections.[3]

The influence of bond strength between concrete and steel tube on the behavior of CFST columns
was investigated using fifteen circular specimens. The specimens were tested with and without grease
on the interior walls of the hollow tube to reduce the binding with concrete. The impacts of the bond
between the concrete and the steel tube were shown to be more essential for high-strength concrete,
but the reduction in axial capacity owing to the loss of bonding between steel and concrete was
negligible for regular strength concrete. [4]

The findings of experiments on 27 concrete-filled steel tubular columns are presented in this study.
The column slenderness, load eccentricity for axially and eccentrically loaded columns with single or
double curvature bending, and concrete core compressive strength were the test conditions. These
characteristics have an impact on the strength and behavior of concrete-filled steel tubular columns,
as demonstrated by the test results. A comparison of experimental failure loads with predicted failure
loads using the method described in Eurocode 4 Part 1.1 revealed good agreement for axially and

17
eccentrically loaded columns with single curvature bending, but the Eurocode loads were higher and
on the unsafe side for columns with double curvature bending. For the case of doubles, more testing
is required. [5]

The fundamental properties of concrete columns reinforced with concrete-filled steel tube and
subjected to axial compressive loading are discussed in this chapter. In recent decades, composite
steel-concrete columns have become increasingly popular. In addition to reinforcing bars, a
composite column is a concrete column reinforced with a structural steel form or tubing. Composite
columns combine the best features of steel and concrete, including great strength, exceptional
ductility, enormous energy absorption capacity, and ease of installation. As a result, a composite
section is typically smaller than other designs to support the same load, resulting in material, weight,
and headroom or construction depth savings. A concrete-encased steel tubular column or concrete-
filled steel tubular columns are both examples of steel-concrete composite columns. The chapter
investigates the effects of various parameters on the strength and deformation characteristics of
composite columns, such as the steel ratio of concrete-filled steel tubes and the volumetric ratio of
transverse ties, and proposes formulas to predict the ultimate strength of a composite section. [6]

This article investigates a new type of composite column (concrete-filled prefabricated tubular
elements) and a cast-in-place concrete column, with the stirrup ratio and concrete strength of the
prefabricated tubular members as the major characteristics. A formula for calculating the cracking
load is offered based on an investigation of the stress state of prefabricated tubular members using the
biaxial strength criterion of concrete under axial pressure. The formula for ultimate axial compressive
strength of the column of concrete filled prefabricated tubular members is derived from the
experimental data.. [7]

A total of 32 CFST members were tasted in axial compression. A tube with an outside diameter of
114.3mm and a wall thickness of 3.35mm was used in each of these samples. Four distinct L/D
values of 3, 5, 7, and 10 were employed in conjunction with four different concrete classes with
nominal compressive strengths of 30, 60, 80, and 100 MPa. Because of the confinement provided by
steel tubes, short columns (L/D=3) filled with normal strength concrete exhibited a strain hardening
tendency; as a result, a gradual strain softening was observed for steel tubes filled with 80MPa and
100MPa grade concrete. [8]

The behavior of concrete-filled steel tube columns was investigated in an experimental investigation
that included a test of 24 specimens loaded concentrically in compression to failure. The primary
18
variables in this investigation were the slenderness ratio and the strength of the materials. Overall
flexural buckling caused the failure of the columns with higher slenderness ratios. The composite
columns with a lower slenderness ratio, on the other hand, failed due to concrete crushing and steel
tube yielding. The test findings were compared to Euro code 4 and the South African code, and the
codes were found to be conservative. [9]

Axial load tests were performed on 16 CFST short columns. Normal and high-strength concrete with
compressive strengths of 44 MPa and 60 MPa were used to fill the steel tubes. The diameter-to-
thickness ratios of 20, 32, and 54 were taken into account in the experiment. The concrete
compressive strength and diameter-to-thickness ratio were the two most important variables in the
experiments. The ultimate axial strength of circular CFST columns increased as the concrete
compressive strength increased, according to test data. For increasing diameter-to-thickness ratios,
the ductility of circular CFST columns declined as the concrete compressive strength increased. The
stiffness and ultimate axial strength of axially loaded circular CFST short columns were reduced as
the diameter-to-thickness ratio was increased. As a result, the final loads computed by various
programs range significantly from experimental results. [10]

This work presents a special-section steel tubular column filled with reinforcing steel to improve the
axial bearing capacity of special-shaped concrete-filled steel tubular columns. Twelve composite L-
section steel tubular short columns filled with steel-reinforced concrete and three composite L-section
steel tubular short columns filled with concrete only were developed using the reinforcing steel index
and confining index. The failure modes of specimens, the load-deformation relationship, ultimate
bearing capacity, and the effects of the reinforcing steel index and confinement index on axial loading
behavior were all studied and tested. The method for calculating the compression bearing capacity of
a composite L-section steel tube column filled with steel-reinforced concrete was created based on
code provisions from China and other countries. The test findings show that custom shaped concrete-
filled steel tubular columns have a high axial bearing capacity. Increases in the reinforcing steel index
and confinement index can enhance strength and ductility. Engineering design can benefit from the
proposed formula.[11]

The behavior of plain and fiber reinforced concrete filled slender steel tubular columns eccentrically
loaded in compression to failure is investigated in an experimental research. The composite columns
range in length from 11D to 28D, with a diameter to thickness ratio of 38 for the steel tube. The tests
were used to determine column strength, load-strain relationships, load-mid height deflection

19
relationships, and failure modes. Companion experiments on six equivalent empty steel tubes were
also carried out to demonstrate the benefits of the composite column. When compared to normal
concrete filled steel tubular slender columns, fiber reinforced concrete filled steel tubular slender
columns offer a significant boost in column strength and ductility. [12]

The bearing capabilities of concrete-filled steel tubes are usually calculated using small-scale
specimens, but it's unclear if such calculations are accurate for the much larger components utilized in
real-world applications. The influence of varied diameters (219, 426, 630, and 820 mm) on the axial
compression of short concrete columns in steel (Q235) tubes is investigated in this study. The axial
bearing capacity is defined by three different components: the concrete's cylinder compressive
strength, the enhancement in strength due to the confining effect of the steel tube, and the steel tube's
longitudinal strength Increases in specimen diameter at peak load lower hoop stresses in the steel tube
reducing the confinement strengthening effect. The axial bearing capacity of the steel tube is directly
connected to the specimen size because vertical tension in the steel tube increases with diameter.
These three characteristics of bearing capacity have size effect coefficients that are defined and used
to build a size-dependent model for estimating the axial bearing capacity of large, concrete-filled steel
tubes. The model is then tested against real-world data.[13]

2.2. Literatures on numerical works

The comprehensive analysis of arbitrarily shaped slender steel-concrete composite columns with
two ends hinged under biaxial load is determined using a computer simulation approach. A new
fiber element method is proposed for evaluating the second-order effect, as well as load-carrying
and deformation behaviors, in the procedure. Computer software is being created to implement the
proposed numerical approach. First, a slender composite column with a rectangular cross section
and embedded H-shape structural steel is investigated as a numerical example. The whole load-
deflection curve is calculated and compared to the experimental findings. The comparison
confirms the proposed method's validity and accuracy.[14]

A meso-scale numerical approach for the simulation of failure behavior and nonlinear mechanical
characteristics of reinforced concrete elements is proposed based on a meso-mechanical analysis
model of concrete material. The current meso-mechanical methodology, also known as the meso-
element equivalent method, is capable of capturing a key feature of concrete heterogeneity. To
demonstrate the rationale of the meso-scale method, two reinforced concrete columns of various sizes

