ЛЕКСИКОЛОГИЯ

1. Філософські та загальнонаукові поняття лексикології. Основні поняття лексикології,

загальнонаукові поняття, предмет науки, суміжні науки, функції та мета. Синхронія, діахронія,
синтагматика та парадигматика.

Lexicology is a branch of linguistics dealing with the vocabulary of a language and the properties of words as
the main units of the language. Lexicology studies and describes the vocabulary as to its origin, development
and current use. Lexicology examines every feature of a word – including formation, spelling, origin, usage,
and definition. Lexicology also considers the relationships that exist between words.

Vocabulary is used to denote a system formed by the sum total of all the words and word equivalents

The word is the basic unit of language system used for the purpose of human communication, materially
representing a group of sounds, possessing a meaning. So, the subject-matter of lexicology is the word, its
morphemic structure, history and meaning.

Links with other branches.

 Phonetics: investigates the phonetic structure of language, i.e. its system of phonemes and intonation
patterns.
 Grammar: concerned with the various means of expressing grammatical relations between words.
 Stylistics: concerned with the study of the nature, functions and structure of stylistic devices

In linguistics, the terms ‘synchrony’ and ‘diachrony’ refer to two different approaches in linguistic research,
with respect to the periods of time considered in the research in question.

 The synchronic approach means studying any aspect of language solely in one particular period of
time (typically the present), without taking into account other periods of time in that language’s
history.
 The diachronic approach means studying any aspect of language by comparing it between two (or
more) periods of time, effectively focusing on the change and evolution of whatever it is you’re looking
at. 

The term paradigmatic relations denotes the mental associations between words which form part of a set of
mutually exclusive items, e.g. black responds with white.

The term syntagmatic relations refers to mental associations between words which frequently occur together,
e.g. black magic / tie / sheep.

2. Загальні проблеми теорії слова. Значення слова. Типи значення. Морфологічне, фонетичне та
семантичне мотивування. Лексико-семантичне поле.

The word is a unit of speech which, as such, serves the purposesof human communication.
Meaning is a linguistic category. Concept is a logical and psychological category, a unit of thinking.

The content plane of words includes denotative and connotative meanings.

Denotative meaning, the basic type of lexical meaning, is the word‘s reference to the object:
 Individual e.g. The dog is trained
 General e.g.  It‘s not a dog.
 The referent of proper names is always an individual object or person. They refer to each member of a
particular class, e.g. London, Paris (cities), John, Bob (men)
 Specific and generic terms differ in the size of the referent group, e.g. rose – flower; flower – plant
 General terms have a wider meaning and can substitute for any specific term, e.g. dog – English bulldog,
French poodle, cocker spaniel.
 The referent of abstract words can be perceived by the mind and not by the senses: miracle, polite, to
manage.
Connotative meaning includes various additional meanings: emotional, evaluative, intensifying and
expressive, e.g. hillock, to devour. As a rule, connotation co-exists with denotation. Sometimes it comes to the
foreground and weakens the word‘s denotative meaning.
 Motivation of the word describes the features chosen as the basis for nomination. There are three main types
of motivation:
 The phonetical motivation implies a direct connection between the phonetic structure of the word and its
meaning.
 The morphological motivation implies a direct connection between the lexical meaning of the constituent
morphemes, the pattern of their arrangement and the meaning of the word.
 The semantic motivation implies a direct connection between the central (main) and marginal (derived)
meanings of the word.

Words may be classified according to the concepts underlying their meaning. This classification is closely
connected with the theory of conceptual or semantic fields. For example: terms of kinship: father, cousin,
mother-in-law, uncle; names for parts of the human body: head, neck, arm, foot, thumb; colour terms: blue,
green, yellow, red / scarlet, crimson, coral;
An ideographic group unites thematically related words of different parts of speech :
 the system of logical notions: ‘Trade’: to buy, to sell, to pay, to cost, a price, money, cash, a receipt,
expensive etc.
 contextual associations: ‘Going by train’: railway, a journey, a train, a train station, timetable, a
platform, a passenger,  a single  ticket.
A semantic field shows the relations between words:
 common meaning: ‘Human Mind’: mind, reason, cognition, idea, concept, judgment, analysis.
A lexico-semantic group. Words are united if they have one or more semantic components, but differ in some
other semantic components:
 verbs of sense perception: to see, to hear, to feel, to taste;
 verbs denoting speech acts: to speak, to talk, to chat, to natter, to mumble, to ramble, to stammer, to
converse;
 verbs of motion: to walk, to run, to tiptoe, to stroll, to stagger, to stomp, to swagger, to wander

3. Етимологічні особливості словникового складу англійської мови. Слова корінного та

іншомовного походження. Причини і шляхи запозичень. Асиміляція, типи і ступені асиміляції.

The most characteristic etymological feature of English vocabulary is its mixed character. Only 25-30% of
English words are of native origin.

 A native word is a word which belongs to the original Eng word-stock of Anglo-Saxon origin. This group
comprises words of the Indo-European origin which have cognates in the vocabularies of different Indo-
European lang-s. The words of this group express the most vital, important concepts. E.g. father, mother,
son, moon, star, wolf, dream, cow, ear, tooth, eye, heart, etc.
 Borrowings are words borrowed from other languages. E.g. paper < French papier < Latin papyrus < Greek
papyrus (source of borrowing – paper, origin of borrowing – papyrus)
 A hybrid is a word consisting of one native & one foreign element: readable, eatable, where the root is
native the suffix –able is foreign.

Causes of Borrowings. Borrowings are the result of direct & indirect intercourse with several lang-s. The
motives for borrowings are:

 the need feeling motive – words denoting notions, objects peculiar to one lang are borrowed into
another: sputnik, sombrero, cheese, etc.

 the prestige motive – in the … the upper & middle class Englishmen learned French because it was the
lang of the rulers.

Borrowings can be:

 completely assimilated - have undergone all types of assimilation; are not felt as foreign words in the
language (sport, animal, face);
 partially assimilated - didn't undergone one of the type of assimilation:
o graphically non-assimilated (ballet, bouquet, colour);
 o phonetically non-assimilated - stress, combination of sounds, which are not standard for
English (police, machine, regime);
o grammatically non-assimilated - from Latin or Greek (phenomenon – phenomena);
o semantically non-assimilated - denote objects or nation characteristic of the country from
which they came (sushi).
 non-assimilated or barbarisms - not assimilated in any way (ciao, addio, tete-a-tete, c’est la vie).

