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Development of bitumen-bound waste aggregate building block

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Proceedings of the Institution of
Civil Engineers
Construction Materials 159
February 2006 Issue CM1
Pages 23–32

Paper 14536
Received 28/11/2005
Accepted 2/5/2006
Keywords:
bitumen & tar/brickwork &
masonry/recycling of materials
John P. Forth
Senior Lecturer, School of Civil
Engineering, University of
Leeds, UK
Salah E. Zoorob
Senior Research Officer,
National Centre for Pavement
Engineering, University of
Nottingham, UK
I. Nyoman A. Thanaya
Research Fellow, School of Civil
Engineering, University of
Leeds, UK

Development of bitumen-bound waste aggregate building blocks

J. P. Forth BEng, PhD, MASCE, S. E. Zoorob MEng, PhD and I. N. A. Thanaya BEng, PhD

The paper describes the optimisation of several mixes for
the development of a new range of construction units
(Bitublock) composed entirely of recycled and waste
aggregates. The development of this new range of building
units is driven by the issue of sustainability, both nationally
and globally, and this complete replacement of traditional
aggregates is possible because Bitublock uses bitumen as the
binder. Five main waste materials are considered in this
optimisation: crushed glass, pulverised fuel ash (PFA),
incinerated bottom ash (IBA), incinerated sewage sludge
ash (ISSA) and steel slag. In addition two types of bitumen
were also considered: 50 penetration bitumen and harder H
80/90 bitumen. Several properties of the Bitublock were
measured to assess their performance in relation to
concrete block masonry products found in the UK. These
were: shape, density, water absorption, compressive
strength, elastic modulus and time-dependent properties. It
is shown that all these properties are dependent on the types
of aggregate and the binder used, as well as on the
compaction pressure and the curing regime. It is clear that
Bitublock can be produced with properties that are at
least equivalent to those of current concrete block masonry
units. The long-term stability of Bitublock is significant in
terms of construction, because its use could negate the need
for—or at least reduce the frequency of—required
movement joints in masonry.
In the UK, Europe and the USA, masonry is already considered a
sustainable material;7,8 however, further improvements can still
be made. In the UK, the masonry industry document Masonry
2007 and its research priorities supplement9 rate the
improvement in the sustainability of masonry as a high priority.
This proposed new range of building units will improve the
sustainability of masonry in terms both of utilising waste
materials and of the low energy input required for its
manufacture.
Currently, 160 000 new homes are built each year in the UK,
of which 90% are constructed from masonry. Each house
requires on average approximately 200 m2 of blockwork,
resulting in approximately 350 million blocks being
manufactured each year. (This figure could be doubled if
current commercial applications are considered.) One possible
replacement material is pulverised fuel ash (PFA). At present,
approximately 6 mt of PFA are produced each year in the UK,
but only 40–50% is utilised. The remainder is landfilled, or used
for quarry/land restoration projects adjacent to power stations.
Incorporation of PFA in concrete masonry units is already
standard practice for most block manufacturers in the UK
(aggregate blocks; approximately 6%). However, it is envisaged
that PFA can be utilised as a filler material at replacement
levels of at least 20% by mass in these new units. This would
result in at least a third of the PFA currently unused being
disposed of usefully.

1. INTRODUCTION Another waste product that may be suitable is incinerated sewage

To comply with the UK government’s aims for recycling of
materials,1–6 a new range of construction units (Bitublock)
composed entirely of recycled and waste aggregates is being
developed. This complete replacement of traditional aggregates
(a level of replacement that exceeds any replacement percentages
achieved so far with cementitious and clay-bound materials) is
possible in this new material because this novel material uses
bitumen as the binder. The composition of the Bitublock units is
in fact a combination of graded recycled and waste aggregates
and binding agents from selected bitumens, which can be
considered as by-products from the petroleum industry. The
aggregates include surplus green glass, those aggregates
currently classified as unused waste ashes (PFA, IBA, and ISSA),
and slags from the steel and iron industries.
The development of this new range of building units is driven
by the issue of sustainability, both nationally and globally.
sludge ash (ISSA).10 At present, 1$4–1$7 mt of sewage sludge are
produced each year in the UK. Approximately 25% of this is
incinerated. Nearly all of this incinerated sludge ash is disposed
to landfill. However, the cost of disposal to landfill is expected to
rise as the landfill tax escalates. There is also a shortage of landfill
capacity in some areas, and future legislation may make this
route less viable. Water companies are considering alternative
outlets. Much of the remaining percentage of sludge has been
recycled to agriculture as a soil improver, or disposed of at sea.
However, since 1999, disposal of sewage sludge at sea has been
prohibited, and there is increasing pressure to minimise the use of
sewage sludge on agricultural land because of public concern
about health hazards. Revised regulations and strategies have
been introduced in view of this.11 Incineration is therefore likely
to increase (T. Taylor, Yorkshire Water, personal communication)
and so more recycling applications are required. A 10% level of
replacement of the filler material in these new units with ISSA

Construction Materials 159 Issue CM1 Development of bitumen-bound waste aggregate building blocks Forth et al. 23
 would utilise all of the current incinerated waste, negating any materials must also take into consideration the effect of the
requirement for further disposal. selected materials on the performance of the mixtures.

