CHAPTER 2

THE ENVIRONMENT AND ORGANISMS

ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
o Ecology
o Ecological Hierarchy
o Ecosystem
 biotic Components
 abiotic Components
COMMUNITY INTERACTIONS
o Competition
o Predation
o Symbiosis

ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
What is Ecology?
Ecology is the study of how living things interact with each other and Biotic factors
with their environment.
Biotic factors encompass all living organisms (plants, animals,
Ecological Hierarchy
A hierarchy is a system of things ranked one above the other. and microorganism)present in the ecosystem.
Starting at the bottom, the levels of ecosystem organization are: These organisms are autotrophs and heterotrophs.
 Organism Abiotic factors
 Population Abiotic factors are the nonliving (water, soil, light, air, mineral,
 Community etc.) features of the environment that influence an organism or
 Ecosystem group of organisms.
 Biome They can be organized into several categories.
 Biosphere Biotic factors
 Ecological Hierarchy 1. AUTOTROPHS are also called "self-feeders" or the
“producers”. They use the energy from the Sun (Light energy) or
Chemical energy to make their food.
Two types of autotrophs.
o Photoautotrophs
o Chemoautotrophs

Photoautotrophs are organisms that use the energy from

sunlight to make their food in the process called photosynthesis.
Some examples of Photoautotrophs: plants, algae, and certain
bacteria. Most plants have green leaves. Leaves are green
because they contain a green pigment called chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll gives plants the special ability to make their own
food using light, water, and carbon dioxide.
Chemoautotrophs are organisms that use chemical energy
from compounds to make their food in the process called
chemosynthesis. Chemosynthesis is the process by which
sugar (glucose) is made by bacteria using chemicals as energy
source rather than sunlight. Example of Chemoautotrophs:
some bacteria, nitrogen-fixing bacteria, soil as an energy
source.
2. HETEROTROPHS are called "consumers." These organisms
cannot make their food, primarily animals; and get their energy
from other plants and animals, and classify as:
Decomposers are also unable to make their food. They carry out the
process of decay or break down of the dead organism.
They decompose waste products and dead organisms for food and
are returned to the soil to be recycled and used by plants again.
The process of breaking down complex organic matter into its simpler
form is referred to as decomposition.
Major decomposers in the ecosystem include Bacteria and fungi.
Mushrooms are a type of fungi.
Decomposers are classified based on the type of organic matter they
break down.
1. Scavengers feed on the soft tissues of dead animals.
Examples include vultures, raccoons, etc.
2. Detritivores that feed on detritus (remains of plants, animal
feces, and other organic debris). They can be found on the soil like
earthworms, millipedes, dung beetles; and at the bottom of bodies of
water such as sea cucumbers and catfish.
aBiotic factors
1. Light
Plants use light to prepare their food. Animals and human
beings depend on plants for their food. Thus, the life of all the
organisms is made possible because of sunlight.
2. Temperature
The temperature of a place determines the type of animals or
plants that live there. Some parts of the Earth are very cold
(e.g., polar regions) and some parts very hot (e.g., desert).
Amongst both these extreme conditions, only a few plants and
animals survive. In colder regions of the earth, we find animals
like polar bears and penguins and plants like conifers trees. In
hot regions like the desert, animals such as camels and desert
foxes and plants like thorny bushes and date palms can live.
3. Water
We all need water to live. About three –fourth parts of the
earth’s surface is covered with water. Plants would dry if they
did not get water.
4. Air
 Air is a mixture of different gases.
 Air contains 21% oxygen and 78% nitrogen and 1% other
gases.
 Oxygen is released by green plants during photosynthesis.
 Carbon dioxide is used for photosynthesis.
5. Soil
The soil is the basic medium for growth in plants. Some animals
and microorganisms also live in the soil. Soil also provides
necessary minerals like sodium, potassium, calcium,
phosphorus, and water. Animals such as earthworm and snail
also make the soil loose by turning it.
 COMMUNITY INTERACTION It often leads to extinction, specifically with the species that are
 The species that can eat many different types of foods is called less well-adapted, less likely to survive, and the species may go
a generalist. For example, raccoons eat many things, including extinct.
human garbage. 2. INTRASPECIFIC COMPETITION arises between
 A specialist is a species that consumes only a specific type of members of the same species and may compete over
food. For example, koalas only eat eucalyptus plants. mates, water, sunlight, territory, or food energy
Community interactions are classified by whether they help, harm, or
sources. This type of competition is a basic factor in
have no effect on the species involved.
Interactions that link the species of a community include: natural selection that leads to the evolution of better
A. Competition adaptations.
1. INTERSPECIFIC COMPETITION Mechanisms of competition
2. INTRASPECIFIC COMPETITION
1. Interference competition occurs when one species directly
B. Predation
affects the ability of another to consume resources.
C. Symbiosis
1. Mutualism This is direct and can even be termed as aggressive behavior. This is
2. Commensalism because these competing species will physically fight each other for
3. Parasitism whatever they are competing for whether it is a resource or a potential
mating partner. This can also happen within the plant communities.
The top or emergent layer of trees controls the nutrients and how they
are distributed. This is because they are massive and often need
more of all the resources than the shrubs and other grass-like plants
COMPETITION (forest floor). Even their branches and leaves determine how much
