FEATURES PEER REVIEWED

REFINING THE PROCESS

Employing efficient
orchiectomy techniques
can increase positive
outcomes and decrease
complications.

AlyssaRich/shutterstock.com

Abstract
Surgical sterilization of the male dog and cat is generally achieved by orchiectomy. In addition to sterilization,
orchiectomy substantially reduces the incidence of the most common canine prostatic diseases and is often used to
modify unwanted behaviors. For decades, the traditional approach for castrating a dog has been a ventral midline
prescrotal incision. However, for cats, the scrotal approach is the preferred approach, and is also gaining increased
acceptance in dogs. Compared with the prescrotal approach, the scrotal approach is associated with reduced self-
trauma and scrotal hematoma risk and shortened surgical times. Both open and closed castration techniques are
commonly used; however, the closed technique is associated with significantly fewer complications. Keeping the
duration of orchiectomy to a minimum is essential. This review covers techniques to minimize surgery time, including
adopting the scrotal approach, creating shorter incisions, using less suture to close these incisions, and adopting
efficient gubernaculum disruption and ligation techniques.

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SOFT TISSUE SURGERY

Update on Orchiectomy
Jacob M. Shivley, DVM, MS
Kimberly A. Woodruff, DVM, MS, DACVPM (Epidemiology)
Alex P. Shealy, DVM
Philip A. Bushby, DVM, MS, DACVS
Wilson Cooper Brookshire, DVM, MS, DACVPM (Epidemiology), DABVP (Canine and Feline Practice)
Mississippi State University College of Veterinary Medicine

The most commonly performed surgical
procedures in small animal practices in
North America are for reproductive sterilization
(spay/neuter).1 Surgical sterilization of the male
dog and cat is commonly accomplished via
orchiectomy. In addition to sterilization,
orchiectomy substantially reduces the incidence
of the most common canine prostatic diseases
(benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostatitis),
can be used to prevent or manage tumors of the
testes, and is often used to modify unwanted
behaviors (e.g., roaming, territorial marking,
intermale aggression, unwanted sexual
behaviors).2

Take-Home Points

ƒ In addition to sterilization,
orchiectomy significantly
reduces the incidence of the
most common canine prostatic
diseases, may be used to prevent
or manage tumors of the testes,
and is often used to modify
unwanted behaviors.
ƒ Compared to the traditional
prescrotal approach, the scrotal
approach is associated with
reduced self-trauma risk, reduced
scrotal hematoma risk, shortened
surgical times, reduced costs, and
elimination of accidental urethral
trauma risk.
ƒ The closed technique for canine
orchiectomy is the authors’
preference due to its association
with fewer complications and
because it is amenable to high-
quality, high-volume spay/neuter
surgical techniques.
ƒ The recommended age for
castration of cats is younger than
5 months.
ƒ In the authors’ experience,
positioning a cat’s hindlimbs
in a cranial orientation is
advantageous.
ƒ A simple strategy to effectively
exteriorize a testicle through
a small incision is to orient the
testicle so that the caudal pole
(near the head of the epididymis)
exteriorizes through the incision
first. This technique allows for an
incision no longer than the testicle
is wide.
ƒ After a surgeon has mastered
appropriate knot security with
binding knots, single-ligature
ligation can increase efficiency,
lower the cost for suture material
used, and decrease the amount of
foreign material for the patient’s
body to absorb. In the authors’
opinion, a single 2-pass binding
knot is sufficient ligation for
typical small and medium-size
dogs.
ƒ Autoligation can be used for cat,
puppy, and very small adult dog
castrations.
ƒ For canine scrotal castration,
scrotal skin should not be closed
as it may increase the risk for
self-trauma, discomfort, and
postoperative complications.
Instead, 1 buried, absorbable
simple interrupted or cruciate
suture may be placed in the
scrotal subcutaneous tissue.