As well as filler replacement, aggregate replacement is also to be As bitumen is a viscoelastic material, even when using hard-type
considered, further saving natural resources. The new material bitumen (in this case H80/90), creep deformations are inevitable.
would be extremely suited to the incorporation of crushed glass, Therefore a heat-curing regime is necessary to increase the
and green/mixed glass in particular. The glass manufacturing hardness of the bitumen in the compacted Bitublock. This is
sector (closed-loop recycling) has a limited capacity to accept achieved by (oven) heat curing the compacted Bitublock, which,
green and mixed colour glass. As glass collection increases to depending on the severity of the curing regime, causes the bitumen
meet the 2006 packaging targets of 60%,12 an ‘excess’ 300 000– to become progressively harder and more brittle as a result of
400 000 t of green glass is likely, for which alternative high- oxidation. For optimum heat-curing effectiveness, compacted
value, high-volume markets are required. This application will Bitublock specimens were designed to have 10–15% porosity.
focus on the use of the green and mixed glass as an aggregate in a Within this porosity range, the interconnectivity of the air void
high-volume application. The use of glass as an aggregate will network ensures that every part of the specimen is accessible to
have a positive environmental impact by diverting material from heat curing and that oxidation is not restricted to the external
landfill and reducing the need for primary aggregate extraction. surfaces of the Bitublocks. The level of compaction is dependent on
the types of materials used (in particular the type of bitumen) and
The research has also investigated the utilisation of incinerator on the compaction temperature used. The compaction levels
bottom ash (IBA). This material can provide both fine and coarse required to satisfy the desired range of compacted density and
aggregate replacement material. When processed, IBA consists of hence porosity therefore had to be determined experimentally.
a range of particle sizes: !10 mm (0$075 mm (ash) to 10 mm)
and O10 mm (10–28 mm). In 2000/2001, 2$54 mt of municipal This paper uses the results from two initial investigations.17,18 The
waste was incinerated by 11 energy-from-waste (EfW) plants,13 main objective of these initial investigations was to develop a
resulting in approximately half a million tonnes of IBA being series of control mixes incorporating traditional aggregates that
generated. The Environment Agency has confirmed that 79% of could then be used, through a process of aggregate replacement, to
this is sent to landfill.13 The new material could again act as a optimise the more recent mixes described in this report.
high-volume application for IBA in its processed state, as 10% Throughout the mix optimisation process the approach adopted
replacement would result in nearly all of the IBA disposed to by the authors was to compare the properties of the new units with
landfill in 1999/2000, for instance, being utilised. those of traditional clay and concrete block units found in the UK.
The comparisons are made primarily on the basis of compressive
Metallurgical slags such as basic oxygen steel slag (BOS) are strength (compressive strengths of 3$5–7$0 MPa are targeted).
secondary products of the refining of metals from metal ores. In However, because of the bituminous binder matrix of the
1996 there were approximately 1$5 million tonnes of this Bitublocks, an assessment has also been made of the time-
industrial by-product produced each year, and only 200 000 t dependent properties of the mixes. The measured water absorption
were recycled.14 In 2002 the volume of production had reduced properties of the manufactured units are also monitored.
to approximately 1 mt.15 This material is particularly suitable as a
coarse aggregate, and is commonly used in road construction
materials. Steel slag is expansive by nature because of the 2. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD AND MATERIALS
presence of free calcium oxide and magnesium oxide. The
The materials investigated are crushed glass, steel slag, furnace
detailed mechanism of this expansive nature is still not certain,
bottom ash (FBA) from coal burning, fly ash, incinerated bottom
but it does make it unsuitable for use in cement concrete. The
ash (IBA) from municipal wastes, and incinerated sewage sludge
expansivity of steel slag aggregates may cause premature
ash (ISSA). The properties of the materials are given in Table 1.
deterioration (cracking) in bituminous mixtures. Hence in the UK
it is weathered before use.16
Density: Water
Bitumen can be considered as a by-product of the petroleum Materials Mg/m3 absorption: % Utilisation
industry. However, its cost is still approximately twice the cost of
Crushed glass 2$51 !1 Coarse and fine
cement. This additional cost is believed by the authors to be offset aggregate
by the benefits of utilising recycled and waste materials. Steel slag 3$39 1$90 Coarse
However, because of this cost ratio the intention is to optimise the aggregate
bitumen content so that it is equivalent to a maximum of 50% by FBA 1$60 13$90 Fine aggregate
(Ferrybridge PS)
mass of the cement content required in current concrete blocks.
Fly ash 2$16 – Filler
In order to enable the utilisation of the least possible amount of (Ferrybridge PS)
bitumen, the aggregate gradation needs to be investigated. Coarse IBA 2$42 2$91 Coarse
Aggregate grading that gives lower surface areas is suitable: aggregate
therefore a continuous grading with higher maximum aggregate Fine IBA 2$15 9$90 Fine aggregate
ISSA 2$18 18$40 Filler and fine
size (e.g. 14 mm is suitable) and low percentage of filler content is aggregate
the primary option. The preferred composition of constituent
materials consists of a higher portion of materials that absorb less Note: PS Z power station.
bitumen combined with a lower amount of material that absorbs
Table 1. Materials used for the Bitublock mixtures
more bitumen (such as FBA and IBA). The combination of the