Assimilation is a phonetic process by which one sound under the influence of a sound near it acquires some
articulation and acoustic likeness to that of other sound.

Considering its direction it is possible to distinguish 3 types of assimilation:

 PROGRESSIVE - In progressive assimilation the assimilated phoneme is influenced by the preceding

one, e. g. programme, frail.

 REGRESSIVE - In regressive assimilation the assimilated phoneme is influenced by the phoneme

following it, e. g. tall, garden

 RECIPROCAL - In reciprocal assimilation the adjacent phonemes influence each other, e. g. train - /t/
becomes post-alveolar and /r/ becomes partially devoiced

4. Запозичення з конкретних мов. Кельтські, латинські, грецькі, скандинавські та французькі

запозичення.

There are many words in English that are of foreign origin. The language from which the loan word was taken
into English is called the source of borrowing. The original language to which the word may be traced is called
the origin of borrowing

 Celtic borrowings are of primary historical importance for English. When the Anglo-Saxons came to the British
Isles in the 5th century A.D. they met with the Celts or Britains – the native inhabitants of the British Isles
whom they pushed away to the North and the West. Celtic elements are mostly found in place names, e.g.
aber (the mouth of the river) – Aberdeen; avon (a river) – Stratford-on-Avon; inch (an island) – Inchcape
 Latin borrowings constitute about ¼ of the English vocabulary. Latin borrowings may be divided into 3 groups:

1. ancient borrowings which goes back as far as the 1st century B.C.: dish, cup, butter, cheese, wine,
cherry, plum, hare, spices, pepper and kitchen.

2. Borrowings which came to Britain in the 6th-7th centuries when Christianity was introduced: abbot,
alter, angel, bishop, saint, candle, monk, nun, pope, Christ, school.

3. Words borrowed during the the Renaissance in the 14th century and since then the invasion of classical
terms has never stopped. Many of them are distinctly learned words: senior, major, minor, junior,
accept, educate, basis, area, idea, aggravate.

 Scandinavian borrowings belong to the basic word stock of Modern English. Britain devastated by the inroads
of different Scandinavian tribes (the Danes) for about 3 centuries from the 8th to the 11th century. The Danish
invasion resulted in the occupation of a great part of the country by Scandinavian settlers, who spoke Old
Norse – the Germanic language very close to Old English.: law, husband, fellow, sky, skin, wing, root, skill,
anger, finger, gate, to die, to cast, to hit, to take, to call, to want, loose, wrong, low, ill, ugly, rotten, happy,
they.

 French borrowings are especially numerous in English. They may be roughly divided into old, or Norman
borrowings, and new, or Parisian, borrowings. After the Norman conquest in 1066 French or rather Northern-
French became the official language in England. The first French borrowings were terms connected with war,
fare, court, law, soldiers, army, crown, country, piece, justice, office, government, parliament and state. In
the 17th century there was a change in the character of French borrowings. New borrowings mainly from the
 Parisian dialect preserved their French forms as a rule: campaign, garage, ballet, rouge, bucket, and matinee,
machine.

5. Морфологічна структура англійських слів. Словотвір. Афіксація, словоскладання, конверсія. Типи і

шляхи словотвору. Продуктивні та непродуктивні способи творення.

A morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that has semantic meaning. From the semantic point of view all

morphemes are divided into two large classes: root morphemes (or roots) and affixational morphemes (or
affixes). 

 The root is the primary element of the word, its basic part which conveys its fundamental lexical meaning. For
example, end- and boy- are the roots in the following groups of words: end, ending, endless, unending,
endlessly, endlessness and boy, boyhood, boyish.
 The affixes, in their turn, fall into prefixes which precede the root
(e.g. unhappy,  rewrite,  discover,  impossible,  misbehavior, etc.) and suffixes which follow the root
(e.g. friendship, peaceful, worker, teaching, realize, calmly, etc.).

Affixation - formation of words by adding derivative affix to different types of bases. Subdivided into:
 Prefixation is the formation of words with the help of prefixes; does not change part of speech; e.g. a
pretest, to coexist, to undo, impossible, asleep, to rewrite etc.
 Suffixation is the formation of words with the help of suffixes; can change part of speech; e.g. an
employee, childish, quietly, to specify etc.
Types of affixes according to the position in a word:
 prefixes – affixes standing before the stem, e.g. ex-minister, in-sensitive,  re-read etc.;
 suffixes – derivational affixes following the stem e.g. king-dom, book-let,  child-hood, do-er, wash-able,
sharp-en etc;
 infixes – affixational morphemes placed within a word, e.g –n– in stand.
Synchronic vs diachronic differentiation of affixes:
 living affixes are easily separated from the stem, e.g. re-, -ful, -ly, un-, -ion, de-  etc.;
 dead affixes have become fully merged with the stem e.g. admit < Lat. ad+mittere;
Productive vs non-productive affixes:
 productive affixes take part in word-formation in modern English, e.g. -er, -ing, -ness, -ism, -ance, un-,
re-, dis-, -y, -ish, -able, -ise, -ate;
 non-productive affixes are not active in word-formation in modern English, e.g. –th, -hood, -some, -en;

Word-composition is a productive type of word-building, in which new words are produced by combining two
or more stems. E.g.: campsite, bluebird, whitewash, in-laws, jumpsuit.
Types of compounds:
According to the type of the linking element:
 compounds without a linking element, e.g. toothache, bedroom, sweet-heart;
 compounds with a vowel linking element, e.g. handicraft, speedometer;
 compounds with a consonant linking element, e.g. statesperson, craftsman;
 compounds with a preposition linking stem, e.g. son-in-law, lady-in-waiting;
 compounds with a conjunction linking stem, e.g. bread-and-butter.
According to the type of relationship between the components
 syntactic compounds according to rules of Modern English syntax, e.g. a know-nothing - to know
nothing, a blackbird – a black bird;
 asyntactic compounds if they do not conform to the rules of Modern English syntax, e.g. baby-sitting –
to sit with a baby, oil-rich – to be rich in oil.
According to the way of composition:
 compound proper formed by joining the stems of words, with or without the help of special linking
elements, e.g. seasick, looking-glass, helicopter-rescued, handicraft;
 derivational compound is a compound which is formed by two simultaneous processes of composition
and derivation, e.g. long-legged, many-sided, old-timer, left-hander.
According to the semantic relations between the constituents:
 non-idiomatic compounds, whose meanings can be described as the sum of their constituent
meanings, e.g. a sleeping-car, an evening-gown, a snowfall;
 idiomatic compounds, the meaning of which cannot be deduced from the meanings of the
constituents, e.g. a ladybird, a tallboy, horse-marine. 