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The veterinary medical literature reveals numerous
variations in sterilization techniques; this update
highlights those that are the most contemporary and
clinically relevant. This article features several efficient
techniques and other helpful methods that can increase
positive outcomes and decrease complications.
REVIEW OF ORCHIECTOMY
TECHNIQUES
Prescrotal Approach
For decades, the traditional approach for castrating a
dog has been a ventral midline prescrotal incision.
Therefore, this approach is often one of the first
surgeries learned by veterinary students, probably
giving this technique favored preference in general
practice. For this approach, 1 testicle is manually
pushed cranially out of the scrotum as far possible into
the prescrotal space, where the skin and subcutaneous
tissue are incised on the midline to expose the testicle.
After exposure, the gubernaculum is often manually
broken down with digital pressure and gauze sponges,
and the testicle is then removed through ligation and
excision. This approach is straightforward and effective.
Other than the typical incisional complications (e.g.,
infection, dehiscence, self-trauma), risks to this
approach include scrotal swelling, particularly scrotal
hematoma. Moderate to severe scrotal hematoma can
have serious associated morbidity and often requires
surgical intervention through a scrotal ablation.3
Although uncommon, another serious complication
from this approach is accidental urethral trauma.4 In
younger dogs, a prescrotal incision may increase the
likelihood of urethral laceration because the testes have
a higher chance of slipping into the inguinal area.5
Both of these risks can be mitigated by using the scrotal
approach.
Scrotal Approach
For cats, the scrotal approach (separate incisions for
each testicle) has been traditionally used for decades
and continues to be the preferred method.5,6 Scrotal
orchiectomy incisions in sexually mature cats are also
recommended because cat testicles may become fixed
within the scrotum after sexual maturity.7
For dogs, the scrotal approach has gained increasing
acceptance, especially in high-quality, high-volume
spay/neuter (HQHVSN) settings. Compared with the
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prescrotal approach, the scrotal approach is associated
with reduced self-trauma risk, reduced scrotal
hematoma risk, shortened surgical times, reduced cost
(less suture material, anesthesia, and surgeon time), and
elimination of accidental urethral trauma risk.8,9
Contraindications for the scrotal approach are moist
scrotal dermatitis or other serious scrotal skin
conditions.
To perform the scrotal technique, the testicles are first
pushed into the scrotum. In the authors’ experience,
many adult dog testicles are partially in the prescrotal
area at the time surgery begins, presumably due to low
operating theater temperatures combined with the use
of liquid surgical skin preparation products (e.g.,
chlorhexidine scrub) on the scrotal skin. After the
testicles are manually pushed fully into the scrotum, a
skin incision is made in a cranial/caudal direction
directly on the median raphe. The subcutaneous tissue
is incised on top of each testicle, through the same skin
incision, and the testicles are then exteriorized and the
castration performed.
Despite clear advantages to the scrotal approach,
serosanguineous discharge can be expected 24 to
48 hours postoperatively, which some clients may find
objectionable. Postoperative discharge can be
minimized by gentle surgical tissue handling, use of
postoperative scrotal wrap bandages (if necessary), and
vasoconstrictive splash blocks containing diluted
epinephrine.8 Careful communication to clients about
the potential for such discharge will help prevent
emergency calls.
Open Versus Closed Techniques
For dogs and cats, both open and closed castration
techniques are commonly used. Historically, evidence
to indicate that one technique is superior to the other
has been insufficient.5,10 The open technique is
performed by incising the parietal vaginal tunic and
exposing the spermatic cord before ligation; the closed
technique involves ligating the spermatic cord with the
parietal vaginal tunic intact and enveloping the cord.
When the closed technique is used, the gubernaculum
and fascia surrounding the spermatic cord must be
stripped away or incised to permit adequate testicle
exteriorization.
A recently published study objectively evaluated
complication risks and surgical efficiency of open
versus closed castrations in dogs when traditional