24 Construction Materials 159 Issue CM1 Development of bitumen-bound waste aggregate building blocks Forth et al.
 2.2. Experimental details
100
90 Initially, 50 penetration (pen) bitumen was used as the binder in
Cumulative passing: % 80 the optimisation process. In order to minimise the bitumen
70
60 content, aggregates with low absorption properties are required.
50 Therefore Mix 1 (as shown in Table 2) used crushed glass for the
40 coarse and fine aggregate part and PFA as the filler.
30
20
10 The maximum size of the coarse aggregate in all mixes was
0 14 mm. The various aggregate fractions were sieved and batched
0·01 0·10 1·00 10·00 100·00
Sieve size: mm individually. Fine aggregate was classified as material passing
LL-BS4987 UL-BS4987 Bitublock grading 2$36 mm. The filler aggregate fraction (passing 0$075 mm) for
any particular mix was adjusted depending on the contribution
Fig. 1. Aggregate gradation of the Bitublocks, compared with of filler material from the fines fraction (which can contribute
dense bitumen macadam (BS 4987)20
around 1–2% of the filler content).

2.1. Aggregate gradation Using Cooper’s formula, the aggregate composition consists of
Selection of the aggregate gradation of the mixtures was based the following fractions
on a modified Fuller’s curve (MFC),19 as shown below.
(a) coarse fraction (passing 14 mm, retained 2$36 mm): 58$5%
(b) fine fraction (passing 2$36 mm, retained 0$075 mm): 37$5%
ð100KF Þðdn K0$075n Þ (c) filler fraction (passing 0$075 mm): 4$0%.
1 PZ CF
Dn K0$075n

where P is the percentage of material passing sieve size d (mm),
D is the maximum aggregate size (mm), F is the percentage of
filler, and n is an exponential value that dictates the concavity
of the gradation line. The n value used was 0$45, which is the
exponential factor that has been widely used to produce the
best aggregate packing in continuously graded asphalt
mixtures. The value for D was taken as 14 mm, and F was taken
as equal to 4% based on the lower range of filler content
recommended for dense bitumen macadam gradings.20 The
aggregates were separated into the following coarse fractions:
14–10 mm, 10–5 mm, and 5–2$36 mm. The fine fraction was
designated as 2$36–0$075 mm, and the filler fraction was that
passing 0$075 mm.
To determine the optimum bitumen content (OBC), a range of
bitumen contents from 5$5% (min. recommended bitumen
content in BS 4987) down to 3% (which still gives satisfactory
aggregate coating) was considered, with decrement by weight of
total mix of 0$5%.
The manufacturing process has been described in detail
elsewhere.17,18 However, briefly, all materials were preheated to
1808C before being mixed together with the bitumen, which was
pre-preheated to 1608C.21 Following mixing, the combined
material mix was compacted in a steel mould at 90–1008C using
an 8 MPa static compaction pressure held for 1 min. The
compacted samples (100 mm ! 100 mm ! w40 mm deep) were
then cured at a trial temperature of 1008C for 24 h.

The target aggregate gradation for the Bitublock is shown in

Fig. 1, where its gradation is also compared with the upper
and lower limits of a typical dense bitumen macadam mixture
(BS 4987).20
2.3. Mix optimisation
2.3.1. Stage 1: Crushed glass C PFA/IBA/FBA C50 pen
bitumen. Table 2 illustrates the combination of waste and
by-product materials for the nine mixes investigated in Stage 1 of
the optimisation process. The aggregate combinations were
designed by volume substitution of the crushed glass (mix 1).