Conversion is the formation of words without using specific word-building affixes. First cases of conversion
registered in the 14th c. imitated such pairs of words as love, (O.E. lufu, n – lufian, v).
Verbs converted from nouns denote:
 action characteristic of the object,  dog (n) – to dog (v); 
 Instrumental use of the object, e.g.  screw (n) – to screw (v);
 acquisition or addition of the object, e.g. fish (n) – to fish (v);
 time, e.g. winter (n) – winter (v);
 deprivation of the object, e.g.  dust (n) – dust (v).
Nouns converted from verbs denote:
 instance or process of the action, e.g. dance (v) – dance (n); 
 agent of the action, e.g. help (v) – help (n); 
 place of action, e.g. walk (v) – walk (n);
 object or result of the action, e.g. peel (v) – peel (n).

PRODUCTIVE TYPES OF WORD-FORMATION

1) Affixation.affixes are classified into native and borrowed; productive and non-productive types.
2) CompositionClassification of compounds: neutral, morphological, syntactic
idiomatic compounds non-idiomatic compounds.
3) Conversion (verbs made from nouns: tool or implement, an animal, a part of the human body, a profession
or occupation, a place, a container, a meal
4) Shortening There are 2 ways to read abbreviations: 1. As a succession of alphabet reading of letters або of
sounds, denoted by letters
5) Clipping.Words, which have been shortened at the end (apocope), at the beginning
(aphaeresis). Phone  some syllables or sounds have been omitted from the middle (syncope).Maths at the
beginning and end. Flu – influenza, fridge – refrigerator
NON-PRODUCTIVE TYPES OF WORD-FORMATION
1. Onomatopoeiachatter, bubble, murmur
2. Reduplicationbye-bye ping-pong, chit-chat
3. Reversion (back-formation) to burgle from burglar
4. Blendingsmog – smoke+fog brunch – breakfast+lunch Bisquick – bisquit+quick
5. Sentence-condensation -substantivising of the phrase. forget-me-not,
6. Sound and stress interchangeThere are 2 groups of sound interchange: 1. Vowel interchange: (foot – feet).
2. Consonant interchange: (use [jus] – to use [juz], believe – belief,

6. Семасіологія. Полісемія. Типи семантичних компонентів. Значення і контекст. Причини

розвитку нового значення. Метафора та метонімія. Семантичні зміни: розширення,
звуження, зниження та підвищення значення слова.

Semasiology is a branch of lexicology, that is devoted to the study of meaning.

There are different approaches to the study of meaning:
1. Referent approach :

 The sound form is connected with our concept of the word which is
denoted with the referent the actual word;
 The concept is a category of human cognition. The result of abstraction
and generezation;
 The meaning of the words are different in different languages.
 ( Ex: house – a building for human habitation.)

2. Functional approach :

The functional approach maintains that the meaning of a linguistic meaning may be started only through it’s
relation to other linguistic units.
According to this approach the meanings of the words to move and movement are different, because this
word function speech differently.

Ex: to move can be followed noun (to move a chair)

movement (movement of a car; slow movement)

The same is true of the different meanings of one and the same word.

Ex: to take (to take the book; to take the tram)

Types of meaning

 Grammatical meaning is defined as an expression in speech of relationship between words.

- the meaning of plurality Ex: boys, girls, table
- the tens meaning of the words Ex: asked, thought, worked

 Lexical meaning.
The word forms: go, gone, goes, going, gone posses different grammatical meanings.
But we find one and the same semantic component the process of movement. This is a
lexical meaning of the word.

Polysemy is the ability of words to have more than one meaning. Most English words are polysemantic. A well-
developed polysemy is a great advantage in a language.
A polysemantic word is a word having more than one meaning. 
Semantic structure of a word – combination of various meanings.

Types of semantic component

1. Denotative component is the living semantic meaning. The denotative component expresses
the conceptual content of a word.
Ex: lonely - alone without company; celebrated - well know; to glance - to look.

2. Connotative components give full picture of meaning.

Ex: lonely - emotive connotation; celebrated - evaluative connotation, positive.

Meaning and Context

Context is a powerful possibility preventative against mist understanding of meaning.

We can understand the meaning of the word only in combination with other words.
Ex: adj. – bright
a) bright colour (flower)
b) bright metal (gold, jewels)
c)bright student (pupil, boy )
d) bright face (smile, eyes)

Causes of Development of New Meanings

1. Historical factors.
The first group of causes is traditionally termed historical or extralinguistic. All changes in society life, in
culture, in knowledge lead the gaps in the vocabulary.
Now object, new concepts must be named:
1)to make a new word
2) to borrowing foreign ones.
Ex: When the first textile factories appeared in England, the old word
mill was applied to these early industrial enterprises.
mill – textile factory

2. Linguistic factors.
Linguistically speaking, the development of new meanings, and also a complete change of meaning, may be
caused through the influence of other words.
Ex: The Old English verb steorfan meant "to perish".
The verb to die was borrowed from the Scandinavian.
These two synonyms, which were very close in their meaning, collided, and, as a result, to starve gradually
changed into its present meaning: "to die (or suffer) from hunger".

Metaphor  – appearance of a new meaning as a result of associating two objects (phenomena, qualities, etc.)
due to their resemblance.
 similarity of shape – e.g. head of a cabbage, teeth of a saw, bottleneck
 similarity of position – e.g. foot of a page, of a mountain
 similarity of function, behavior – e.g. a bookworm, a (minute) hand
 similarity of colour – e.g. orange, hazel, chesnut
 complex similarity – e.g. a leg of a table – similarity in shape, position, function
Metonymy – association of two referents one of which makes part of the other or is closely connected with it.
 the material of which an object is made may become the name of the object – e.g. an iron, a mink
(“mink coat”)
 the name of the place may become the name of the people or of an object placed there – e.g. the
city  was exited, the White House (“the administration of the USA”)
 names of musical instruments may become names of musicians when they are united in an
orchestra – e.g. the violin, the piano
 the name of some person may become a common noun – e.g. sandwich (Lord Sandwich), boycott (the
Boycotts)
 names of inventors very often become terms to denote things they invented – e.g. watt, om
 geographical names may be used for things produced there – e.g. china (porcelain), astrakhan (a
sheep fur)
 the name of a thing may be used for its content – e.g. the kettle is boiling
 the name of a painter is used for his masterpieces – e.g. a Matisse (a painting by Matisse)

Semantic changes (generalization, specialization, elevation, degradation).