orchiectomy techniques are used.11 Efficiency did not
differ between the approaches, although the open
technique involved more ligatures. However, the closed
technique was associated with significantly fewer
complications. Other factors (e.g., postoperative pain)
have not been evaluated. In the authors’ opinion, the
closed technique is preferable because it is reportedly
associated with fewer complications and is amenable to
HQHVSN surgical techniques (i.e., single ligatures,
autoligation, and high efficiency). Open versus closed
castrations of cats have not been objectively evaluated;
however, complication rates for feline castration appear
to be very low (<1%).12
Age Recommendations
There is no uniform consensus as to the appropriate
age for canine orchiectomy patients. Traditionally, dogs
have been castrated at or after 6 months of age, but this
practice is being re-examined. Recent research has
identified differences in response to castration,
particularly between large- and small-breed dogs.
Several articles have reported increased incidence of
orthopedic issues in large-breed dogs castrated before
growth plates have fused.13-15 There is less evidence that
castration at an earlier age predisposes small-breed dogs
to orthopedic problems. Several resources cite increased
odds for development of nonreproductive tumors in
dogs castrated younger than 1 year of age.2,16,17
However, many of these studies are retrospective, and
sources of bias such as longer lifespan of castrated dogs,
among others, lead to lack of proof of direct causation.
Both AAHA and the AVMA support early-age
castration to reduce the numbers of unwanted and
homeless animals, citing animal welfare and
overpopulation concerns.18 Shelter professionals
certainly advocate for castration of pediatric patients
(<6 months of age) as well.19 In 2019, AAHA revised its
Canine Life Stages Guidelines.20 After a comprehensive
analysis of the literature, AAHA recommended
castration of owned small-breed dogs before 5 to
6 months of age and large-breed dogs at 9 to
15 months of age. Further research will continue to
clarify the risks and benefits of castration at specific
ages and in different breeds.
Currently, consensus for feline orchiectomy is more
uniform. A consensus document developed by the
Veterinary Task Force on Feline Sterilization (bit.ly/
aafprecs), which recommends that cats be castrated
before 5 months of age, has been endorsed by the
AVMA, AAHA, the American Association of Feline
PEER REVIEWED FEATURES
Practitioners, the Association of Shelter Veterinarians,
many veterinary associations, and numerous humane
groups. The Association of Shelter Veterinarians’
2016 Veterinary Medical Care Guidelines for Spay-
Neuter Programs recommends castrating owned cats at
4 months of age, after they have received the full
vaccination series.21 With respect to cats awaiting
adoption in shelters or rescues, the guidelines state that
“neutering is best performed prior to adoption (as early
as 6 weeks of age).”21 Castration of cats before
5 months of age is easy and safe and has not been
shown to create any medical, orthopedic, or behavioral
problems.22-24
EFFICIENT ORCHIECTOMY
TECHNIQUES
Use of efficient surgical techniques benefits the patient
and the veterinary business alike. In human and
veterinary medicine, increased surgical times have been
associated with increased risk for anesthetic
complications and surgical wound infections.25,26
Decreased surgical times should lead to faster recovery
and return to function for the patient. Therefore,
keeping duration of surgery and anesthesia to a
minimum is imperative. Techniques to minimize
surgery time include adopting the scrotal approach,
creating shorter incisions, adopting efficient
gubernaculum disruption and ligation techniques, and
using less suture to close incisions.
Patient Positioning
Orchiectomy is typically performed with the patient in
dorsal recumbency. Traditionally, dogs’ hindlimbs are
secured by pulling them as far caudally as possible
(FIGURE 1A). One large paper drape can be used to
cover the patient and instrument stand, and a small
fenestration, just large enough for the scrotum to be
forced into view, can be cut into the drape
(FIGURE 1B). For puppy and cat castrations, draping is
not necessary if care is taken to avoid gross
contamination during the surgical procedure. However,
drapes can be used at the discretion of the surgeon.21
For cats, in the authors’ experience (approximately
20 000 combined surgeries), positioning the patient’s
hindlimbs in a cranial orientation is advantageous
(FIGURES 1C AND 1D). There are several ways to
accomplish this positioning, but a simple device created
from bending aluminum splint rods enables efficient
placement and ease of surgical preparation of the
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patient and disinfection of the aluminum rod
(FIGURE 2). This position improves efficiency by
reducing preoperative surgical preparation time and
increasing exposure to surgical anatomy to facilitate the
scrotal approach. For puppies, simply placing them in a
relaxed, dorsal recumbency position provides the best
exposure for orchiectomy (FIGURES 1E AND 1F).
Initial Surgical Approach
For an orchiectomy in cats, puppies, and dogs, most
incisions should be no longer than the width of
1 testicle. Short scrotal incisions are associated with
decreased surgical times, less suture needed for closure
A B
D E
FIGURE 1. Positioning for orchiectomy. (A) Traditional positioning for adult dog; (B) drape fenestration after placement of drape
and sterile preparation of adult dog; (C AND D) cranially positioned hindlimbs of a cat; (E AND F) relaxed, dorsal recumbency for
puppies.
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(for surgeons using suture reels), and decreased
postoperative complications.8,9,27 Whether to orient the
orchiectomy incisions horizontally (FIGURE 3A) or
vertically (FIGURE 3B) in cats is under debate, but the
authors recommend that regardless which direction is
chosen, the testicles should always be held such that the
incision is directed away from the surgeon’s fingers. In
puppies, a single midline vertical incision is
recommended (FIGURE 4).
For a scrotal orchiectomy of an adult dog, the testicles
must first be pushed from their dorsal position
(FIGURE 5A) caudally into the scrotum, where a small
skin incision is made in a cranial/caudal direction
C
F
 PEER REVIEWED FEATURES