No. Mixture Coarse aggregates (58$5%) Fine aggregates (37$5%)* Filler†

1 Mix 1 100% crushed glass 100% crushed glass 4% fly ash

2 Mix 2A 100% crushed glass 100% FBA 4% fly ash
3 Mix 2B 100% crushed glass 50% FBA 50% crushed glass 4% fly ash
4 Mix 2C 100% crushed glass 25% FBA 75% crushed glass 4% fly ash
5 Mix 3A 100% crushed glass 100% IBA 4% fly ash
6 Mix 3B 100% crushed glass 50% IBA 50% crushed glass 4% fly ash
7 Mix 3C 100% crushed glass 25% IBA 75% crushed glass 4% fly ash
8 Mix 4 14–10 mm: crushed glass 100% IBA 4% fly ash
10–5 mm: IBA 5–2$36 mm: IBA
9 Mix 5 14–10 mm: crushed glass 100% crushed glass 4% fly ash
10–5 mm: IBA 5–2$36 mm: IBA

FBA, furnace bottom ash; IBA, incinerator bottom ash.

*
Substitution of crushed glass fine aggregate was carried out by volume.
†
The filler needed was adjusted according to the filler fraction content of the fine aggregates used.

Table 2. Mixture designation

Construction Materials 159 Issue CM1 Development of bitumen-bound waste aggregate building blocks Forth et al. 25
 2·120 2·6

2·110 2·4

Water absorption: %
2·100 2·2
Density: g/cm3

2·090 2·0

2·080
1·8

2·070
1·6

2·060
1·4
2·5 3·0 3·5 4·0 4·5 5·0 5·5 6·0
2·050
2·5 3·0 3·5 4·0 4·5 5·0 5·5 6·0 Bitumen content: %

Bitumen content: %
Fig. 2. Density against bitumen content (cured at 1008C for
24 h)
Figs 2 to 5 show the results obtained from mix 1 Bitublocks. It
can be seen that whereas the porosity and hence water absorption
continued to reduce with increasing bitumen content, as one
would expect, the compressive strength peaked at around 5%
bitumen content. Consequently, for all subsequent mixes 2 to 9,
this value was chosen as the optimum bitumen content (OBC) by
mass of the total mix. The density of the Bitublocks is equivalent
to that of normal coarse aggregate concrete blocks (and many
types of clay brick found in the UK).
2.3.1.1. Evaluation of Bitublock mixes. An evaluation of the
performance of the nine mixes was performed. This evaluation
was based on their workability and degree of aggregate coating
during preparation, and stability and compressive strength
(where the target of compressive strength is 3$5 MPa (minimum
target strength) to 7$0 MPa (upper target strength)) following
compaction. The results of this evaluation are shown in Table 3,
where it can be seen that four of the nine mixes were found to
have acceptable workability, coating and stability, and to exceed
the minimum target strength.
From Tables 2 and 3 it is clear that the compressive strength of
the samples is significantly influenced by the material type and
proportions (when the bitumen content is kept at 5%). The
Fig. 4. Water absorption against bitumen content (cured at
1008C for 24 h)
incorporation of a larger portion of material with high absorption
properties (i.e. FBA and fine IBA) into the mixtures reduces the
compressive strength of the corresponding mix. The porosity of
the FBA mixes increases as the amount of FBA in the mix is
increased, as the FBA is itself a porous material.
The mixes ranked 1 to 4 in Table 3 were then considered further.
Table 4 details the properties of the four mixes recommended for
further investigation. Even in an uncured condition the Bitublock
samples can achieve the target compressive strength. However,
because of the viscoelastic nature of the bituminous matrix of the
mixtures, the units will creep under sustained loading. Therefore,
to improve the time-dependent properties of the Bitublock,
curing and the use of harder bitumens are required (see Stage 3
below in section 2.3.3).
The 24 h water absorption property of the mixes can also be
found in Table 4. After curing, this property ranges from 1$05%
to 4$0% depending on the mix (this is equivalent to class A clay
bricks, and is a lot lower than for concrete blocks). If the
Bitublocks were to be combined with traditional mortars, this
level of absorption would be expected to help to promote a good
bond between the unit and the mortar. High levels of water
absorption (O15%) are one factor that has been found to reduce
the bond and have a detrimental effect on the properties of the
mortar in traditional masonry.24

16.0
9·50
15.0
9·00
14.0
Compressive strength: MPa

8·50
13.0
Porosity: %

8·00
12.0

11.0 7·50

10.0 7·00

9.0 6·50

8.0 6·00
2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 2·5 3·0 3·5 4·0 4·5 5·0 5·5 6·0
Bitumen content: % Bitumen content: %

Fig. 3. Porosity against bitumen content (cured at 1008C for Fig. 5. Compressive strength against bitumen content (cured at
24 h) 1008C for 24 h)