Semantic change is the process of development of a new meaning or any other change of meaning.
Types of Semantic Change:
 generalisation  – the word with the extended meaning passes from the specialized vocabulary into
common use e.g. OE “salary” – money given to soldiers to buy salt with, Modern English “salary” – money paid
to clerks
 specialisation the word with a new meaning (restricted) comes to be used in the specialized
vocabulary e.g. OE glide -“to move gently and smoothly”, Modern English “glide” -to fly with no engine, lord
now ‘the master of the house, the head of the family’ OE ‘a man of noble rank’; 
 elevation of meaning loses negative connotations or gains positive ones, e.g. a knight now ‘a boy,
youth’ , OE ‘a noble, courageous man’; fond  now ‘foolish, silly’ , OE ‘loving, affectionate’
 degradation of meaning occurs as a word develops negative connotations or loses positive ones e.g.
OE “boor”- a villager, a peasant Modern English “boor” – a clumsy or ill-bred fellow.

7. Омонімія. Омоніми. Класифікація омонімів. Джерела омонімії.

Homonyms are words which are identical in sound and spelling, but different in their meaning.
Bank, n. – a shore
Bank, n. – an institution for receiving
Homophones are words of the same sound but of different spelling and meaning: buy-bye, right, rite.
Homographs are words different in sound and meaning but identical in spelling: [bou] – [bau], [li: d] – [led],
[rou] – [rau], [wind] – [waind].
Causes and sources of homonymy:
1. Phonetic changes during the historical development.
to write (O.E. writan) and right (O.E. reht, riht)
2. Borrowings
fair (a fair deal) –anglo-saxon origin
fair (a gathering of buyers and sellers) – French.
3. Conversion – transfering from one part of the speech to another.
comb, n. – to comb, v.
4. Shortening.
rep – reputation or representative
Sources of homonymy
1. Affixation (the same affix is added to the same stem: read-er – a person who reads vs read-er – a book
for reading)
2. Shortening: bio- in «biology» vs bio (a shortening from «biography»)
3. By accident (two words coincide in their development):
bear (to carry) vs bear (an animal); base (basis) vs base (bas)

8. Фразеологічні одиниці в англійській мові. Словосполучення та

фразеологічні одиниці. Критерії розмежування вільних словосполучень і
сталих виразів. Класифікація фразеологічних одиниць.

Phraseological fusions (completely non-motivated) are word groups with a completely changed, demotivated
meaning, the metaphor has lost its clarity and became obscure and opaque “White elephant” -expensive but
useless thing;
Phraseological unities (partially non-motivated) (IDIOMS) are word groups with a completely changed
meaning when the meaning of the word group does not correspond to the meanings of its constituent parts,
yet the metaphor on which the shift of meaning is based is transparent  “To wash one’s dirty linen in public” –“
To discuss or make public one’s quarrels”
Phraseological combinations– (METHAPHOR) are word groups with a partially changed meaning. They are
usually made up of two open-class words and one of them is used figuratively. e.g. to be good at smth., to
have a bite, bosom friends.

Set-expression is a word-group consisting of two or more words whose combination is integrated as a unit
with a specialized meaning of the whole.
Set-expressions are characterized by stability, i.e. their fixed and ready-made nature, and polylexicality, i.e.
consisting of more than one lexical unit.

Free phrases, e.g. to play with a dog, are formed in the flow of speech, contain elements in their individual
direct meanings, have independent syntactic functions.

Semantic and structural classification of phraseological units.

Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky classified PUs as highly idiomatic set expressions functioning as word equivalents, and
characterized by their semantic and grammatical unity. He suggested three classes of stereotyped phrases:
1. traditional phrases (nice distinction, rough sketch);
2. phraseological combinations (to fall in love, to get up);
3. idioms (to wash one’s dirty linen in public);
V.V. Vinogradov
According to the degree of motivation of the meaning. (Semantic classification)
 Fusions (highly idiomatic – can’t be translated word by word)
At sixes and sevens
 Unities (can be guessed from the meaning of the components but it is transferred - metaphor or
metonymy)
To play the first fiddle
 Collocations (words are combined in their original meaning but the combination is different )
Cash and carry

(Structural classification)
A.I.Smirnitsky comparing with the words
 One top unit (comparison with affixed words --have only one root morpheme)
1. verb +post position type (to art up, to nose up, to give up, tosandwich in)
2. passive type structures ( to be tired, to be interested in)
3. Prepositional- nominal (on the doorstep)
 Two-top unit (comparison with compound words –usually have two root morpheme)
1. Attributive-nominal (A month of Sundays - целая вечность)
2. Verb-nominal (To read between the lines – понимать скрытый смысл)
3. Phraseological repetitions (Now and never - теперь или никогда, Ups and downs (antonyms)
-взлеты и падения )

9. Стилістичне розшарування лексики. Нейтральні слова, літературні

слова, колоквіалізми, сленг, архаїзми, терміни, офіційний та неофіційний шар
лексики.
Literary-bookish words are used in books,official papers and documents, in scientific communication, in high
poetry,in such types of oral communication as public speeches. (He began his answer- He commenced his
rejoinder)
Neutral words
 opposed to formal and informal words used in all kinds of situations, 
independent of the sphere of communication.
 constitute the core of the language corpus, denote objects and 
phenomena of everyday importance characterized by high frequency
e.g.  to  walk,  summer,  child,  green
Archaisms are words that were once common but are now replaced by synonyms. ( aught (n) - anything,
whatever; betwixt (prp) – between; hapless (adj) - unlucky, to hark – listen; morn (n) – morning)
Colloquialism – an informal expression – usually based on local or regional dialect. Could also recognized in
grammar or sentence structure
(e.g. to bamboozle, to go bananas, gonna, wanna, y’all, go nuts)
Slang is the use of informal words and expressions that are not considered standard in the speaker's dialect or
language.
  “really good” groovy, hip, super, awesome, rad, wicked, dope, kickass, phat
“really bad” the pits, a bummer, that sucks!
Terms are words or word groups used to name a notion characteristic of some special field of knowledge,
industry or culture. Terminological systems monosemantic intersecting sets simultaneously layman (e.g.
Vitamin, transistor.)