20
subjected to uniaxial compression are simulated using both a macro-scale homogeneous and a meso-
scale heterogeneous model. The simulations assume a perfect connection between the concrete and
the reinforcing steel. The results of the meso-scale simulation are compared to the macro-scale
simulation results as well as experimental data. In terms of failure patterns and global mechanical
properties, the results of the meso-scale simulation are in good agreement with experiments,
demonstrating the rationale and correctness of the current meso-mechanical approach. The current
meso-scale approach is capable of simulating not only the macroscopic mechanical properties of the
two reinforced concrete columns, but also their failure processes, such as longitudinal reinforcement
buckling, stirrup necking fractures, concrete fractured places, and so on. Furthermore, the numerical
results show that the current meso-mechanical approach can be used to evaluate the size effect in
reinforced concrete members.[15]

The concrete damaged plasticity model in Abacus was used to construct a finite element model that
has been frequently used to simulate CFST columns. Many material parameters, such as the dilation
angle (), the ratio of compressive strength under biaxial loading to uniaxial compressive strength
(fb0/fc'), and the ratio of the second stress invariant on the tensile meridian to that on the compressive
meridian, were used with default values (Kc).[16]

The behavior of pin-ended axially loaded concrete encased steel composite columns is investigated in
this work. The inelastic behavior of steel, concrete, longitudinal and transverse reinforcing bars, as
well as the effect of concrete confinement of concrete encased steel composite columns, was studied
using a nonlinear 3-D finite element model. The interface between the steel section and the concrete,
as well as the longitudinal and transverse reinforcement bars, and the reinforcement bars and
concrete, were all taken into account, allowing the bond behavior to be modeled and the various
components to maintain their profile during the column's deformation. Furthermore, the initial overall
geometric flaw (out-of-straightness) was carefully integrated into the model. Experimental results
have been used to validate the finite element model. The main objective of the study was to
understand the structural response and modes of failure of the columns and to assess the composite
column strengths against current design codes. The research looked at concrete encased steel
composite columns that were slender, non-slender, stub, and long. Normal to high strength (20–110
MPa) concrete was used. Normal to high strength (275–690 MPa) yield stresses were found in steel
sections. In addition, a parametric analysis was conducted to evaluate the variables that influence

21
composite column behavior and strength, such as varied slenderness ratios, concrete strength, and
steel yield stress. Due to the flexural buckling failure mode, it is shown that increasing structural steel
strength has only a minor impact on composite column strength for columns with larger relative
slenderness ratios. The finite element analysis composite column strengths were compared to the
design strengths determined for composite columns utilizing the American Institute for Steel
Construction AISC and Eurocode 4. In general, the EC 4 accurately forecasted the design strength for
concrete encased steel composite columns with a concrete cylinder strength of 30 MPa and structural
steel yield stresses of 275 and 460 MPa, which are within the code's restrictions, which were
otherwise conservative. For all of the concrete encased steel composite columns, the AISC
projections were quite cautious.[17]

In this study, a meso-scale finite element (FE) model of a triaxial braided composite is generated
based on realistic unit cell dimensions and fiber bundle geometry parameters. Micromechanical finite
element models were developed to predict the elastic and strength properties of each fiber bundle.
These details are then applied in a 14 unit cells meso-mechanical finite element model for a
0°/+60°/−60° triaxially braided T700s/E862 carbon/epoxy composite. Simulations of the axial tension
and transverse tension response of a straight-sided, single layer coupon are conducted using this
meso-scale model, and the predictions are compared to experimental results. By applying a periodic
boundary condition in the loading direction and an accurate number of unit cells perpendicular to the
free edge, the meso-scale model captures the local damage initiation and global failure behavior, as
well as the periodic free edge distortion effect. The failure mechanisms are studied using the field
strain and stress contours. [18]

The comprehensive analysis of arbitrarily shaped slender steel-concrete composite columns with two
ends hinged under biaxial load is determined using a computer simulation approach. A new fiber
element method is proposed for evaluating the second-order effect, as well as load-carrying and
deformation behaviors, in the procedure. Computer software is being created to implement the
proposed numerical approach. First, a slender composite column with a rectangular cross section and
embedded H-shape structural steel is investigated as a numerical example. The whole load-deflection
curve is calculated and compared to the experimental findings. The comparison confirms the
proposed method's validity and accuracy. [19]

22
For analyzing the impacts of voids on concrete tensile fracturing under the plane stress condition, a
two-dimensional mesoscale modeling framework is created, which analyzes concrete as a four-phase
material including voids. The elastic behavior of aggregate is assumed, and the mechanical behaviors
of mortar and ITZ are described using a continuum damaged plasticity model. The impacts of voids
on the fracture mechanism of concrete under uniaxial stress are first described in detail, followed by a
thorough examination of the effects of void volume fraction on concrete tensile fracturing Due to the
randomness of void distribution, both pre peak and post peak mesoscale cracking in concrete are
greatly affected by voids, and there is no obvious relationship between void volume percentage and
post peak behavior. Both the aggregate arrangement and the distribution of voids govern the fracture
pattern of concrete specimens with voids, and two types of failure mechanisms for concrete
specimens under uniaxial tension have been found. For correct fracturing simulation of concrete on
the mesoscale, it is advised that voids be accurately described.[20]

Slender circular double-skin concrete-filled steel tubular (DCFST) columns composed of high-
strength concrete are high-performance structural elements that have a wide range of uses in
engineering projects. However, there have been few investigations on the behavior, load distributions
in concrete and steel components, and confinement properties of such composite columns when
loaded eccentrically. The performance of high-strength circular DCFST thin columns subjected to
eccentric loading is computed using a new mathematical model described in this work. The
developed fast computing technique and numerical solution algorithms accommodate for initial
geometric flaws and second order effects when solving the incremental nonlinear equilibrium
equations of DCFST thin columns. The mathematical model combines correct sandwiched concrete
material constitutive equations that accurately forecast residual concrete strength and strain in the
post-yield regime. The effects of geometry and material parameters, as well as concrete confinements,
on load-deflection behavior, column strength curves, and load distributions in circular DCFST skinny
columns are quantified using a computer program that implements the mathematical model. The
mathematical model not only successfully predicts the experimental behavior of circular DCFST
slender columns, but also efficiently monitors the load distributions in concrete and steel components
of DCFST slender columns as deflection increments are increased. For circular DCFST slim columns,
the proposed mathematical model offers an accurate and efficient computational and design
technique. [21]

23
DSTCs (hybrid fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP)-concrete-steel double-skin tubular columns) are a
novel type of composite column made out of an exterior FRP tube and an inner steel tube with
concrete filling the space between them. Despite the fact that several research have been done on
hybrid DSTCs, none have been done on their behavior under blast loading. The results of a numerical
research on the behavior of hybrid DSTCs under close-in blast loading are presented in this paper.
The dependability of the resulting models is confirmed using accessible testing results. Numerical
models of hybrid DSTCs are developed using the finite-element code LS-DYNA. Numerical
simulations are used to explore the structural reactions of hybrid DSTCs under blast loading using the
validated models. Under blast loading, the simulation findings show that the hybrid DSTCs behave
ductile. The outside FRP tube effectively confines the infilled concrete, while the inner steel tube aids
in blast resistance. The effects of different factors on the blast behavior of hybrid DSTCs are
investigated using detailed parametric analyses. The simulation findings are used to evaluate and
discuss the blast resistance capacities of hybrid DSTCs, concrete-filled steel tubes (CFSTs), and
concrete-filled double-skin steel tubes (CFDSTs). [22]

Most prior research on the size impact of concrete materials has made significant progress, and
several classic size effect laws (SELs) have been proposed. However, size effect laws for RC
components such as beams, columns, and beam-column junctions are lacking. The size effect in RC
columns constrained by stirrups under axial compression is the topic of this research. A three-
dimensional mesoscale numerical approach was developed for simulating the failure of RC columns.
The numerical findings were found to be in good agreement with the known experimental results,
supporting the simulation method's logic. The simulation method was subsequently expanded to
account for the size effect of larger circular RC columns. The key metric, stirrups ratio, was tested
and assessed, which measures the size and interaction effects between the concrete and
reinforcement. The effect of the confinement effect created by stirrups on the nominal compressive
strength was also investigated. Finally, a predictive formula was developed based on the available
traditional SEL for concrete materials to represent the quantitative effects of stirrup constraint on the
size effect of RC columns during axial compression. The validation of the predictive theatrical model
using available test data is shown for comparison.[23]