26 Construction Materials 159 Issue CM1 Development of bitumen-bound waste aggregate building blocks Forth et al.
 Rank Mixture Workability Coating Stability Compressive strength target

1 Mix 1 Best Best Best Exceeds upper target.

2 Mix 2C Good Good Good Meets upper target
3 Mix 5 Good Good Good Meets average target
4 Mix 3C Sufficient Sufficient Sufficient Exceeds minimum target
5 Mix 2B Partial collapse Meets minimum target
6 Mix 3B Partial collapse Meets minimum target
7 Mix 3A Unacceptable Unacceptable Partial collapse Below minimum target
8 Mix 2A Collapse Below minimum target
9 Mix 4 Collapse Below minimum target

Table 3. Stage 1 evaluation of Bitublock mixes

No Mixture Properties Uncured Cured at 1008C for 24 h

Density: g/cm3 2$110 2$110

Porosity: % 9$98 10
1 Mix 1 Water absorption:* % 1$8 1$9
Compressive strength: MPa 8$04 9$0
Density: g/cm3 1$985 1$974
Porosity: % 12$0 12$5
2 Mix 2C Water absorption:* % 1$0 1$05
Compressive strength: MPa 6$5 7$43
Density: g/cm3 1$949 1$950
Porosity: % 15$3 15$3
3 Mix 5 Water absorption:* % 4$0 4$0
Compressive strength: MPa 5$1 6$7
Density: g/cm3 2$027 2$021
Porosity: % 12$1 12$3
4 Mix 3C Water absorption:* % 2$2 2$5
Compressive strength: MPa 4$4 5$8
*
After 24 h immersion in water.22,23

Table 4. Stage 1 mix properties

2.3.2. Stage 2: Mixes incorporating ISSA. The incorporation of
ISSA into Bitublock is possible, and this material is most suitable
as a filler material as the majority of its particles—that is, around
80%—pass sieve size 0$075 mm. However, ISSA possesses high
absorption properties, and will therefore require a higher
bitumen content. In order to maintain reasonably low bitumen
contents, the ISSA was only combined as a mix with crushed
glass. Four types of ISSA mixture were produced, as shown in
Table 5.
The bitumen content ranged from 5% to 16% by mass of dry
aggregates. The lowest value in this range was determined by that
level required to achieve satisfactory aggregate coating (based on
visual observation). Table 6 illustrates the properties of the four
ISSA mixes. A compaction level of 30 MPa was used (at 80–908C)
for these mixes. Previously it has been found that, with mixes
using ISSA as the filler (and IBA and crushed glass as the coarse
and fine material respectively), a much higher compaction than
8 MPa was required to produce samples with the compressive

Coarse aggregates (58$5%):

Mixture 14–10; 10–5; 5–2$36 mm Fine aggregates (37$5%): 2$36–0$075 mm Filler: ! 0$075 mm

ISSA1 100% crushed glass 100% ISSA 4% ISSA

ISSA2 100% crushed glass 50% ISSA 50% crushed glass 4% ISSA
ISSA3 100% crushed glass 25% ISSA 75% crushed glass 4% ISSA
ISSA4 100% crushed glass 0% ISSA 100% crushed glass 4% ISSA

Table 5. ISSA mixtures based on material proportion

Mixture Bitumen content:* % Curing: 8C/h Density: g/cm3 Porosity: % Compressive strength: MPa

ISSA1 16 100/24 1$748 12$4 8$1

ISSA2 10 100/24 1$915 11$3 7$1
ISSA3 7 100/24 2$010 11$0 6$4
ISSA4 5 100/24 2$166 7$6 9$4
*
By mass of dry aggregates.

Table 6. Properties of the ISSA Bitublock samples

Construction Materials 159 Issue CM1 Development of bitumen-bound waste aggregate building blocks Forth et al. 27
 Mixture Coarse aggregates (58$5%): Fine aggregates (37$5%): Filler (4%):