Competition between organisms arises when more than one sunlight the smaller plants will get by blocking access to the sun.
organism struggles to obtain the same essential resources in
the same habitat. Both participants in the interaction are 2. Exploitative competition occurs when one species makes a
potentially harmed. The one who is harmed less is considered resource unavailable for consumption to another species. It is the
most common mechanism of competition in nature.
the winner, and the one who is harmed more is the loser.
Competition controls the population size by limiting the number Exploitative competition occurs as species indirectly compete for the
of organisms that can survive on the area's resources. same resources in an ecosystem.
Two types of competition
1. INTERSPECIFIC COMPETITION happens between o This would be like plants that all grow in the same area.
members of two or more different species over However, some plants can absorb water and nutrients at a quicker
pace than others.
various limiting resources such as food, water, light,
soil, resources, or space. Predation
 cheetah and a lion Predation occurs when one species uses another species as food.
 lion and a hyena The organism that hunts other living things for food is called the
 deer and leopard predator, and the prey is the animal hunted by a predator.
Predators have evolved various techniques to catch, subdue, or
exploit their prey like:
 fast running speed
 sharp teeth and talons
 camouflage (protective coloration in which an animal resembles
its background)
Prey
The prey also has developed various defense mechanisms to allow
them to escape and reduce their desirability as prey to their predators.
a) Mechanical defenses
b) The presence of armor in animals (spines) or thorns in plants
to discourage predation and herbivore by preventing physical
contact with the predator.
c) Chemical defenses include odors and toxins released by
plants and animals.
d) Camouflage (protective coloration in which an animal
resembles its background).
 Warning colors indicate aposematic coloration.
 Warning coloration (or aposematism) is how animals let
other animals know that they are poisonous or dangerous.
It is the exact opposite of camouflage. Warning colors are
usually some combination of red, yellow, black, and white.
e) Mimicry is when organisms resemble other species. One prey
species may gain protection by mimicking the appearance of
another prey species.
f) Batesian mimicry is where a harmless species imitates a
harmful one.
g) Mullerian mimicry occurs when various species share the
same warning coloration and resemble each other but have
their own defenses.
SYMBIOSIS
Symbiosis describes a close and often long-term relationship between
two or more different organisms. This relationship may be beneficial
or harmful, or it may not affect the other organisms.
Three basic types of symbiosis:
1. Mutualism
2. Commensalism
3. Parasitism
MUTUALISM is an interaction between two species in which BOTH
organisms BENEFIT.
Example: the pollination of plants by bees and other pollinators.
COMMENSALISM: ONE organism BENEFITS, but the OTHER is
UNAFFECTED.
Example: numerous orchids, mosses, and ferns that grow atop higher
plants benefit from structural support and greater access to sunlight.
PARASITISM is a relationship where ONE organism, termed the
parasite, benefits AT THE EXPENSE OF THE HOST.
 Some parasites live on the surface of their host called an
ectoparasite.
 Others live inside their host called endoparasite.
Examples: tapeworms, lice, and fungus
SYMBIOTIC – FORM RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHER SPECIES
MUTUALISM – BOTH SYMBIOTIC ORGANISMS BENEFIT
COMMENSALISM – ONE BENEFITS AND THE OTHER IS
NEITHER HELPED OR HARMED
PARASITISM – ONE ORGANISM BENEFITS AT THE EXPENSE OF
THE OTHER
Many bacteria (for example intestinal bacteria) live symbiotically in the
guts of animals or elsewhere in their bodies.
Produce vitamin B12 and vitamin K.
Control the growth of harmful bacteria.
Break down poisons in the large intestine.
Break down some substances in food that cannot be digested, such
as fiber and some starches and sugars. Bacteria produce enzymes
that digest carbohydrates in plant cell walls. Most of the nutritional
value of plant material would be wasted without these bacteria. These
help us digest plant foods like spinach.
Bacteria in the Digestive System. What type of symbiotic relationship
is this?
Answer: As the bacteria that live in the human gut are beneficial to us,
and as the bacteria enjoy a safe environment to live, the relationship
that we have with these tiny organisms is described as MUTUALISM.
Niche is the role the species plays and how it interacts with the
environment.
- how it obtains food, mates and protection from predators.
 A lion’s niche is eating and finding mates.
 a fish species' niche might be defined partly by ranges of
salinity (saltiness), pH (acidity), and temperature it can
tolerate, as well as the types of food it can eat.
Two organisms with the same niche can't survive in the same habitat
(because they compete for the same resources, one will drive the
other to extinction). However, species whose niches only partly By tracking populations over time, ecologists can see how these
overlap may be able to coexist. Also, over long periods of time, they populations have changed and may be able to predict how they're
may evolve to make use of more different, or less overlapping, sets of likely to change in the future.
resources. Population dynamics is the study of how and why populations
Niche differentiation is referred to as the process by which species change in size and structure over time.
that compete for the same resources begin to use their environments PROPERTIES OF POPULATIONS
in different ways so that they are now able to coexist.
This is also sometimes known as Gause’s Law.
If the species do not undergo niche differentiation, the competitive
exclusion will force one of the species out of the environment. Population Population
Dispersion
Size Density