24
 2.3. Literature review on analytical work

Steel tubes filled with concrete are increasingly being employed in buildings as composite structural
elements because of their higher load bearing capacity and fire resistance. With varied degrees of
accuracy, models to anticipate the behavior of composite structures under fire conditions have been
created. The effect of thermal contact resistance at the steel–concrete interfacial is ignored in these
models, which is one of their primary flaws. The lack of data in the literature measuring this metric is
the fundamental cause for this error. The interfacial thermal contact conductance of an unloaded
circular steel tube filled with non-reinforced normal concrete and exposed to high heat fluxes was
studied experimentally and analytically in this article. To calculate the thermal contact conductance as
a function of steel temperature, inverse heat conduction analysis and experimental data are employed.
Direct heat conduction modeling is used to do a sensitivity study of the effect of contact conductance
magnitude on the temperature response of the composite element. [24]

Analytical investigation of the axial compressive capacity and force–deformation behavior of

concrete encased steel stub columns. For composite stub columns with varied structural steel sections
and volumetric lateral reinforcement, an analytical model was developed to estimate the force–
deformation response. Materials employed in the composite cross section, such as unconfined
concrete, partially and strongly confined concrete, structural steel section, and longitudinal
reinforcing bar, all have constitutive connections established. Following the stress–strain equation,
the axial capacity of composite stub columns can be calculated using the strengths contributed by
each material component. The axial load-carrying capacity and force–deformation behavior measured
in the experiments may be reliably anticipated, according to the analytical results. Aside from lateral
reinforcement, the structural steel section can limit the concrete and improve its axial capacity and
post-peak strength.[25]

The results of 12 full-scale glass fiber-reinforced plastic composite columns have been thoroughly
tested and analyzed. Pultruded columns used "Universal" and "Box" cross-sections with E-glass
fibers in various forms as reinforcement and polyester and vinyl ester as binding matrices. The
"Universal" part had a slenderness ratio of 5.69 and 32.7, while the "Box" section had a slenderness
ratio of 9.38 and 53.9. 18 in. (0.46 m) and 8 ft (2.44 m). All of the columns were put through their
paces in a vertical position, with compressive axial static loads and fixed-pinned and pinned-pinned
end-conditions. During the course of this examination, the compressive strains, buckling and
25
crippling loads, lateral displacements, initial curvatures, and mechanisms of failure of the columns
were recorded. 44 coupon specimens were used to test the orthotropic mechanical capabilities of the
composites. The behavior observed in the laboratory during specimen testing was compared to the
results of linear Finite Element buckling studies done on full column models of the "Universal"
section. Additionally, the columns' unstiffened flanges were studied with various boundary conditions
using the classical orthotropic plate theory and the finite element method to determine the upper and
lower bounds of the members' local flange and web buckling capabilities. Conclusions and
recommendations were drawn based on the outcomes of the experimental evaluations and the
analytical studies. [26]

The conventional fire behavior of concrete filled steel tube (CFT) columns is predicted using a three-
step sequentially linked analytical approach presented in this study. For each phase of the process,
numerical models were created, including (1) fire dynamics analysis, (2) nonlinear heat transfer
analysis, and (3) nonlinear stress analysis. Steps 2 and 3 were carried out using 3D finite element
models with identical meshes. To verify the numerical models, an analytical matrix of fifteen CFT
column specimens subjected to standard fire tests by independent researchers was chosen. To finalize
the values of the primary model input parameters, sensitivity assessments were performed. The
construction of the numerical models, the results of the sensitivity assessments, and the comparisons
of numerical predictions with experimental results are all summarized in this study. For forecasting
the behavior of CFT columns subjected to fire loading and conducting analytical parametric
investigations, the confirmed numerical models (and model input parameters) are recommended.[27]

The compressive behavior of CFDST stub columns with SHS (square hollow section) or CHS
(circular hollow section) outer tubes and CHS inner tubes was studied using finite element analysis.
The FE modeling was validated using a set of test data supplied by several researchers. The impacts
of hollow ratio on the behavior of CFDST stub columns, as well as typical curves of average stress
against longitudinal strain, stress distributions in concrete, interaction of concrete and steel tubes, and
effects of hollow ratio on the behavior of CFDST stub columns, were shown. The effects of key
parameters that influence composite column sectional capacities were examined. [28]

This study offers a numerical algorithm for analyzing the behavior of concrete-filled steel tubular
(CFT) stub columns under axial compression and predicting various kinds of lateral interactions

26
between steel tube and filled-in-concrete. The strength and confinement effect of the steel tube and
filled-in-concrete in the CFT columns control the columns' behavior. By the contact between steel
tube and filled-in concrete at different stress stages, various lateral interactions between steel tube and
filled-in concrete in CFT columns are divided into eight different situations. The paper compares and
contrasts analytical models with published experimental results. The comparisons revealed that the
numerical program captures the mechanical behavior of concrete-filled circular steel tubes reasonably
well.[29]

This research presents a unique composite column made of steel, concrete, and a fiber reinforced
polymer (FRP) tube. When compared to a typical reinforced concrete (RC) column, the suggested
composite column has increased compressive strength, ductility, and energy dissipation capacity due
to the confinement and composite action between the constituent materials. Current design
approaches for concrete-filled steel tubes (CFSTs) or concrete-encased steel (CES) columns are not
directly applicable due to the existence of the FRP tube. For various slenderness ratio values, an
analytical model was built to predict the behavior of the composite column. The predicted values
were found to be in good agreement with experimental results from six columns ranging in height
from 500 to 3000 mm. The impact of column diameter, FRP tube thickness, axial compressive
modulus of the FRP tube, and steel-to-concrete area ratio on capacity relationships and slenderness
limits is investigated using a parametric research. Finally, a simplified design equation is presented
for predicting this sort of composite column's compressive load capacity.[30]

This paper looked at a novel type of box section composite column that combines bamboo and steel
to broaden the use of bamboo as a building material. To investigate the impacts of load level, section
size, and interface type under long-term loading, the creep characteristics of eight bamboo-steel
composite columns with various parameters were studied. The deformation evolution of the
composite column was then examined and studied under long-term loading. Also created were the
creep-time relationship curve and the creep coefficient. Furthermore, a composite column creep
model was presented based on the link between composite column creep and bamboo creep, and the
estimated creep value was compared to the experimental value. The experimental results revealed that
the composite column's creep growth was rapid at initially, but subsequently stabilized after around
90 days. Long-term load level and section size were the key influences on creep characteristics.
Between 0.160 and 0.190 was the creep coefficient. Furthermore, the creep model described in this

27
 paper could be used to forecast the creep of bamboo-steel composite columns. The calculated results
matched the experimental data rather well. [31].

2.4. Design Codes

CFST columns can currently be designed using a thorough design standard.

Most international design rules include compact restrictions that limit slenderness values to fewer
than 40. (Brain Uy 2001). The European Committee for Standardization, the American Concrete
Institute, and the Chinese Code all provide some design assistance for CFST columns. The design
codes are based on a variety of ideas, each of which can create distinct results, and the application aid
supplied differs greatly. Local buckling is taken into account in a number of design standards by
using an effective diameter or effective area technique. There is currently no Ethiopian standard
covering composite column design.

2.4.1. European Committee for Standardization (Eurocode-4)

Eurocode-4 is the most recent international composite construction standard to be released. the rigid
plastic technique of analysis, which assumes totally crushed concrete and fully yielding steel, is used
to develop the code. The technique makes use of the cylinder's entire mean compressive strength. To
determine the effect of slenderness in CFST columns, the code uses a column curve, similar to most
modern steel design standards. By keeping plate slenderness within compact plate limitations, local
buckling is avoided. It is the only code that independently treats the impacts of long-term loading and
includes concrete enhancement due to confinement in some specific instances.