FORMAL VOCABULARY
 Terms
 Archaic words
 Poetic words
 Foreign words
 Barbarisms are foreign words which have exact equivalents in the language thus being
unnecessary: e. g. chic (stylish); bon mot (a clever or witty saying)
 
Neologisms are new words or expressions. These words have the connotation of novelty.
Mainly these are terms with both new form and new meaning, e. g. audio typing; computer-
buyer; to telecommute; electronic cottage.
INFORMAL VOCABULARY

 Slang
 Jargonisms
 Vulgarisms
 Dialectal words

10. Синонімія, антонімія та гіпонімія. Критерії синонімії. Типи синонімів.

Джерела появи синонімів. Антоніми.
 Synonymy is often understood as semantic equivalence. Semantic equivalence however can exist
between words and word-groups, word-groups and sentences, sentences and sentences. For example,  John is
taller than Bill  is semantically equivalent to  Bill is shorter than John.
 Synonymous. Phonemically different words are similar in their denotational meaning.
though and albeit, on and upon, since and as

Synonyms are usually defined as words belonging to one part of speech, close in meaning and interchangeable
at least in some contexts. see, watch, observe,  etc
Types of synonyms:
 Stylistic synonyms. They depends upon the context. e.g.  children – infants,  dad – father
 Ideographic synonymy presents a still lower degree of semantic proximity.
Antonyms are words belonging to the same part of speech and to the same semantic field, identical in style,
expressing contrary or contradictory notions.
There are 4 groups:
 Contradictories  are deny (отрицают) one another
single-married; dead – alive
 Contraries  are also mutually opposed (противоположны) Cold – hot and cool – warm.
 Incompatibles  – (исключают друг друга)
To say morning is to say not afternoon, not evening, not night.
To say red is to say not blue, green, etc.
 Conversives  denote one.
bye – sell, give – receive

11. Мова – індикатор суспільства. Лексична диференціація

територіальних варіантів. Діалекти Британського варіанта англійської
мови. Діалекти США.

Speaking about the lexical distinctions between the territorial variants, of the English language it is necessary
to point out that from the point of view of their modern currency in different parts of the English-speaking
world all lexical units may be divided into general English, those common to all the variants and 1ocally-
marked, those specific to present-day usage in one of the variants and not found in the others (ie Briticisms,
Americanisms, Australianisms, Canadianisms, -etc.).

When speaking about the territorial differences of the English language philologists and lexicographers usually
note the fact that different variants of English use different words for the same objects. Thus in describing the
lexical differences between the British and American variants they provide long lists of word pairs:
American Russian British
Class курс обучения course
Closet гардероб wardrobe
Cookie печенье biscuit

British dialects
The North-Western dialect closely resembles the southern-most Scottish dialects.  It retains many old
Scandinavian words, such as bairn for child, and not only keeps its r's, but often rolls them.  The most
outstanding version is Geordie, the dialect of the Newcastle area.
-er > /æ/, so father > /fædhæ/.
talk > /ta:k/
work > /work/
book > /bu:k/
my > me
me > us
our > wor
you plural > youse
The South-Eastern English  dialect makes up the largest accent group in the United Kingdom. Few
generalizations can be made about Southern pronunciation as there is great variation between the regions of
the South, between older and younger people, and between people of different ethnic backgrounds
during => doin’, and going => gon; help => hep; test => tes; ring => rang; boy => boah; car => cah
South: "Y'all" North: "You guys"; South: "Howdy" North: "Hello" South: "Twixt" North: "Between”
The dialect of the East Midlands, once filled with interesting variations from county to county, is now
predominantly GE.  The only signs that differentiate it from GE:

ou > u: (so go becomes /gu:/).

RP yu; becomes u: after n, t, d...  as in British English.
West Midlands

It’s pronunciation is not that different from GE, some of the vocabulary is:
are > am
am, are (with a continuous sense) > bin
is not > ay
are not > bay
Brummie is the version of West Midlands spoken in Birmingham.

Scottish English has a long tradition as a separate written and spoken variety. Pronunciation, grammar and
lexis differ from other varieties of English existing on the territory of the British Isles. It can be explained by its
historical development.

The Gealic language + The Scotish =Scotish dialect

  Bairn (=child) House [hu:s] Dance [daens]

auld (=old) down [du:n] last [laest]
Haggis (=pudding) Stone [stain] Hear [ia]
loch (=lake) bone [bain] heart [a:t]
Of course, some terms are only used in certain regions of Scotland.
How no? = Why not?
He’s a right sweetie-wife = He likes to chat
Bairn = Child
Pal = Friend, mate
What age are you? = How old are you?
Ach, away we go! = I don’t believe you!
Aye = Yes
Tattie = Potato (which is included in the famous haggis, neeps, and tatties).

Irish English. Subsumes all the Englishes of the Ireland. The two main politico-linguistic divisions are Southern
and Northern, within and across which further varieties are Anglo-Irish, Hiberno-English [haɪ'bɜːnəu-], Ulster
Scots, and the usage of the two capitals, Dublin and Belfast.
1. The presence of words with the same form as in British English but different meanings in Irish English,
e.g.
backward – ‘shy’; to doubt – ‘to believe strongly’; bold – ‘naughty’;
2. the layer of words shared with Scottish English, e.g.: ava – ‘at all’; greet – ‘cry, weep’; brae – ‘hill, steep
slope’.
3. the use of ‘does be/ do be’ construction in the following phrase: ‘They do be talking on their mobiles a
lot’;

American dialects

New England dialect  is spoken from rhe Connecticut River north and eastward through Rhode Island,
Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine. It is still closer to English English than any other dialect
of American English. Some of its characteristics are:

(1) pronouncing the a  in such words as ask, brass, can't, class, fast, grass, half, last,  and path  somewhat like
the broad a  in father,  and lengthening the a  sound in such words as bar, dark, far, farm,  and heart  to a sound
somewhat between the sound the rest of us pronounce in hat  and father  (this last a  sound is also found in
eastern Virginia and elsewhere in the tidewater region). Thus we tease Bostonians for saying "ahnt" (aunt)  and
"vahz" (vase).

(2) pronouncing the o  in such words as box, hot, not, pot,  and top  with the lips rounded, forming an
open o  sound. The rest of us tend to pronounce this o  more as the broad a  sound of father.

(3) omitting, slighting, or shortening some r  sounds, thus car, dear,  and door  sound like "cah," "deah," and
"doah" to the rest of us. The broad a  sound and the slighted r  cause the rest of us to hear "pahk the cah in
Hahvahd yahd" (park the car in Harvard yard).