Bitublock-CG 100% crushed glass 100% crushed glass 4% fly ash

Bitublock-S.Slag 100% steel slag 100% crushed glass 4% fly ash

Table 7. Stage 3 mix design

strength required for this investigation.25 The porosity of the ISSA measurement of creep the samples were made w65–70 mm thick,
is very high in comparison with the other filler materials. This which was slightly thicker than in stages 1 and 2.
value of 30 MPa was chosen to reduce the porosity of the mixes so
that they were comparable to those of the mixes in stage 1.
2.3.3.2. Creep test method. Creep was obtained from samples that
were loaded using a static dead-weight lever arm machine
From Tables 6 and 7 the results of the ISSA4 mix indicate that
(mechanical advantage of 4) as shown in Fig. 6. The total strain
ISSA can be used as a filler material with the OBC determined in
measurements were taken using a 50 mm Demec gauge (Fig. 7)
stage 1. However, as the amount of ISSA incorporated in the mix
on four faces of the sample (Fig. 8). The applied stress was 1 MPa.
increases, the bitumen content also increases. The mixes that
This level of stress is representative in masonry construction and
contained the higher proportion of ISSA have higher porosities.
This is because the ISSA itself is a porous material. The lower provides the creep values in terms of specific creep. The
density of some of the ISSA mixes is interesting to note, because experimental rig allows up to four samples from the same or
incorporating this material in future Bitublock investigations different curing regimes to be tested in series at the same time.
may allow the development of a Bitublock that is equivalent to Creep measurements are obtained from the total strain measured
current lightweight concrete blocks. on the loaded samples in the usual way by deducting any
movement in corresponding control samples.26
2.3.3. Stage 3: Mixes using hard bitumen. Previously it has been
shown that the optimum bitumen content using 50 pen bitumen After the initial elastic strain was recorded from the loaded samples,
was 5%. However, although this produced samples with adequate total strain was measured initially at regular intervals of 15 min.
compressive strength, it was still necessary to define the long-
term properties of the blocks. In order to minimise creep
deformations, it was decided to use a harder bitumen type (H
80/90). The bitumen content was kept constant at 5% (as
determined in stage 1) and any change in the proportions of the
materials used was once again achieved by volume substitution.

Two types of mix were examined in stage 3 (Table 7). Mix 1 of

stage 1 was investigated again, but this time with H 80/90
bitumen. This was to get a comparison of the influence of the
harder bitumen on the compressive strength property of the
Bitublock. Table 7 also provides details of the mix incorporating
steel slag. The use of steel slag in Bitublock has been chosen here,
as previously it has been shown that because of its angular shape
and high surface friction it can help reduce the creep of these
types of bituminous mix.16 This mix was manufactured with both
50 pen and H 80/90 bitumen types to examine the influence of Fig. 6. Creep test using arm load machine
bitumen on the time-dependent properties of the Bitublock.

2.3.3.1. Sample production and curing. For manufacturing samples

of Bitublock using hard H 80/90 bitumen, the bitumen and the
aggregate materials (which were dry-mixed) were initially heated
to 2008C for 4 h. All materials were then mixed at 180–1908C. The
coated loose mixes were put in an oven set at 2008C for
15–20 min to regain heat. The samples were then compacted
using a static compaction pressure of 8 MPa stress for 1 min. This
level of compaction had previously been found to give a porosity
of between 10% and 15%, which is the most effective in
optimising the curing effect. Because of the time taken to
transport the samples to the static press and the time taken to
compact the sample, the temperature dropped to 90–100 8C. This
was compatible with the compacting temperature achieved in
stages 1 and 2. The compacted samples were cooled down and
then demoulded, at which point they were either left uncured or
Fig. 7. A Demec gauge, and its supporting equipment
cured at 1608C for 12, 24, 48 or 72 h. To assist in the

28 Construction Materials 159 Issue CM1 Development of bitumen-bound waste aggregate building blocks Forth et al.
 strength values to those of the Bitublock-CG mix using H 80/90
(mix 1, 9 MPa; Bitublock-CG, 8$4 MPa), even though the CG mix
was cured at 1608C whereas mix 1 was cured at 1008C. The results
imply that curing temperature has little influence on the extent of
ageing. A closer look at the differences between the properties of
penetration-grade road bitumens and industrial application hard
bitumens provides some explanation. In accordance with BS
3690: Part 2,27 the weight loss (50 g sample, 5 mm film thickness)
on heating following 5 h at 1638C should not exceed 0$2% for a
50 penetration grade bitumen. On the other hand, for hard-grade
bitumens the same specification allows a maximum loss on
heating of only 0$05%. The loss on heating test is designed to
control the volatility of a bitumen, and determines the degree to
which it may have been ‘cut’ by a low molecular weight flux. It
thus appears that hard-grade bitumens require far more severe
curing conditions (longer durations and/or higher temperatures)
Fig. 8. A sample with a pair of Demec points (dp) glued to its to cause substantial oxidation and hardening.
side