2.5. Research gap

Most prior research has made significant progress in understanding the size effect of concrete
materials, and various classic size effect rules, such as the size effect of RC columns, have been
proposed, but not for high-strength concrete composite columns. The experimental work on literature
studied on performance of concrete filled steel tube column for different concrete type (high titanium
slag concrete, Semi-high titanium slag concrete & Ordinary concrete), different length and diameter
of columns are used. In this research high strength concrete is used and only diameter of the column
will be vary to focus only on size of the column instead of focusing on slenderness of the column. In
addition, a regression formula and correlation b/n variable was not developed in the literature. This
study focuses on filling the gap on the literature.

28
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1. Introduction

The Mechanical APDL (ANSYS) computer program is a large-scale multipurpose finite element
program which may be used for solving several classes of engineering analyses. The analysis
capabilities of Mechanical APDL include the ability to solve static and dynamic structural analyses,
steady-state and transient heat transfer problems, mode-frequency and buckling eigenvalue problems,
static or time-varying magnetic analyses, and various types of field and coupled-field applications.
The program contains many special features which allow nonlinearities or secondary effects to be
included in the solution, such as plasticity, large strain, hyper elasticity, creep, swelling, large
deflections, contact, stress stiffening, temperature dependency, material anisotropy, and radiation. As
Mechanical APDL has been developed, other special capabilities, such as sub structuring, sub
modeling, random vibration, kinetostatics, kinetodynamics, free convection fluid analysis, acoustics,
magnetics, piezoelectrics, and coupled-field analysis have been added to the program. These
capabilities contribute further to making Mechanical APDL a multipurpose analysis tool for varied
engineering disciplines. The Mechanical APDL (ANSYS) program has been in commercial use since
1970, and has been used extensively in the aerospace, automotive, construction, electronic, energy
services, manufacturing, nuclear, plastics, oil, and steel industries. In addition, many consulting firms
and hundreds of universities use Mechanical APDL for analysis, research, and educational use.
Mechanical APDL is recognized worldwide as one of the most widely used and capable programs of
its type. The primary purpose of this manual is to demonstrate a wide range of Mechanical APDL
elements and capabilities in straightforward problems which have "classical" or readily-obtainable
theoretical solutions. Furthermore, the close agreement of the Mechanical APDL solutions to the
theoretical results in this manual is intended to provide user confidence in the Mechanical APDL
solutions. An attempt has been made to include most element types and major solution capabilities of
Mechanical APDL in this set of test cases. These problems may then serve as the basis for additional
validation and qualification of Mechanical APDL capabilities by the user for specific applications
that may be of interest. Some procedures (methods) are listed below:-

29
  Element type, concrete and steel material property and section data are the first inputs of the
software
 Create local coordinate axis, create cylinder, loading & support plates, element size, concrete
volume and steel tube meshing and merging of similar nodes proceeds as second input code.
 Loading and boundary conditions
 Load deflection plots are the last output of the software.
 The load and deflection results serve as input for SPSS software.
 The output (coefficients) from the SPSS will be used to create regression formula.

3.2. Validated Spacemen Details

To investigate the differences in axial compression properties between high titanium slag CFST
columns and normal CFST columns, 32 CFST specimens were designed, as shown in Figure 3.1.
taking into account the effects of length–diameter ratio, concrete strength grade, steel tube strength
grade, and steel content. Full-height titanium slag concrete was used in twelve, half-height titanium
slag concrete in twelve, and ordinary concrete in eight. All of the coarse and fine aggregates in full-
high titanium slag concrete are replaced with high titanium slag, whereas some of the coarse and fine
aggregates are replaced with high titanium slag in half-high titanium slag concrete. A F 30 mm
vibrator was used to startle the concrete in a steel tube into place. At the same time, a set of 150 150
150 mm standard cube concrete blocks was set aside for each concrete grade, under the identical
conditions as the CFST specimens, which were naturally cured inside with sack coverings and
watering. Welded straight-seam circular steel tubing with a diameter of 114 mm and grades Q235 and
Q345 was used. Universal testing equipment was used to test the material's strength at room
temperature using the conventional tensile testing method for metallic materials.

Figure 3.1: Experimentally tasted CFST columns (Chunli Zhou et al. 2019)
30
3.2.1. Geometry

There are three methods of creating geometry in ANSYS Mechanical APDL 2020R2. These are:

 Creating a solid model within Mechanical APDL.

 Using direct generation.
 Importing a model created in a computer-aided design (CAD) system.

Solid modeling and direct generation are the two ways that can be used to generate the model. Solid
modeling describes the model's geometric boundaries, allows you to choose the size and shape of
your elements, and then tells the Mechanical APDL software to generate all of the nodes and
elements automatically. The direct generation approach, on the other hand, defines the placement of
each node as well as the size, form, and connectedness of each element before creating these entities
in your Mechanical APDL model.

Although some automatic data generation is feasible, the direct generation method is basically a
hands-on, "manual" method that needs keeping track of all node numbers as the finite element mesh
is developed. This detailed bookkeeping can become tedious for large models, contributing to the
potential for modeling errors. Solid modeling is usually more powerful and versatile than direct
generation and is commonly the preferred method for generating the model

Table3.1: Geometric property CFST to be validated (Chunli Zhou et al. 2019)

length (L) diameter steel thickness (t)
mm (D)mm mm D/t ratio L/D
600 113.2 3 21.35 5.3

3.2.2. Material Property

Table3.2: CFST material property of spacemen BZ600-1 (Chunli Zhou et al. 2019) for validation

Fc Fck Fy
Ѵc Ec Ѵs Es
(MPA) (MPA) (MPA)

30 21.1 0.189 30400 237 0.284 20800

31
3.2.3. Loading and Boundary Conditions

The tests were conducted at Panzhihua University's Structural Laboratory. The loading device was a
hydraulic loading system that included a 200-ton hydraulic jack and a custom response frame.
Preload and load capacity detection were the two stages of the loading program. The specimen was
loaded to 20% of its nominal load capacity during the preload stage, then emptied to 0%. This stage's
goal was to see if the loading device and data collecting system were working properly, as well as to
perform mechanical alignment on the specimen. The success of this experiment hinged on strict
alignment. The loading stage was first carried out at the stage of detecting load capacity, with a
loading step interval of 10% of the nominal bearing capacity and a 5-10 minute interval between
steps. After the steel tube has yielded, the load is reduced to 5% of the nominal bearing capacity until
the specimen has been destroyed. The average longitudinal compression deformation was recorded
with four displacement transducers positioned around the specimen at symmetrical points of every 90
degrees, and the pressure value of the jack was monitored with a 200 t force sensor. At the 1/2 height
of the specimen, two longitudinal and transverse strain gauges (a total of eight strain gauges for each
specimen) were arranged at symmetrical positions every 90 degrees to measure the longitudinal strain
and the circumferential strain, respectively .The force sensor, displacement transducer and strain
gauge were all connected to the static strain indicator for automatic data collecting and recording.

Figure 3.2: Loading and testing: (a) Test setup; (b) Schematic diagram of the layout of
displacement transducer and strain gauge (Chunli Zhou et al. 2019)

32
3.3. Finite Element Analysis Procedures

The finite element analysis procedures are discussed as shown below

3.3.1. Elemental Idealizations

In finite element analysis (FEA), idealization is the process of converting a real structure to a
collection of finite elements. At its most basic level, the operation would consist of a single CAD-
generated geometric model that was fully mesh in one operation. This creates a constant mesh
throughout the structure, which we hope will accurately mimic the real-world response.