Southern dialect  could be divided into separate dialects for the upper and lower South or into several smaller
dialects, such as the Virginia Tidewater, South Carolina Low Country, local dialects with Charleston and New
Orleans as focal points, etc. In general, however, Southern dialect is used south and east of a line drawn along
the northern boundary of Maryland and Virginia and the southern boundary of West Virginia, the southern
part of Missouri and down through southeastern Oklahoma and eastern Texas. It is characterized by:

(1) the Southern drawl: a slower enunciation than used in the rest of the country, combined with a slow
breaking, gliding, or diphthongization of stressed vowels. Thus to the rest of us the Southern class  sounds like
"clae-is";  yes  like "yea-is" or "yea-yis";  fine, I, ride,  and  time  like "fi-ahn," "I-ah," "ri-ahd," anduti-ahm" (these
all being long i sounds).

(2) some of this slow dwelling on the vowel sounds weakens the following final consonants, especially d's, Vs,
r's,  and t's,  giving southerners such pronunciations as fin(d), he(l)p, se(l)f, flo(or), mo(re), po(or), yo(ur), bes(t),
kep(t).   

(3) using such terms as the stereotyped Southern honey-chil(d)  and you all  as well as bucket  (for
pail), heap  (for very), raise  (for rear, children), reckon  (think, judge), right  (for very), snap bean  (string
bean), spigot  (for faucet) and tote  (for carry).

General American dialect  is spoken in 4/5ths of the nation's area and by 2/3rds of the population, but is still a
dialect. It is not called General American because that is what Americans should speak but because it just
happens to be the dialect heard in the general regions outside of New England and the South. It is heard in the
area which starts as a wedge between New England and the South, in western Connecticut, New York State,
New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, then broadens out to include West Virginia, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois,
and Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, northern Missouri, northwestern Oklahoma and west Texas, and finally
encompasses the entire western half of the country. It is characterized by:

(1) using the short flat a  in such words as ask, brass, can't, class, dance, fast, grass, half, last,  and path.
 (2) sounding the unrounded o  in such words as box, hot, lot, not, pot,  and top  almost as the broad a  in father.

(3) the retention of a strong r  sound in all positions, as caR, haKd,  etc.

СТИЛИСТИКА

1. Філософські та загальнонаукові поняття стилістики. Основні та

вихідні поняття стилістики; загальнонаукові поняття, предмет науки,
суміжні науки, функції та мета. Мова, мовлення та текст.
Stylistics is a branch of the language sciences, which deals with the result of the act of communication. This branch concern with the
expressive features of linguistic units.
The subject: study of the nature, functions and structure of stylistic devices (general language functions); study of complimentary
language functions (emotive, poetic, phatic, metalingual f.).
The task: the research of the inventory of special language (media, where the author can sent his message); the research of certain
types of text (distinguishing by the paradigmatic aspect of communication)
Types of stylistics: linguostylistics (expressive potential of the text); communicative (peculiarities of text - decoding); literary
(comparison)
Relations with other disciplines: lexicology (deals with words which make peoples lexicon); phonetics (study style forming phonetic
features); semasiology (learn stylistic devices of trops); morphology (grammatical forms and meaning); syntax (studies what
expressive value syntactical unit processes)

Language, speech, and text. Language is a system of mental associations of elementary and complex signs (speech
sounds, morphemes, words, word combinations, utterances, and combinations of utterances) with our mental picture of
objective reality. Language is a psychological phenomenon of social significance. It exists in individual minds, but serves
the purpose of social intercourse through speech (originally oral, nowadays to a greater extent written).

Language is said to perform two dialectically interwoven functions: communicative and cognitive. The former appears to
be the primary function (language arose from the needs of intercourse and social regulation). The latter is the secondary
function, although it is of colossal

Importance for the development of humanity: it is due to the existence of language that mankind has acquired its
immense knowledge of the outside world.

Language as a system of associations exists in human minds, but it manifests itself in acts of speech. As distinct from
language, speech is not a purely mental phenomenon, not a system, but a momentary, fleeting psycho-physiological
action, a process of sending acoustic signals (messages), perceptible to anyone within hearing.

Since speech is fleeting, it can hardly be investigated by a system- hunting linguist, nor is it understood by an ordinary
hearer: what we actually understand is not the process of articulating certain vowels and consonants, but its result - what
was called by Allan Gardiner "text". While a person pronounces (aloud or even mentally) I live in this house, he or she
accomplishes an act of speech, but as soon as the act is completed, there is no more speech. What remains, however,
after the act of communication is what we remember and can reproduce if need be, to wit: the sequence of signs — ' I +
live + in + this + house' — and that is what we call a text.

2. Стилістична фонетика і морфологія. Фонетичні засоби стилістики,

інструментовка, алітерація, асонанс; фонографічні виразні засоби; виразні
засоби та стилістичні прийоми морфології; стилістичне використання
морфологічних категорій різних частин мови.
 Stylistic phonetics
Stylistic phonetics studies a sound arrangement or stress or intonation which impart the utterance additional shades of
meaning.

Phonetic expressive means are: alliteration, onomatopoeia, assonance, rhythm, rhyme.

 Onomatopoeia - is a combination of speech sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind,
sea, thunder, etc.) by things (machines or tools, etc.) by people (singing, laughter) and animals.
 Alliteration - the repetition of similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds. "song sound specially”
 Assonance – is the agreement of vowel sounds. e.g. One’s upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak
and weary …
 Rhyme - is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combinations of words. e.g. might – right/ flesh
– fresh –press
 full rhyme: duty – beauty; wonder – thunder
 vowel rhyme: flesh – fresh – press
 consonant rhyme: worth – forth; fur – four; turn – torn – tone
 eye-rhyme: love – prove; brood – flood
 Rhythm - is a deliberate arrangement of speech into regularly recurring units, which are intended to be
grasped as a definite periodicity.
 Once, upon a `midnight `dreary
while I pondered, `weak and `weary

The system of English Instrumentations: the means of combination of sounds, which give to the text the definite
emotional coloring.
 Alliteration - “Seldom seen soon forgotten”
 Assonance - “he fell asleep under the cherry tree”
 Onomatopoeia - (wind, sea, thunder, etc.) by things (machines or tools, etc.) by people (singing, laughter) and
animals.
There are two types of it:
 direct, which is imitation of sounds produced by animate objects or animals (cuckoo, buzz)
 indirect, which is a combination of sounds, aimed at making the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense.
 Euphony - a sense of ease and comfort in pronouncing or hearing. Sing to me of silent souls rising to heaven
above us.
 Cacophony - harsh joining of sounds, producing a strain and discomfort in pronouncing or hearing.“I detest
war because cause of war is always trivial.”