The influence of the coarse steel slag aggregate on the

compressive strength of the two H 80/90 mixes can also be seen
Curing: Density: Porosity: Compressive
Mixture 8C/h g/cm3 % strength: MPa (Table 8). Mixes incorporating steel slag possess comparatively
higher compressive strengths, indicating the significance of the
Uncured 7$1 angular nature, rough surface texture and high surface friction.16
160/12 7$8 of this type of aggregate. Furthermore, accelerated hardening of
160/24 2$068 12$3 8$4
Bitublock-CG bitumen may in part be caused by the presence of ferric and
160/48 (avg) (avg) 9$1
ferrous oxide in the steel slag.16 Ferric and ferrous components
160/72 10$1
Uncured 8$2 are typically used as catalysts to accelerate oxidation of bitumen
160/12 9$1 in the production of air-blown (oxidised) bitumens. Oxidised
2$452 12$8
Bitublock-S.Slag 160/24 9$8 bitumens have higher viscosity and softening point, and lower
160/48 (avg) (avg) 13$0 penetration, ductility and adhesiveness than regular straight-run
160/72 16$6
distillation bitumens. Hence their usage in paving mixtures is
Table 8. Volumetric and compressive strength of the H80/90 very limited, owing to their potential to cause cracking.
mixes

3.2. Elastic modulus

Following the first hour of monitoring, strains were then measured
The elastic moduli of the two H 80/90 mix types for the various
every 30 min, and then every 60 min. After the first day of loading,
curing times can be found in Table 9. These are the secant
strains were recorded three times a day. Relatively constant
modulus of elasticity, as it was not possible with the equipment
strain for this initial investigation was achieved after one week. The
available to obtain instantaneous strain. All elastic strains were
room temperature during testing was maintained at 238C.
measured within 10 min of the application of load, which is
below the critical value indicated by Neville et al.26 of 15 min.
3. RESULTS According to Neville et al.,26 after this time the elastic modulus
3.1. Volumetric properties and compressive strength will be significantly influenced by creep.
The volumetric and compressive strength of the mixes for the
creep tests are given in Table 8. It can be seen that the The effect of curing can clearly be seen on the elastic modulus of
compressive strength of these mixes exceeds the target strength the Bitublock. In the UK the normal curing time for the
of 3$5–7$0 MPa. By comparing the Bitublock-CG mix with mix 1 manufacture of concrete blocks is approximately 24 h. The
from stage 1 it can be seen that the harder bitumen has had little modulus obtained after this time for the two mixes is compatible
effect on the compressive strength of the uncured mix (mix 1, with that of normal aggregate concrete blocks. The elastic moduli
8$04 MPa; Bitublock-CG, 7$1 MPa). This is, on first inspection, of the steel slag mixes are significantly higher than those of the
not what would be expected. However, it can be explained by CG mixes. This further highlights the influence of the nature of
comparing the porosity of the two mixes. The CG mix has a the steel slag aggregate.
higher porosity (12$3%) than mix 1 (10%). Mix 1 used 50 pen
bitumen, which is more workable at lower temperatures. Elastic modulus: GPa
Therefore, for the same compaction level (8 MPa), it is not
surprising that the porosity of mix 1 is lower than that of the CG Curing at 1608C: h CG S.Slag
mix, which used the harder, less workable 80/90 bitumen.
12 1$85 2$97
Basically, for this aggregate gradation, the lower the porosity the 24 3$85 7$46
better the aggregate interlock to resist deformation. 48 11$24 28$57
72 15$60 47$62
Even more interesting were the results obtained following the
Table 9. Bitublock-CG and Bitublock–S.Slag elastic moduli
24 h heat curing. Mix 1 still possessed similar compressive

Construction Materials 159 Issue CM1 Development of bitumen-bound waste aggregate building blocks Forth et al. 29
 25 000 1000
dp1 dp2 dp3 dp4 12 h 24 h 48 h 72 h
Strains: microstrain

20 000 800

Strains: microstrain
15 000 600

10 000
400
5 000
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Loading time: h
Loading time: h

Fig. 9. Total strain of the Bitublock-S.Slag mixtures, uncured Fig. 11. Creep of Bitublock-S.Slag mixtures, cured for various
sample before failure times at 1608C