The structure is represented by a set of discrete finite elements in the FEA approach. Each part has its
own basic "knowledge" of what a structural reaction entails. This could be a very basic depiction,
such as a one-dimensional rod with a constant axial force, or a complex three-dimensional element.
The discrete representation has two major flaws: it cannot be a continuous representation by
definition, and it is also dependent on the element's accuracy. Although the majority of elements are
now mature, stable entities, it is still important to understand their capabilities and limitations

3.3.1.1. Element type for concrete

CPT215, a 3-D eight-node linked pore-pressure mechanical solid element, is used to model the
concrete. The element is made up of eight nodes, each with four degrees of freedom: nodal x, y, and z
translations, as well as one pore-pressure degree of freedom at each corner node. Using a nonlocal
field, CPT215 may simulate coupled physics phenomena like structural-pore-fluid-diffusion-thermal
analysis and structural implicit gradient regularization. CPT215 has elasticity, stress stiffening, large
deflection, and large strain capabilities. Various printout options are available.

It's crucial to consider whether a free mesh or a mapped mesh is acceptable for the study before
meshing or even generating the model. A free mesh has no limits on the forms of its elements and no
pattern applied to it. The shape of the elements in a mapped mesh is limited, as is the pattern of the
mesh. A mapped area mesh is made up entirely of quadrilateral or triangular elements, whereas a
mapped volume mesh is made up entirely of hexahedron elements. A mapped mesh, on the other
hand, usually has a consistent pattern with distinct rows of pieces. If the Mapped mesh is chosen, the
geometry must be built as a series of fairly regular volumes and/or areas that can accept a mapped
mesh. In this study, the concrete has meshed with Mapped Hexahedral-shaped element meshing. The
element size of the mesh is 30mm

33
3.3.1.2. Element type for hollow steel tube
SHELL181, which is ideal for evaluating thin to moderately thick shell constructions, is the element
type utilized for hollow steel material type. It's a four-node element having six degrees of freedom at
each node: x, y, and z translations, as well as rotations around the x, y, and z-axes. (The element has
only translational degrees of freedom if the membrane option is chosen.) In mesh generation, the
degenerate triangular option should only be utilized as filler pieces. SHELL181 is ideal for nonlinear
linear, big rotation, and/or large strain applications. Nonlinear analyses take into consideration
changes in shell thickness. Both complete and limited integration techniques are supported in the
element domain. It also accounts for dispersed Pressures' follower (load stiffness) effects. SHELL181
can be used to represent composite shells or sandwich construction in multilayer applications.
The first-order shear-deformation theory governs the accuracy of modeling composite shells (usually
referred to as Mindlin-Reissner shell theory). Logarithmic strain and real stress metrics are used in
the element formulation. Finite membrane strains are possible thanks to the element kinematics
(stretching).

Figure 3.3: FEM modeled CFST column

34
3.3.2. Mesh Sensitivity Study

Meshing is the act of breaking down an object's continuous geometric space into thousands or more
shapes in order to adequately define the object's physical shape. The graph below depicts a mesh
sensitivity research for several mesh sizes (50mm, 40mm, 30mm, and 20mm). The mesh size of
30mm is compatible with the experimental load displacement graph, as seen in the graph below. For
the investigation of various parameters, a mesh size of 30mm was chosen.

600 500
500
400

Load(KN)
400
Load(KN)

300
300
200
200 50mm 40mm
100 100
0 0
0 10 20 0 10 20
Displacement(mm) Displacement(mm)

600 600
500 500
400
Load, KN

400
Load(KN)

300
300 200
200 30mm 100 20mm
0
100
7.365
0
2.3025
3.6975
5.4075

9.1875

16.1175
11.92125

0
0 10 20
DIisplacement(mm) Displacement, mm

Figure 3. 4 Mesh sensitivity study for different mesh size

3.3.3. Analysis Type

A nonlinear analysis is one in which the applied forces and displacements have a nonlinear
relationship. Geometrical nonlinearities (large deformations), material nonlinearities (elasto-plastic
material), and touch can all cause nonlinear effects. As a result of these impacts, the stiffness matrix
does not remain constant during the load application. In contrast, in a linear static analysis, the
stiffness matrix is kept constant. As a result, the nonlinear analysis requires a different solving
technique and, as a result, a different solver. The ANSYS Mechanical APDL is used to estimate
35
 displacements, stresses, strains, and forces in structures or components induced by loads that do not
induce significant inertia or damping effects.

3.4. Finite element Parametric Study

Based on the verified FE models, an extensive Parametric study is conducted to investigate the effects
of various parameters of circular concrete-filled steel tubular columns subjected to concentric load,
This study is conducted using 64 CFST columns models have been conducted. The detail of the
specimens is shown below (table 3.3).

3.4.1. Geometry and Parameters (Variables)

Table3.3: geometry and parameters of CFST columns

Type t(mm) L(mm) D(mm) FC(MPA) FY(MPA)
T1D1 3 800 100 50 239
T1D2 3 800 110 50 239
T1D3 3 800 120 50 239
T1D4 3 800 130 50 239
T2D1 4 800 100 50 239
T2D2 4 800 110 50 239
T2D3 4 800 120 50 239
T2D4 4 800 130 50 239
T3D1 5 800 100 50 239
T3D2 5 800 110 50 239
T3D3 5 800 120 50 239
T3D4 5 800 130 50 239
T4D1 6 800 100 50 239
T4D2 6 800 110 50 239
T4D3 6 800 120 50 239
T4D4 6 800 130 50 239
C2D1 3 800 100 60 239
C2D2 3 800 110 60 239
C2D3 3 800 120 60 239
C2D4 3 800 130 60 239
C3D1 3 800 100 70 239
C3D2 3 800 110 70 239
C3D3 3 800 120 70 239
C3D4 3 800 130 70 239
FY2D1 3 800 100 50 420
FY2D2 3 800 110 50 420
36
 FY2D3 3 800 120 50 420
FY2D4 3 800 130 50 420

3.5 . Regression

The purpose of the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) table is to attribute the total variation of the
dependent variable to the regression model (the regression source in column 1) and the residuals (the
error source from column 1).
Analysis of Variance Table (ANOVA)
Source Df SS df/SS
Regression K SSreg MSR
Error N-K-1 SSres MSE
Total N-1 SStotal

Where, ∑ ( )2, ȳ, is mean value of the dependent variable

∑ ( )2 ŷ, is the value of the dependent variable using the regression

equation and y is the dependent variable

∑ ( )2

The coefficient of determination, R2, is the percentage of variation in the dependent variable
explained by the independent variables.

R2 = SSreg/SStotal

The general multiple regression is;-

y = β0 + β1X1+ β2X2 + β3X3 + β4X4………+βnXn

where, β0 is intercept

βn is the slope coefficient on the nth independent variable

Xn is the observation on nth variable

37
The correlation coefficient, r, is a measure of the strength of the relationship between or among
variables.

( )( )

[∑ ( )( )]

√∑ ( )
√∑ ( )

Where, r, is correlation coefficient, X is the independent variable, Y is the dependent variable, N

is sample size & i is number of observation and the table below shows result of regression and
correlation.

38
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Introductions

The aim of this research is performing parametric investigation to enhance the size effect on the
performance of high strength concrete filled steel tube column and to create regression and
correlation formula. This enhancement has been described in terms of axial load-bearing capacity,
ductility, and percentage capacity difference for different parameters. Experimental results from [2]
are assumed to be valid results to continue parametric analysis. This model formed the basis for
checking the validity of the FE model using ANSYS Mechanical APDL.

4.1. Finite Element Validation Analysis Results

The graph from the FEM work has been validated by the experimental load-displacement graph as
shown on the figure below (figure 4.1).

600
500
400
load(KN)

300 expt
200 FEM
100
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20
displacement (mm)

Figure 4. 1: Validation result

4.2. Finite Element Parametric Study results

Based on the verified FE model the main objective of the research as well as specific objectives of the
research has been discussed individually in this section. Some of these are theoretical assumptions
while other objectives of the research have been supported by empirical evidence.