directly on the median raphe (FIGURES 5B AND 5C). A

Each testicle is individually moved into the skin
incision, and the subcutaneous tissue and spermatic
fascia are incised on top of each testicle (FIGURES 5D
AND 5E). Next, a simple strategy for effectively
exteriorizing a testicle through a small incision is to
orient the testicle so that the caudal pole (near the head
of the epididymis) exteriorizes through the incision first
(FIGURES 5F AND 5G). This technique allows the
incision to be no longer than the testicle is wide. After
the testicle is initially exteriorized, the gubernaculum
and fascia associated with the spermatic cord must be
released to permit complete exteriorization, especially
for the closed technique. Manual stripping, blunt, and
sharp dissection techniques can be used to release this
tissue. The traditional approach for disrupting these B
structures has been to manually strip the tissue. In
small dogs, puppies, and cats, this task is easily
accomplished. However, older and larger dogs have
significantly stronger gubernacular and spermatic
fascial tissue, and the authors recommend sharp
transection of this tissue with a scalpel blade or
Metzenbaum scissors in mature dogs. This sharp
transection technique can significantly increase
efficiency and, depending on surgeon hand strength,
may be the only way to disrupt the tissue. Although

FIGURE 3. Finger positions and incisional direction for (A)

horizontal and (B) vertical incisions for orchiectomy in cats.

FIGURE 2. Various sizes of bent aluminum splint rods

used to position a cat’s hindlimbs in a cranial direction,
creating ideal positioning to perform orchiectomy. Note
that the leg bars have deeper valleys than those used for FIGURE 4. Vertical midline incision for orchiectomy in
ovariohysterectomy. puppies.

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A B C

D E F

FIGURE 5. Initial approach for a scrotal orchiectomy. (A) Biological position of testicles dorsally in the scrotum. (B) Manual
positioning of testicles as caudally in the scrotum as possible and location of a small initial incision. (C) Small scrotal midline
incision. (D) After initial incision, surgeon moves 1 testicle into view of skin incision and (E) begins incising subcutaneous tissue.
(F AND G) After the subcutaneous tissue is incised over 1 testicle, the testicle is oriented to where the caudal pole advances out of
the scrotum first, maintaining the smallest possible incision.

A B C

FIGURE 6. Sharp transection of spermatic fascial tissue and gubernaculum to create efficient release of spermatic cord. (A AND B)
Elevation of the testicle, exposing the gubernaculum and spermatic fascia on the concave portion of the testicle. (C) Metzenbaum
scissors making sharp circumferential transection of the tissue around the spermatic cord through the window that was just
created in the fascia.

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traditional belief in regard to surgery is that manual Autoligature in Cats and Puppies
tearing of a structure with very small vessels causes Autoligature (cord self-tie) is a method of ligation in
vasospasm and, therefore, can potentially decrease which the spermatic cord (within the tunic for closed
hemorrhage, in the authors’ opinion, specifically related castrations) or the vas deferens and spermatic vessels
to sharply incising gubernaculum and spermatic fascia, (for open castrations) are tied to themselves around a
we have not observed, nor is there a concern for, hemostat. This technique can be used in cats, puppies,
bleeding using this method. To accomplish sharp and very small adult dogs. For this technique, surgeons
transection of the gubernaculum and spermatic fascia, should hold the testicle in the nondominant hand and
the surgeon should hold the testicle in the gently pull the testicle and spermatic cord toward
nondominant hand, after which there are several themselves while simultaneously using the dominant
options. One technique involves using a scalpel blade
to “score” the gubernaculum and spermatic fascia
circumferentially around the spermatic cord proximal A
to the testicle, thereby weakening the tissue enough so
the surgeon can then easily digitally strip the fascial
tissue away. An alternate technique involves
Metzenbaum scissors. The testicle is elevated, exposing
the gubernaculum and spermatic fascia on the concave
portion of the testicle (FIGURES 6A AND 6B). Next,
through the window that was just created in the fascia,
the tissue is sharply transected away in a circumferential
fashion around the spermatic cord (FIGURE 6C). If the
gubernaculum and fascia do not immediately release,
gentle manual stripping motions with gauze sponges
and minimal force will complete the task.

