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Lecture 4

The Semantic Structure of the English Words

1. Semasiology. The meaning of the word.

2. Meaning and context.
3. Changes of the meaning of the word (extension, narrowing, elevation, degradation,
metaphor, metonymy).

1. Semasiology (semantics) is a branch of linguistics dealing with the meaning of the

word. According to the native linguists the meaning of the word is the expression of
concepts of things fixed in sounds. There are 2 types of the meaning of the word: the
lexical meaning and the grammatical meaning.
The lexical meaning of the word is the material content of the word overtly marked
in accordance with the grammar laws of a given language and it is an element of the
general semantic system of the language. Thus, the lexical meaning of the word is the
realization of the concept by means of a definite language system.
The grammatical meaning of the word is the expression in speech of relationship
between words based on contrastive features of arrangements in which they are used, e.g.
grammatical meaning of case, gender etc. The grammatical meaning is recurrent in
identical sets of individual forms of different words, e.g. go, come, etc. The lexical
meaning is identical in all grammatical forms. It is the same throughout its paradigm. The
grammatical meaning differs from one form to another: moves, moved, moving…
The lexical meaning has two components: denotative (denotational) and connotative
(connotational). The denotative component serves to identify and name concepts. It is
directed towards things and phenomena of objective reality. It makes the communication
possible. The connotative component serves to evoke or directly express emotions and to
refer words to different styles of speech in accordance with different social occasions and
situations.
Types of lexical meaning. First of all linguists distinguish between direct or
nominative meanings when words name objects taken in isolation not in a given context
and figurative meanings when objects are named and at the same time characterized by
speaker through its similarity and contiguity with other object. The classification given by
V.Vinogradov is based on the Russian language but can be applied to the study of other
languages including English.
1. The direct nominative lexical meaning. It is called direct because it is directed so to
say towards things, phenomena, processes, qualities, including the inner life of man: a
picture, a chair, etc.
2. The phraseologically bound lexical meanings. They are observed in phraseological
units and are determined by the inner laws of a given lexical system. They exist only in
some phraseological units historically conditioned, e.g. black market, black Friday.
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3. The syntactically conditioned lexical meaning which is realized in the word only
when it is used in a definite syntactical function of a sentence, e.g. the girl is ill; ill
tongues.
4. The structurally conditioned lexical meaning of the word by the stable structure of
the semantic groups with which the word is combined. E.g. to make progress; to make a
good teacher; to make smb. happy.

Within the semantic structure of the word linguists distinguish the following lexical
meanings:

1) Abstract and concrete.

2) Primary (main) and secondary.
3) Central and peripheral.
4) Narrow and extended.
5) General and particular.
These terms reflect relationship between different meanings of the word at the same
time. Besides, lexical meanings may be classified into stylistically neutral and stylistically
coloured.

2. Polysemy in English. Words that have more than one meaning are called polysemantic
(polysemic); Words that have one meaning – monosemantic.

E.g. face: the front part of the head;

the front part of the building;
the front part of the watch; etc. (figurative meaning)

heart: the central organ of body that sends blood through it;
the central part of a place or region;
the heart of a forest;
the centre of emotion, of mental and moral qualities, etc.

The commoner a word is the more meanings it has. Polysemy is characteristic for all
developed languages. But it is especially characteristic in English due to its analytical
structure and its phonemic shapes of words (one stressed-syllable words are commonly
used in English: do, bring…).
Polysemy exists only in language, not in speech. In our speech a polysemantic word
has only one of its meanings. Other meanings of it we shall find in other contexts. We say
that it is the context that gives a word its actual meaning. The term “context” denotes the
minimal stretch of speech that determines each individual meaning of the word.
There are 2 types of context: lexical and grammatical. Lexical contexts are lexical
groups combined with the polysemantic word. Grammatical contexts are the grammatical
(syntactical) structure of the context that determines various meanings of a polysemantic
word.
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Two main ways of the development of meaning of a polysemantic word are radiation
and concatenation.

Radiation is a semantic process in which the primary meaning is in the centre and
the secondary meanings developed from it in every direction like rays.

E.g. Hand: possession

a pointer of a clock
side or direction
skill
applause
part of an arm
a person who works with his hand

Concatenation (Lat.): con (together) + catena (chain) – is a semantic process in

which the primary meaning gives rise only to the first secondary meaning. The first
secondary meaning gives rise to the second secondary meaning and so on.
E.g. style – a pointed instrument used for various purposes;
a tool for writing;
a mode of writing;
manner in general.

Radiation and concatenation are closely connected. Radiation usually precedes

concatenation. In many cases the connection between the primary and the last secondary
meaning is not felt. Concatenation and radiation are different stages of the same semantic
process. In order to study this process one must know the etymology of polysemantic
word. The development and change of the semantic structure of a word is a source of a
qualitative and quantitative growth of the vocabulary.
There are 3 ways of the enrichment of the vocabulary:
1) the formation of new words (due to word-building process);
2) the development of the meanings of already existed words;
3) borrowings from other languages.
The more meanings a word acquires, the more developed is its semantic structure
and the semantic system of the language. The more developed is the semantic system of
their language the richer is its vocabulary.

To lecture 4.
Metonymy (Gr.) is transference of meaning based on contiguity (nearness, proximity) of
concepts of things and phenomena.
Cases:
1. The name of an instrument is used for an agent (doer).
E.g. The pen is stronger than the sword. The best pens of the day.
2. The sign is used for the thing meant.
E.g. From the cradle to the grave. Grey hair.
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3. The name of the container for the thing contained. E.g. to drink a cup of coffee. The
kettle is boiling.
4. The abstract is substituted for the concrete. E.g. He was summoned by the
authorities.
5. The material for the thing made of it. E.g. A glass of water. Silver. Boards (the
stage).
6. The names of organs for some qualities. E.g. She has a good ear for music. To loose
one’s head.
7. The geographical names are used to denote things produced in these countries for the
first time. E.g. Manchester (for cotton textile); Boston (for wool); Champagne.
8. Names of places meaning people acting at the places. E.g. The table kept laughing.
She was the talk of the village.
9. Names of persons to denote the things invented by them: mackintosh, sandwich,
nicotine (Jean Nicot).
10. In the political sphere when the place of some establishment is used not only for the
establishment or its staff but also for its policy: the White House; the Downing Street 10;
the Pentagon.

Synecdoche (Gr.) – is the semantic process in which the part is used for the whole or the
whole for the part.
E.g. foot (infantry); to earn one’s bread. It is the simplest case of metonymy.

Hyperbole (Gr.) – is the semantic process when a word expresses exaggeration.

E.g. Haven’t seen you for ages.
I beg a thousand pardons.
Millions of reasons.
The whole town was there.