39
Table 4.1: FEM load result

Type t(mm) L(mm) D(mm) FC(MPA) FY(MPA) FEM,Load(KN)

T1D1 3 800 100 50 239 483
T1D2 3 800 110 50 239 549.75
T1D3 3 800 120 50 239 628.755
T1D4 3 800 130 50 239 715.743
T2D1 4 800 100 50 239 558.9
T2D2 4 800 110 50 239 633.089
T2D3 4 800 120 50 239 719.386
T2D4 4 800 130 50 239 813.91
T3D1 5 800 100 50 239 635.0194
T3D2 5 800 110 50 239 716.782
T3D3 5 800 120 50 239 810.397
T3D4 5 800 130 50 239 912.177
T4D1 6 800 100 50 239 711.419
T4D2 6 800 110 50 239 800.783
T4D3 6 800 120 50 239 901.747
T4D4 6 800 130 50 239 1010.77
C2D1 3 800 100 60 239 523.616
C2D2 3 800 110 60 239 597.229
C2D3 3 800 120 60 239 685.865
C2D4 3 800 130 60 239 782.922
C3D1 3 800 100 70 239 564.168
C3D2 3 800 110 70 239 644.774
C3D3 3 800 120 70 239 742.943
C3D4 3 800 130 70 239 850.286
FY2D1 3 800 100 50 420 655.8
FY2D2 3 800 110 50 420 737.417
FY2D3 3 800 120 50 420 833.092
FY2D4 3 800 130 50 420 938.03

4.2.1. Effect of concrete grade

As shown on the figure below fig ( 4.3 ), the performance (axial load carrying capacity) of columns
for C-50MPA increases by an average value of 11.59 % as the column size increases by 10mm
Diameter of the column. For 60MPA and 70MPA grade of concrete the load capacity of the column
increasesby12.55% & 12.78% respectively for 10mm increment of diameter of the column. As the
grade of concrete increases from C-50MPA to C-60MPA the capacity of CFST Column also
40
increases by an average value of 8.15%. And also for an increment of concrete grade from C-60MPA
to C-70 MPA and from C-50MPA to C-70MPA the load carrying capacity of the column also
increases by an average value of 7.54% and 15.08% respectively. For CFST column as shown on fig
as the grade of concrete reaches at C-70MPA the stress on the column also increases and the concrete
core starts to crack, this Leeds the column to fail by crashing of concrete prior to yielding of steel.
Due to the large stress on the concrete core the steel tube also concedes large amount of stress and
local buckling of the tube wall occurs near to the bottom leg of the column.

600

500

400
Load, KN

300 c50
c60
200
c70
100

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Displacement, mm

Figure 4. 2: Load- displacement graph of different concrete grade

18
16
% Load capacity Difference

14
12
10
C50 TO C60
8
C60 TO C70
6
C50 TO C70
4
2
0
100 110 120 130
Column diameter, mm

Figure 4. 3: % Load capacity difference for d/t concrete grade

41
 C-50 C-60 C-70

Figure 4. 4: Concrete damage plot for d/t concrete grade

C-50 C-60 C-70

Figure 4. 5: Steel tube damage plot for d/t concrete grade

4.2.2. Effect of steel thickness

When we see the result of steel thickness for hot rolled steel section its effect is on both load carrying
capacity and ductility of the column. As the steel thickness increases, the load carrying capacity and
ductility coefficient of the column also increases. For an increment of thickness of hollow steel tube,
there is an increase of stress on the concrete core and the hollow steel tube at the top and bottom leg
of column while the stress on the mid span of the column remains unchanged. As thickness of steel
tube increases from 3mm to 4mm, the capacity of the column increases by an average value of
42
10.86%. for an increment of steel thickness from 4mm to 5mm and from 5mm to 6mm there is also
an increase on load capacity of the column by 9.7% and 8.9%. this shows that as the thickness of the
column increases the average percentage capacity increment decreases.

800

700

600

500
Load,KN

3mm
400
4mm
300
5mm
200 6mm
100

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Displacement, mm

Figure 4. 6 : Load-displacement graph for d/t steel thicknes

16

14

12
% Load capacity difference

10

8 3mm to 4mm
4mm to 5mm
6
5mm to 6mm
4

0
100 110 120 130
Column diameter,mm

Figure 4. 7 : % Load capacity difference for d/t steel thickness

43
 t-3mm t-4mm t-5mm t-6mm

Figure 4. 8 : Concrete damage plot for d/t steel thickness

t-3mm t-4mm t-5mm t-6mm

Figure 4. 9 : Steel tube damage plot for d/t steel thickness

4.2.3. Effect of steel grade

For a steel grade fy =239, as the size of the column increases by a diameter of 10mm, the load carry-
ing capacity of the column increases by an average value of 11.59%. For a steel grade of fy= 420,
there is an increase of load carrying capacity of the column by 11.25% for an increase of the size of
the column by 10mm diameter. This shows that steel grade has no significant effect on the size of the
column. As the grade of steel increases from fy-239 to fy-420 the load carrying capacity of the col-
umn also increases by an average value of 25.01%.

As steel grade increases from fy=239 to fy 420 the column becomes stiff and the stress at the top leg
of the column slightly increases.
44
 700

600

500
Load, KN

400

300 FY-239
FY-420
200

100

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Displacement, mm

Figure 4. 10: Load-displacement graph for d/t steel grade

27

26.5

26
% Load capacity difference

25.5

25

24.5

24 fy239 to fy 420

23.5

23

22.5

22
100 110 120 130
Column diameter, mm

Figure 4. 11: % Load capacity difference for d/t steel grade

45
 Fy-239 fy-420

Figure 4. 12: Concrete damage plot for d/t steel grade

Fy-239 fy-420

Figure 4. 13: Steel tube damage plot for d/t steel grade
4.2.4. Regression and correlation formula result

As shown on the table below (table 4.5) the value of r (correlation coefficient) for each independent
variable is different from zero (r≠0) which shows that every independent variables have linear
correlation ship with the dependent variable, and also the value of r, which is greater than zero (r>0)
shows that the direction of the correlation ship between the dependent and the independent variable is
positive and r < 0 shows that the direction of the correlation ship between the dependent and the
independent variable is negative. Since the value of r for steel thickness and diameter of the column
(0.50931 & 0.51929) respectively is > 0 they have positive correlation ship with the capacity of the
column. But the value of r for length is < 0, which shows the correlation ship between length and
capacity of the column is negative.
46
 When we see the strength of the correlation ship for steel thickness and diameter of the column
having the value of correlation coefficient r= 0.50931 and r= 0.51929 respectively, which is greater
than 0.4 it shows that the correlation ship between both steel thickness and diameter of the column
has moderate correlation ship with capacity of the column.

The value of significance (P value) from the table below (table 4.5) < 0.5 shows that the independent
variables have significant effect on the dependent variable, which means all the variables (steel
thickness ,column length & diameter of the column) have either positive or negative significant
effect on the load carrying capacity of high strength CFST columns. Unlike steel thickness and
diameter of the column, Length of the column has negative significance effect on the capacity of the
column. By taking the coefficients from the table below ( ), the regression formula becomes:-

Load = -369.3798+70.89064t – 0.096933L + 7.227675D.

From the above regression equation for a unit mm increment of steel thickness and column diameter
the capacity of CFST column also increases by 70.89064KN and 7.2277KN respectively. Unlike steel
thickness and diameter of the column, as the length of the column decreases by 1mm the capacity of
the column also decreases by 0.09693KN.