Phonographical means of stylistics

 Graphon - is graphical fixation of phonetic peculiarities of pronunciation resulting in the accepted spelling. I
gotta lotta things to buy. Whattaya doing? “The b-b-b-ast-ud seen me c-c-coming” (stumbling).
 Italics add logical or emotive significance to the words. E.g. “Now listen, Ed, stop that now. I’m desperate. I am
desperate, Ed, do you hear?” (Dr.)
 Capitalization is used in cases of personification making the text sound solemn and elevated or ironical in case
of parody. I Love him
 Multiplication - intensity of speech. “Allll aboarrrd!”
 Hyphonation: I en-vy her

Versification is the act of writing verses. It is the imaginative expression of emotion, thought, or narrative, mostly in
metrical form
and often using figurative language.
 Rhyme - is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combinations of words. e.g. might – right/ flesh
– fresh –press
 full rhyme: duty – beauty; wonder – thunder
 vowel rhyme: flesh – fresh – press
 consonant rhyme: worth – forth; fur – four; turn – torn – tone
  eye-rhyme: love – prove; brood – flood
Types of rhyme:
1)  Masculine rhyme – the last stressed syllables are rhymed together;  dreams – streams; obey – away; understand –
hand
2)  Feminine rhyme – the last two syllables are rhymed together, the 1st syllables are stressed; duty – beauty, berry –
merry.
3) Dactylic rhyme – the last 3 syllables are rhymed together, the 1st syllables are stressed. regretfully – forgetfully.
 Rhythm - is a deliberate arrangement of speech into regularly recurring units, which are intended to be
grasped as a definite periodicity. Once, upon a `midnight `dreary/while I pondered, `weak and `weary
Metre may be defined as that ordered rhythm which results from a regular alternation of stressed and unstressed, or as
they are sometimes called, long and short, syllables in a line of poetry.

Stylistic morphology
Morpheme – the smallest meaningful unit which can be singled out in a word. There are two types of morphemes: root
morphemes and affix ones.
Morphology chiefly deals with forms, functions and meanings of affix morphemes. Form-building affixation may be:
1) synthetical (boys, lived, comes, going);
2) analytical (has invited, is invited, does not invite);
3) based on the alteration of the root vowel (write-wrote);
4) suppletive (go-went).

Morphemic repetitions
 Both root and affixational morphemes can be emphasized through repetition: he is nobody from nowhere
 Extension of its normative variety which results in the formation of new words. "I am an undersecretary in an
underbureau."
 anaphora - the repetition of the first word of several sentences (a …, a …, a …);
 epiphora - the repetition of the final word (… a, … a, … a);
 anadiplosis - the repetition of the same unit at the end and at the beginning of the sentence (…a, a …);
 framing - the repetition of the same unit at the beginning and at the end of the same sentence (a …, … a).

3.Стилістична лексикологія. Стилістична класифікація словникового складу мови;

денотативне та конотативне значення, слова підвищеного та зниженого
стилістичного тону, нейтральна лексика, терміни, історизми, архаїзми, неологізми,
запозичення, розмовна лексика, сленг, вульгаризми, діалектизми.
Stylistic Lexicology studies the semantic structure of the word and the interrelation (or interplay) of the connotative and
denotative meanings of the word, as well as the interrelation of the stylistic connotations of the word and the context.

The English vocabulary is divided into neutral, literary and  colloquial strata.

The literary layer is its bookish character:
 Terms - are words denoting scientific concepts or objects, processes, phenomena of science, humanities, technique
 Poetic words- are used primarily in poetry. (woe – sorrow, hapless – unlucky, staunch – firm, harken – hear)
 Archaic words-  are old words for denoting still existing objects and concepts (anon – at once, haply– perhaps, befall
– happen)
 Barbarisms and foreign words (are foreign words of phrases,words assimilated from foreign languages and
sometimes perverted.They are:
a) Fully assimilated (wine, street, reprimand, helicopter); b) Partially assimilated(machine, police, garage, prestige);
c) Unassimilated: randezvous, belles lettres, alter ego, chic, bonmot
The colloquial layer is its lively spoken character
 Slang - informal language (money (jack, tin, brass, vof, dough, slippery stuff, loot, lolls, gravy, bucks).
 Jargonisms - are generally old words with new meanings. grease – money, loaf – head, +tiger hunter –gambler.
 Professional words - official terms of a profession. (driller” = borer, digger, wrencher, hogger, brake weight)
 Dialectal words: Mary sits aside (= beside) of her sister on the bus.
 Vulgar words are the lowest social class of words. (damn, bloody, hell, goddam.)
 Common colloquial words are always more emotionally coloured than literary ones. They are used in informal
communication. ("Sir, you speak clearly and to the point" and its colloquial equivalent "Friend, you talk plain and hit
the nail right on the head".)
The neutral layer is its universal character
It can be employed in all styles of language and in all spheres of human activity. This makes the layer the most stable of
all.
 child  (neutral) –  kid  (colloq.) –  infant  (bookish, official) –  offspring  (bookish, scientific);
 father  (neutral) –  daddy  (colloq.) –  male parent / ancestor  (formal);

4. Стилістична семасіологія. Виразні засоби семасіології; вторинна номінація;

фігури заміщення як виразні засоби семасіології, фігури якості, фігури кількості;
гіпербола, мейози, літота, метонімія, синекдоха, перифраз, евфемізм,
метафора, епітет, антономазія, персоніфікація, алегорія, іронія.

Semasiology is a branch of linguistics which studies semantics or meaning of linguistic units belonging to different
language levels.
Expressive Means of semasiology:
FIGURES OF QUANTITY (comparison)
Hyperbole is defined as a trope which consists in the deliberate exaggeration of the properties of an object. (I haven’t
seen you for ages; mille pardons; I was so hungry, I could eat an elephant; I have told you a thousand times. )

Meiosis is deliberate diminution of a certain quality of an object. Meiosis underlines size, time, volume, distance, and
shape. It was a cat-size pony / It will cost you a pretty penny.
Litotes is a special type of meiosis. It consists in double negation. Such combination generally has positive sense and
makes statements more delicate: Martin is not without sense of humour / The venture was not impossible
FIGURES OF QUALITY
Metaphorical group - is a transfer of the name of an object to another object on the basis of similarity. (a heart of gold)