POPULATION SIZE is the precise number of individuals in an area.

It may have a large or small number of individuals that are distributed
densely or sparingly in a local area.
The sampling method used to make inferences about the population
as a whole:
COMPETITIVE EXCLUSION
1. Quadrat
The competitive exclusion principle occurs when two species that use
2. Mark and recapture
the same limiting resource can no longer co-exist in an environment.
Quadrat
Eventually, one of the organisms must leave the area for them to both
survive. If they both stay, one species will die off. If the organism then A Quadrat is a square structure that must be placed at random
does not want to move, nor does it want to die, it must begin to use locations within the habitat enough times and count the number of
other resources in the ecosystem or use them in other ways so that it individuals within its boundaries.
can continue to thrive. Choose a letter (A-J) randomly and choose one number (1-10). Then
combine them. Count the number of dots inside that box then record it
CHAPTER 3 to the table below. Do it three times.
POPULATION ECOLOGY
Estimate population size = Average x 10 x 10
Population Dynamics
 Properties of Populations  Population Growth Estimate population size = 2.33 x 10 x 10 = 233

Human Population
 Demography
 Demographic Data

Population refers to the group of individuals of the same species

inhabiting the same area.
It is characterized by the total number of individuals and the space MARK AND RECAPTURE
they occupy per unit area. Mark and recapture is a method in which animals are captured, marked, and
released back into the environment to mix with the rest of the population.
Later, a new sample is captured and counts how many of these marked
animals are in the new sample.
The approach also assumes that animals do not die, get born, leave, or
enter the population during the period of the study.

SAMPLING METHOD
1. Quadrat for immobile or slow-moving organisms like plants.
2. Mark and recapture for smaller mobile organisms such as mammals.

DISPERSION
Dispersion is the distribution of the individuals throughout their range in an
area.
Individuals within a population can be distributed into different patterns. Population growth is the increase in a population above time.
1. Uniform Distribution o Major Factors affecting Population Growth
2. Clumped Distribution 1. Birth rate = births of new individuals (natality rate).
3. Random Distribution 2. Death rate = deaths of individuals (mortality rate)
1. In a uniform distribution, individuals are equally spaced 3. Migration
apart/evenly distributed .  Immigration = the movement of individuals into a population from
 usually seen in territorial animal species like penguins that maintain other areas.
a defined territory for nesting.  Emigration = movement of individuals out of a population
2. In a clumped distribution, individuals are grouped together.
 elephants at a watering hole Population growth rate = (birth rate + immigration) -
 mushroom on a rotting log (death rate + emigration)
3. In a random distribution, individuals are spaced at unpredictable
distances from each other. It is a unique pattern where each individual's
position is independent of other individuals
 plants established by windblown seeds in the forest.
 DEMOGRAPHY
o Population ecologists rely on a series of statistical measures, known
as demographic parameters, to describe that population. The field of
science interested in collecting and analyzing these numbers is termed
population demographics, also known as demography.
o Demography is the study of the characteristics of populations. It
provides a mathematical description of how those characteristics change
over time.
o Demographics can include any statistical factors that influence
population growth or decline, but several parameters are particularly
important:
1. Population size
2. Density
3. Fecundity (birth rates)
4. Mortality (death rates)
5. Age structure
6. Sex ratio
 CHAPTER 4
COMMUNITY ECOLOGY

Energy Flows in the Ecosystem

Cycles of matter
 Community Structures and Dynamics
Community structure can be described Species Richness and Species
Diversity.