Ligatures
Conventionally, ligation of the spermatic cord of dogs
and cats involves multiple encircling ligatures with
square or surgeon’s knots or a combination of encircling
and transfixation knots.5,10 However, recent
publications have demonstrated the excellence of 2-pass B
binding knots.28,29 After a surgeon has mastered
appropriate knot security with these binding knots,
single-ligature ligation can increase efficiency, lower the
cost for suture material used, and decrease the amount
of foreign material the patient’s body must absorb
postoperatively. In the authors’ opinion, using 2-0
monofilament polydioxanone and a single 2-pass
binding knot such as the modified Miller’s knot
(strangle knot) is sufficient ligation for typical small
and medium-size dogs (FIGURE 7A). At the surgeon’s
discretion, a second 2-pass binding or transfixation
ligature may be placed in large dogs (FIGURE 7B).
When a 2- or 3-clamp technique is used for spermatic
cord ligature, transecting the spermatic cord between
the most distal clamp and testicle before ligation may
allow for more efficient ligature placement. FIGURE 7. Ligation. (A) Single encircling ligature created
by using an appropriate binding knot (e.g., modified Miller’s
knot) (for small to medium-size dogs). (B) Double ligation
(for large dogs with thick spermatic cords).

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A B

C D

E F

G H

FIGURE 8. Proper technique for creating autoligatures (cord ties) in cat and puppy orchiectomies. (A) Testicle held in the
nondominant hand and gently pulled along with spermatic cord toward the surgeon while simultaneously the dominant hand
holds a curved hemostat with the palm down and curved tip up. (B) Hemostat crossed over the spermatic cord with the curved tip
passed under and behind the spermatic cord (from the nondominant hand toward the dominant hand). (C) Hemostat closed with
the tip facing away from surgeon, then directed above the spermatic cord as the hemostat is rotated counterclockwise (clockwise
for left-handed surgeons). (D) Hemostat opened and used to clamp the spermatic cord. (E) Spermatic cord transected between
the hemostat and the testicle. (F) Tissue tag remains. (G AND H) Tissue around the hemostat is gently pulled over the tip of the
hemostat with a gauze sponge, creating a secure knot.

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hand to grasp a curved hemostat with their palm down
and curved tip up (FIGURE 8A). Next, the hemostat is
crossed over the spermatic cord and the curved tip of
the hemostat is passed under and behind the spermatic
cord (from the nondominant hand toward the
dominant hand) (FIGURE 8B). The hemostat should be
closed with the tip of the hemostat facing away from
the surgeon. The tip of the hemostat is then directed
above the spermatic cord as the hemostat is rotated
counterclockwise (FIGURE 8C) (or clockwise for
left-handed surgeons). Next, the hemostat is opened
and used to clamp the spermatic cord (FIGURE 8D).
The spermatic cord is transected between the hemostat
and the testicle, leaving a tissue tag (FIGURES 8E AND
8F), and the tissue circled around the hemostat is
gently pulled over the tip of the hemostat with a gauze
sponge (FIGURE 8G), creating a secure knot
(FIGURE 8H). Last, the knot should be pulled
significantly tight before the hemostat is released.30-32
Closure
Prescrotal incisions for dogs should always be closed by
appropriate tissue apposition with buried absorbable
suture. For routine prescrotal orchiectomy of a dog, a
substantial portion of surgical time is spent closing the
incision. Surgical textbooks suggest performing a 2- or
3-layer closure for the deep fascial, subcutaneous, and
cutaneous layers. For scrotal castration of a dog,
however, the closure should not be complete. Closure

A B

C D

FIGURE 9. Closure of an adult dog scrotal orchiectomy incision. (A) Only subcutaneous tissue is sutured from the deep to
superficial plane on the surgeon’s side to begin burying the knot. (B) Only the subcutaneous tissue on the side away from the
surgeon is sutured in a superficial–deep direction. The surgeon is isolating the median raphe with thumb forceps, which will be
incorporated into the buried simple interrupted suture. (C) Subcutaneous tissue apposition with 1 buried simple interrupted suture.
(D) The scrotal skin is back into apposition, despite not having any suture placed in the dermal layer. No surgical glue is placed; it is
left to heal by second intention.