Table 4.2: Correlation results

corelation result
t(mm) L(mm) D(mm) Load(KN)
t(mm) 1
L(mm) 0 1
D(mm) 0 0 1
Load(KN) 0.50931 -0.1393 0.51929 1

Table 4.3: Regression results

Coefficients Standard Error t Stat P-value

Intercept -369.3798 155.561448 -2.37449427 0.0207885
t(mm) 70.89064 12.07390996 5.87139053 2.013E-07
L(mm) -0.096933 0.06036955 -1.60566129 0.0435993
D(mm) 7.227675 1.207390996 5.986192957 1.296E-07

47
 4.2.4.1. Comparison between FEM load result and load result from regression formula
Table 4.4: Load result comparison

% differ-
ence B/n
FEM FEM
Load(KN) Load and
Regression Reg.
t(mm) L(mm) D(mm) fc(mpa) fy(mpa) load Load
3 800 100 50 239 483 487 0.82%
3 800 110 50 239 549.75 561 2.01%
3 800 120 50 239 628.755 633 0.67%
3 800 130 50 239 715.743 705 1.50%
4 800 100 50 239 558.9 559 0.02%
4 800 110 50 239 633.089 631 0.33%
4 800 120 50 239 719.386 704 2.14%
4 800 130 50 239 813.91 778 4.41%
5 800 100 50 239 635.0194 630 0.79%
5 800 110 50 239 716.782 702 2.06%
5 800 120 50 239 810.397 776 4.24%
5 800 130 50 239 912.177 848 7.04%
6 800 100 50 239 711.419 701 1.46%
6 800 110 50 239 800.783 774 3.34%
6 800 120 50 239 901.747 847 6.07%
6 800 130 50 239 1010.77 920 8.98%

14 15
% Load capacity difference
% Load capacity difference

12
10 10
8
3mm to 4mm 3mm to 4mm
6
4 4mm to 5mm 5 4mm to 5mm
2 5mm to 6mm 5mm to 6mm
0 0
100 110 120 130 100 110 120 130
Column diameter, mm Column diameter,mm

(a) (b)

Figure 4. 14 : (a) % Load capacity difference from regression, (b) % Load capacity difference from
FEM
48
When the result from the regression formula is compared to the load result from the finite element
analysis there is a minimum percentage difference of 0.02% and a maximum percentage difference of
8.98%, which shows that the accuracy of the regression formula is suitable for smaller size of the col-
umn. As the size of the column increases, the accuracy of the regression formula decreases.

As the steel thickness increases from 3mm to 4mm, the 10.86% percentage difference from FEM
analysis decreases to 9.38% on regression formula. When it increases from 4mm to 5mm & from
5mm to 6mm, the result from FEM (9.7% and 8.9%) respectively decreases to 8.25% & 7.83 in re-
gression formula.

49
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1. Conclusion

The performance of axially loaded high strength concrete filled steel tube column has been simulated
by ANSYS 2020R2 to detect the effect of size on high strength CFST column. The simulation
procedure attempts to model the experimentally tasted concrete filled steel tube column available on
the literature for validation. Before preceding to the parametric study the outcome from ANSYS
2020R2 has been validated with the experimentally tasted CFST column. Mesh sensitivity study has
been done using load displacement graph and the peak load value until the difference between the
experimental & Fem result becomes narrow. Since the difference in result between experimental &
FEM value becomes 9% < 20% the parametric study has been started. After validation the proposed
model is used to study the performance of high strength CFST column having different size. The
correlation of each parameter with the performance of high strength CFST column has been also
detected. Finally the regression formula is created to generalize the objective of the study. The result
from the study includes:

 The performance (axial load carrying capacity) of columns for C-50MPA increases by an av-
erage value of 11.59 % as the column size increases by 10mm Diameter of the column. For
60MPA and 70MPA grade of concrete the load capacity of the column increases by12.55% &
12.78% respectively for 10mm increment of diameter of the column.
 As the grade of concrete increases from C-50MPA to C-60MPA the capacity of CFST Col-
umn also increases by an average value of 8.15%. And also for an increment of concrete grade
from C-60MPA to C-70 MPA and from C-50MPA to C-70MPA the load carrying capacity of
the column also increases by an average value of 7.54% and 15.08% respectively.

 As thickness of steel tube increases from 3mm to 4mm, the capacity of the column increases
by an average value of 10.86%. for an increment of steel thickness from 4mm to 5mm and
from 5mm to 6mm there is also an increase on load capacity of the column by 9.7% and 8.9%.
this shows that as the thickness of the column increases the average percentage capacity
increment decreases.

50
 For an increment of thickness of hollow steel tube, there is an increase of stress on the con-
crete core and the hollow steel tube at the top and bottom leg of column while the stress on the
mid span of the column remains unchanged
 For a steel grade fy =239, as the size of the column increases by a diameter of 10mm, the load
carrying capacity of the column increases by an average value of 11.59%. For a steel grade of
fy= 420, there is an increase of load carrying capacity of the column by 11.25% for an in-
crease of the size of the column by 10mm diameter.

 As the grade of steel increases from fy-239 to fy-420 the load carrying capacity of the column
also increases by an average value of 25.01%. As steel grade increases from fy=239 to fy 420
the column becomes stiff and the stress at the top leg of the column slightly increases.
 For small size of the column there is a 0.02% average difference b/n FEM analysis result and
result from regression formula. And for large size of the column there is 8.98% difference b/n
the FEM & regression formula load result.
 As the size of the column increases, the accuracy of the regression formula decreases.

51
 5.2. Recommendations and future works

The main focus of this study is the size effect on the performance of high strength CFST column. It
determines the percentage difference in the capacity of high strength CFST as the size (L/D) of the
column increases by 1. And also the strength of the correlation of parameters with the capacity of the
column is identified. The regression formula also created to estimate the load carrying capacity of the
column as the parameters increased by a unit. It is recommended that additional studies must be
conducted on the interaction between steel grade and concrete grade, steel thickness with different
size of column.
An additional study must be conducted to create the regression formula and to understand the
correlation strength of steel thickness, steel grade, size (D) and concrete grade with the performance
of different shape of columns such as; - rectangular and square concrete columns.

52
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57
 APPENDICES
Appendices A: macro code for validated spacemen ( ANSYS 2020R2)

/prep7

! element types
ET,1,215
keyopt,1,18,2 !activates the 2 extra DOFs
ET,2,181
keyopt,2,1,0 ! Bendng + Membrane option
keyopt,2,11,1 ! Element X-axis specified by ESYS

! concrete material property defination

fcm= 29.1 ! concrete mean characterstics strength
fuc = fcm*0.85 ! concrete cylinder strength
nu = 0.186
E = 30400
fub = 1.16*fuc
fut = 1.4*(fuc/10)**(2/3)
Rt = 1
Dx = 4000
sigVc0 = -1.3*fuc
R=2
c = 1600
m = 2.5
gamt0 = 0
gamc0 = 2e-5
betat = 3000*0.111
betac = 2000*0.111
MP,EX,1,E
MP,NUXY,1,nu

TB,MPLA,1,,,DPC
TBDATA,1,fuc,fub,fut,Rt,Dx,sigVc0
TBDATA,7,R,gamt0,gamc0,betat,betac

TB,MPLA,1,,,NLOCAL
TBDATA,1,c,m

! steel material property

58
MP,EX,2,208000 ! steel modulus of elasticity
MP,NUXY,2,0.284 ! steel poission ratio
TB,BISO,2
TBDATA,1,237,1000 ! 237 MPa steel Yield strength

! sections
sect,1,shell,,
secdata, 3,2,0,9
secoffset,MID
seccontrol,0,0,0, 0, 1, 1, 1

MP,EX,4,200000 ! steel plate for loading and support

MP,NUXY,4,0.284 !