3.3. Expansion/shrinkage
Control (unloaded) samples stored next to the loading rig under
the same environmental conditions as the loaded samples were
monitored for any expansion/shrinkage. After one week it was
found that the control samples did not undergo any expansion or
shrinkage (zero strain). The stability of the Bitublock is seen as a
major advantage over the behaviour of concrete blocks currently
used in the UK.
3.4. Creep
Initially, an uncured sample of Bitublock-S.Slag mixture was
tested. After less then 48 h the sample failed. By observing the
level of strain measured on this sample in Fig. 9, the failure is not
surprising. When testing concrete, the level of applied stress
chosen is normally 15–20% of the 28-day compressive strength.
This ensures that the sample will not fail, regardless of creep. In
fact normally only when the applied stress is greater than 80% of
the compressive strength will the creep of the material cause
failure. In this uncured sample, a creep of 10 000 microstrain
(average of 4 Demec (dp) readings) was recorded after 24 h. This
is equivalent to approximately 1 mm of movement.
Figs 10 and 11 illustrate the creep of the cured Bitublock-CG and
steel slag mixes using the H80/90 bitumen respectively. Oven-
curing at 1608C ranged from 12 to 72 h. Samples were loaded for
only just under a week, as this duration was considered sufficient
to provide an idea of the creep behaviour of the Bitublock.
(Additional, long-term tests will be performed following further
optimisation of the mixes.) The lower creep of the slag mix when
compared with the creep of the CG mix is as expected from a
consideration of the relative values of the elastic moduli of the
two mixes (Table 9).
6000
12 h 24 h
5000
Strains: microstrain
The influence of the aggregate material is also evident in the
comparison of the levels of creep of the two mixes. In addition to
the potential for ferric and ferrous components to cause
accelerated ageing, the surface roughness and water absorption
values (voids) of the slag compared with the crushed glass mean
that the bitumen is spread over a much larger surface area, and
hence it exists on the aggregate surfaces in thinner film
thicknesses. Therefore during oven-curing the thinner bitumen
films are more prone to oxidation (oxygen attacks and penetrates
the depth of the bitumen film by diffusion, and hence a thinner
film is oxidised faster).
From Fig. 11 it can be seen that creep of the steel slag Bitublocks
can almost be eliminated if the units are cured for 48 h. Curing
for 24 h at 1608C will produce a unit that still has creep properties
equivalent to those of concrete blocks currently used in the UK.28
As can be seen earlier with the elastic modulus results for this
mix, curing the samples for longer than 24 h will provide a unit
with significantly improved elastic and long-term properties,
which easily exceed those of current concrete blocks found in the
UK. However, from a comparison with existing manufacturing
methods in terms of sustainability and cost, if these
improvements were considered beneficial it is important to be
aware that they would be achieved by reducing the sustainability
of the Bitublock, because more energy is required for the
production process. Also, manufacturing costs would be
increased because of the increased manufacturing time required
for the curing process.
Fig. 12 illustrates the creep of the cured (24 h, 48 h and 72 h)
Bitublock-S.Slag mixes of stage 3, which used 50 pen bitumen.
For clarity, Fig. 13 illustrates the creep of the samples cured for
48 h and 72 h only. By comparing Figs 12 and 13 (50 pen) with
Figs 11 and 12 (H80/90), the effect of the bitumen type can
48 h 72 h
5000

4000 4000
Strains: microstrain

3000
3000
2000
2000
1000 24 h 48 h 72 h
1000
0
0 20·0 40·0 60·0 80·0 100·0 120·0 140·0
0
Loading time: h 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Loading time: h
Fig. 10. Creep of Bitublock-CG, cured for various times at
1608C Fig. 12. Bitublock-S.Slag 50 pen, average creep strains

30 Construction Materials 159 Issue CM1 Development of bitumen-bound waste aggregate building blocks Forth et al.

400
48 h 72 h
350
Strains: microstrain 300
250
200
150
100
50
0 2006).
0 20 40 60 80 100
Loading time: h
Fig. 13. Bitublock-S.Slag 50 pen, average creep strains (in two
curing regimes)
clearly be seen. The creep of the samples manufactured using 50
pen bitumen is much greater than that of the H80/90 samples.
The use of harder bitumens is therefore significant with respect to
the overall performance of the units, even if it appears to have no
positive effect on the compressive strength values.
4. CONCLUSIONS
From the results of this investigation it is clear that Bitublock
can be produced with a compressive strength at least equal to that
of the current normal aggregate block produced in the UK
(3$5–7$0 MPa). The units, when manufactured using H80/90
bitumen, also appear to be more stable in the long term than
concrete blocks. This is extremely useful in masonry
construction, which currently has to incorporate a system of
movement joints to accommodate not only the influence of the
mortar but also the creep and shrinkage of concrete blocks.
Bitublock provides an ideal opportunity to make use of many
waste materials. Fly ash, FBA, IBA, crushed glass, steel slag and
ISSA can all be incorporated within the block. The combination
of these materials does have an effect on the properties of the
block, and the ideal type of aggregate is one with qualities equal
to those of the aggregates used for road pavements, with rough
surface, low absorption, angular and cubical shape. However, the
different properties that are available highlight the flexibility of
Bitublock to match different practical requirements.
The performance of the Bitublock can be further improved by
optimising the porosity of the unit and also, concomitantly, the
curing regime.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the Engineering and Physical
Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) for their financial support,
and Tarmac Ltd, Total Bitumen UK Ltd, Ferrybridge Power
Station Management, Berryman-UK Ltd, Onyx Hanson Ltd and
Yorkshire Water for the supply of the materials and their
technical assistance.
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