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of the scrotal skin may increase risk for self-trauma,
discomfort, and postoperative complications; therefore,
dermal tissue should never be sutured in scrotal
incisions.
Instead, 1 buried simple interrupted or cruciate suture
of 2-0 monofilament polydioxanone may be placed in
the scrotal subcutaneous tissue (FIGURES 9A AND 9B)
at the discretion of the surgeon.8,9 To ensure a buried
knot, the median raphe should be included in this
suture as either the very first or the very last pass
(FIGURE 9C). The scrotal skin should naturally relax
into apposition, even without suture being placed in
the scrotal dermal tissue plane (FIGURE 9D). Scrotal
incisions in pediatric patients should not be closed with
suture; however, at the discretion of the surgeon, a
small amount of tissue glue may be used to close the
skin.31 In cats, scrotal skin incisions should always be
left open to heal by second intention and prevent
abscess formation.
SUMMARY
Orchiectomy is one of the most commonly performed
surgical procedures in veterinary medicine. Considering
the many different techniques available, an awareness
and use of efficient surgical techniques should prove
beneficial for the patient, surgeon, and veterinary
business alike.
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 PEER REVIEWED FEATURES

Jacob M. Shivley Meritorious Service Award in 2015. He holds the

Dr. Shivley obtained his DVM degree from
Mississippi State University’s College of
Veterinary Medicine (MSU CVM) in 2008,
followed by a rotating internship. He then
completed a surgical internship at Wheat
Ridge Animal Hospital in Wheat Ridge,
Colorado. After 3 years in small animal
practice, he returned to the MSU CVM and
joined as faculty of the shelter medicine
program. In 2019, he obtained his master’s
degree with an emphasis on teaching and
learning, and in 2022 received his university’s
highest honor in teaching, the Alumni
Association Professional Teaching Excellence
Award. His interests include veterinary
medical education, soft tissue surgery, and
HQHVSN techniques.
Marcia Lane Endowed Chair of Humane Ethics
and Animal Welfare at MSU.
Wilson Cooper Brookshire
Dr. Brookshire is a 2010 graduate of the MSU
CVM. After 5 years of companion animal
practice, he joined the faculty of the MSU CVM.
He is a diplomate of the ACVPM, the ACVPM
epidemiology specialty, and the ABVP in canine
and feline practice. He holds a master’s degree
in population medicine from the MSU CVM and
a graduate certificate in shelter medicine from
the University of Florida. He is a member of the
AVMA Committee on Antimicrobials and is the
2020 Mississippi Veterinary Medical Association
Young Veterinarian of the Year.

Kimberly A. Woodruff
Dr. Woodruff obtained her DVM degree from
the MSU CVM in 2008. She completed a
1-year shelter medicine internship, followed
by a 3-year shelter medicine residency in
2012, at which time she joined the faculty at
the MSU CVM. She became board certified as
a diplomate of the ACVPM in 2016 and was
board certified in veterinary epidemiology in
2017. Her veterinary interests include disease
control, shelter epidemiology, and teaching
HQHVSN in the veterinary curriculum at the
MSU CVM. Thank you vet techs for caring
for the pets we love.
Alex P. Shealy National Vet Tech Week | Oct 16-22
Dr. Shealy obtained his DVM degree from the
MSU CVM in 2020, after which he joined the
shelter medicine program. He is advancing
a partnership between the MSU CVM and
the local county humane society, where he
serves as the medical director. His veterinary-
specific interests include HQHVSN and
teaching surgery to veterinary students.
LESS TECH
Philip A. Bushby
Dr. Bushby, a 1972 graduate of the University
BUSY WORK.
MORE TIME
of Illinois College of Veterinary Medicine, is
a board-certified surgeon who has served
on the MSU CVM faculty for 42 years. He
established the MSU CVM shelter program
and is a frequent speaker on efficient spay/
neuter techniques. He was a member of
FOR PATIENTS.
the organizing committee for the shelter
medicine specialty board and received the
ASPCA Henry Berg Award in 2008, the
AVMA Animal Welfare Award in 2012, and Learn more about our free
the Association of Shelter Veterinarians online pharmacy platform:
ChewyHealth.com