/prep7

! key points to create local coordinate axis

K,1000,0,0,0,
K,1001,0,0,113.2*0.5,
K,1002,113.2*0.5,0,0,

! create local coordinate axis

CSKP,11,0,1000,1001,1002,
CSYS,11,
WPCSYS,-1

! creat cylinder diam 113.2; height 600 plus 15 height loading plate
CYL4, , ,113.2*0.5, , , ,615

! support plate - creat cylinder diam 113.2; height 15

CYL4, , ,113.2*0.5, , , ,-15

CSYS,0

! slice V1 into two volumes

CYL4, , ,100, , , ,
*GET, AA2, AREA, 0, NUM, MAX,

ASEL,S, , , AA2
AGEN,1+1,all, , , ,600 , , ,0

59
*GET, AA3, AREA, 0, NUM, MAX,
VSBA,1,AA3
Adele,AA2,AA3

NUMCMP,LINE ! compress number

NUMCMP,AREA
NUMCMP,Volume

! element size
esize,30

! Concrete volume meshing

TYPE,1
MAT,1
REAL,
ESYS,0
SECNUM,
MSHAPE,1,3D
MSHKEY,0
VMESH,ALL
! steel tube meshing
TYPE,2
MAT,2
REAL,
ESYS,0
SECNUM,1
AMESH,8,9
! change loading plate material number
ALLSEL,ALL
VSEL,NONE
VSEL,A, , , 1
VSEL,A, , , 3
ESLV,R
MPCHG,4,ALL,
!merges all simmilar nodes and elements
esel,all
NSEL,ALL
NUMMRG,NODE, , , ,LOW
NUMMRG,KP, , , ,LOW

/Solution
60
! Boundary condition
NSEL,S,LOC,Y,-15
D,All,ALL,0

! loading, vary -5 all the way until failure

NSEL,S,LOC,Y, 615
NSEL,R,LOC,X, 30
D,All,UY,-18

esel,all
nsel,all

TIME,1
NSUBST,30, 100, 20, on
OUTRES,ALL,1 ! WRITE ALL OUTPUT

SOLVE
SAVE
FINISH

finish
/prep7

! node coordinate at which deflection is read, here Uy deflection or set n_uy = node number
n_uy=NODE(113.2*0.5*0.5,615,113.2*0.5*0.5)

! loading nodes from Y3

NSEL,S,LOC,Y, 615
NSEL,R,LOC,x, 30

*GET, n_min, NODE, 0, NUM, MIN, ,

*GET, n_max, NODE, 0, NUM, MAX, ,

*GET, n_count, NODE, 0, COUNT, , ,

61
finish
/POST1
SET,LAST

finish
/POST26

ii=n_min

*do,i,1,n_count,1

rforce,2, ii,F,Y,FY
ADD, 3, 3, 2,,FYT,,,,-0.001, ! 0.001 is to change force N into KN out put and symmetric
ii=NDNEXT(ii)

*ENDDO

NSOL,4,n_uy,U,Y,UY

ABS,4,4,,,UY

/AXlab,X,displacement [mm]
/AXlab,Y,force [kN]
XVAR, 4
PLVAR, 3

Appendices B: macro code for parametric study of CFST column (ANSYS 2020R2)

/prep7
! element types
ET,1,215
keyopt,1,18,2 !activates the 2 extra DOFs
ET,2,181
keyopt,2,1,0 ! Bendng + Membrane option
keyopt,2,11,1 ! Element X-axis specified by ESYS

! concrete material property definition

fcm= 41.5 ! concrete mean characterstics strength

62
fuc = fcm*0.85 ! concrete cylinder strength
nu = 0.186
E = 40044
fub = 1.16*fuc
fut = 1.4*(fuc/10)**(2/3)
Rt = 1
Dx = 4000
sigVc0 = -1.3*fuc
R=2
c = 1600
m = 2.5
gamt0 = 0
gamc0 = 2e-5
betat = 3000*0.111
betac = 2000*0.111

MP,EX,1,E
MP,NUXY,1,nu

TB,MPLA,1,,,DPC
TBDATA,1,fuc,fub,fut,Rt,Dx,sigVc0
TBDATA,7,R,gamt0,gamc0,betat,betac

TB,MPLA,1,,,NLOCAL
TBDATA,1,c,m

! steel material property

MP,EX,2,208000 ! steel modulus of elasticity

MP,NUXY,2,0.284 ! steel poission ratio
TB,BISO,2
TBDATA,1,239,1000 ! 239 MPa steel Yield strength

! sections
sect,1,shell,,
secdata, 3,2,0,9
secoffset,MID
seccontrol,0,0,0, 0, 1, 1, 1

MP,EX,4,200000 ! steel plate for loading and support

MP,NUXY,4,0.284 !

63
/prep7

! key points to create local coordinate axis

K,1000,0,0,0,
K,1001,0,0,100*0.5,
K,1002,100*0.5,0,0,

! create local coordinate axis

CSKP,11,0,1000,1001,1002,
CSYS,11,
WPCSYS,-1

! creat cylinder diam 100; height 400 plus 15 height loading plate
CYL4, , ,100*0.5, , , ,415

! support plate - creat cylinder diam 100; height 15

CYL4, , ,100*0.5, , , ,-15

CSYS,0

! slice V1 into two volumes

CYL4, , ,100, , , ,
*GET, AA2, AREA, 0, NUM, MAX,

ASEL,S, , , AA2
AGEN,1+1,all, , , ,400 , , ,0

*GET, AA3, AREA, 0, NUM, MAX,

VSBA,1,AA3
Adele,AA2,AA3

NUMCMP,LINE ! compress number

NUMCMP,AREA
NUMCMP,Volume

! element size
esize,30

! Concrete volume meshing

TYPE,1
64
MAT,1
REAL,
ESYS,0
SECNUM,
MSHAPE,1,3D
MSHKEY,0
VMESH,ALL

! steel tube meshing

TYPE,2
MAT,2
REAL,
ESYS,0
SECNUM,1
AMESH,8,9

! change loading plate material number

ALLSEL,ALL
VSEL,NONE
VSEL,A, , , 1
VSEL,A, , , 3
ESLV,R
MPCHG,4,ALL,

!merges all simmilar nodes and elements

esel,all
NSEL,ALL
NUMMRG,NODE, , , ,LOW
NUMMRG,KP, , , ,LOW

/Solution

! Boundary condition
NSEL,S,LOC,Y,-15
D,All,ALL,0

! loading, vary -5 all the way until failure

NSEL,S,LOC,Y, 415
65
D,All,UY,-5

esel,all
nsel,all

TIME,1
NSUBST,30, 100, 20, on
OUTRES,ALL,1 ! WRITE ALL OUTPUT

SOLVE
SAVE
FINISH

finish
/prep7

! node coordinate at which deflection is read, here Uy deflection or set n_uy = node number
n_uy=NODE(100*0.5*0.5,415,100*0.5*0.5)

! loading nodes from Y3

NSEL,S,LOC,Y, 415

*GET, n_min, NODE, 0, NUM, MIN, ,

*GET, n_max, NODE, 0, NUM, MAX, ,

*GET, n_count, NODE, 0, COUNT, , ,

finish
/POST1
SET,LAST

finish
/POST26

66
ii=n_min

*do,i,1,n_count,1

rforce,2, ii,F,Y,FY
ADD, 3, 3, 2,,FYT,,,,-0.001, ! 0.001 is to change force N into KN output and symmetric
ii=NDNEXT(ii)

*ENDDO

NSOL,4,n_uy,U,Y,UY

ABS,4,4,,,UY

/AXlab,X,displacement [mm]
/AXlab,Y,force [kN]
XVAR, 4
PLVAR, 3

Appendices C: macro code for concrete damage plots (ANSYS 2020R2)

! concrete damage plots

/POST1

esel,s,Mat,,1 ! select concrete material

/trlcy,elem,0

SET,LAST
plnsol,eppl,eqv ! plot major cracks, equivalent plastic strain
/wait,1 ! wait 1 second

plnsol,mpdp,tota ! plot minor cracks

/wait,1 ! wait 1 second

esel,s,type,,2
plnsol,eppl,eqv ! plot steel wall buckling
/wait,1

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