Epithet - is a stylistic device emphasizing some quality of a person, thing, idea or phenomenon. He was a bald, vast-
bearded man with a distinctly saturnine cast to his face;
associated [Dark Forest - the idea of the colour]
unassociated [bread-and-butter letter, stock
Antonomasia - is a peculiar variety of metaphor. Characteristics of a person simultaneously with naming him. There are
two types of antonomasia:
 the usage of a proper name for a common noun (Othello, Romeo, Hamlet, );
 the usage of common nouns or their parts as proper names (Mr.Snake, Sir Something Somebody)
Personification - is also a variety of metaphor. It is based on ascribing some features and characteristics of a person to a
thing, e.g.Autumn comes / And trees are shedding their leaves / And Mother Nature blushes / Before disrobing

Metonymic group - is a figure of speech in which one object or idea takes the place of another with which it has a close
association. The Boston office called / Denise drank the bottle

Synecdoche is a variety of metonymy, based on the association. Boots on the ground—refers to soldiers The author
draws the reader's attention to it and makes him/her visualize the object or the character he describes.
Periphrasis is a use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter and plainer form of expression. gentlemen of the
long robe (lawyers), the minions of the law (police).
Euphemism is a variety of periphrasis which is used to replace an unpleasant word: to join the majority, to pass away, to
go west.
In fiction, to give more positive characteristics. In colloquial speech are typical of more cultured and educated people.
Irony - is an implied discrepancy between what is said and what is meant. Irony is used with the aim of critical
evaluation of the thing spoken about. E. g. “Aren’t we having some lovely weather.” said the man as he noticed it was
raining again.
In oral speech irony is made by emphatic intonation, mimic and gesticulation.

5. Стилістична семасіологія. Стилістичні прийоми семасіології та їх функціонування в тексті; фігури

суміщення, фігури тотожності, фігури нерівності, фігури протиставлення; порівняння, синоніми, оксюморон,
антитеза, градація, розрядка, зевгма, гра слів.

Semasiology is a branch of linguistics which studies semantics or meaning of linguistic units belonging to different
language levels.
Expressive Means of semasiology:
FIGURES OF QUANTITY (comparison)
Hyperbole is defined as a trope which consists in the deliberate exaggeration of the properties of an object. (I haven’t
seen you for ages; mille pardons; I was so hungry, I could eat an elephant; I have told you a thousand times. )

Meiosis is deliberate diminution of a certain quality of an object. Meiosis underlines size, time, volume, distance, and
shape. It was a cat-size pony / It will cost you a pretty penny.
Litotes is a special type of meiosis. It consists in double negation. Such combination generally has positive sense and
makes statements more delicate: Martin is not without sense of humour / The venture was not impossible
FIGURES OF QUALITY
Metaphorical group - is a transfer of the name of an object to another object on the basis of similarity. (a heart of gold)

Epithet - is a stylistic device emphasizing some quality of a person, thing, idea or phenomenon. He was a bald, vast-
bearded man with a distinctly saturnine cast to his face;
associated [Dark Forest - the idea of the colour]
unassociated [bread-and-butter letter, stock questio

Antonomasia - is a peculiar variety of metaphor. Characteristics of a person simultaneously with naming him. There are
two types of antonomasia:
6. the usage of a proper name for a common noun (Othello, Romeo, Hamlet, );
7. the usage of common nouns or their parts as proper names (Mr.Snake, Sir Something Somebody)
Personification - is also a variety of metaphor. It is based on ascribing some features and characteristics of a person to a
thing, e.g.Autumn comes / And trees are shedding their leaves / And Mother Nature blushes / Before disrobing

Metonymic group - is a figure of speech in which one object or idea takes the place of another with which it has a close
association. The Boston office called / Denise drank the bottle

Synecdoche is a variety of metonymy, based on the association. Boots on the ground—refers to soldiers The author
draws the reader's attention to it and makes him/her visualize the object or the character he describes.
Periphrasis is a use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter and plainer form of expression. gentlemen of the
long robe (lawyers), the minions of the law (police).
Euphemism is a variety of periphrasis which is used to replace an unpleasant word: to join the majority, to pass away, to
go west.
In fiction, to give more positive characteristics. In colloquial speech are typical of more cultured and educated people.
Irony - is an implied discrepancy between what is said and what is meant. Irony is used with the aim of critical
evaluation of the thing spoken about. E. g. “Aren’t we having some lovely weather.” said the man as he noticed it was
raining again.
In oral speech irony is made by emphatic intonation, mimic and gesticulation.

Stylistic devices of semasiology = FIGURES OF INTEGRATION

FIGURES OF INTEGRATION
 FIGURES OF IDENTITY
Simile - partial identification of two
objects belonging to different spheres.
As cold as crystal.
 simple simile, which is a partial
identification of two objects
belonging to different spheres
 logical simile, which deals with the
notions belonging to the same
sphere
Synonyms-substitutes - are words used
to denote objects or action,
supplementing new additional details,
which helps to avoid monotonous
repetitions. He brought home
numberless prizes. He told his mother
countless stories.
Synonyms-specifiers - a chain of words
which express similar meanings.
Functions and stylistic effects: to
emphasise a partial identity of two
objects, to give new characteristics to
the referent, to deepen our knowledge
of the object described, to create
imagery.
FIGURES OF OPPOSITION
Antithesis - is a stylistic device which
presents two contrasting ideas in
close proximity in order to stress the
contrast. Expression of inner,
elevated contents of speech.
She had a large home and a small
husband
Oxymoron - is a figure of speech that
combines two contradictory terms.
little big man, the poorest millionaire,
pleasantly ugly face, horribly
beautiful
Characterized by the combination in
context of two or more words or
word-groups with opposite meanings.
FIGURES OF INEQUALITY
Climax - each next element is
characterized by increasing degree of
intensity. «I am sorry.  I  am so very
sorry.  I am so extremely sorry»
Anticlimax - weakening the emotional
effect by adding weaker elements to
the strong ones which were mentioned
above.
Pun - is a form of word play that use
multiple meanings of a term, for an
intended humorous or rhetorical effect.
The wedding was so emotional that
even the cake was in tiers. ( “tears” –
слезы, ярус.
Zeugma - the use of a word in the same
grammatical but different semantic
relations to two adjacent words in the
context. He took his hat and his leave.
The relations of meanings of words and
word-combinations with differ in their
emotive intensiveness or logical
importance.

6. Стилістичний синтаксис. Виразні засоби та стилістичні прийоми синтаксису; синтактико-стилістична

парадигма, редукція та експансія нейтральної синтаксичної моделі, порушення порядку слів нейтральної
синтаксичної моделі, транспозиція значення речення; еліптичні та номінативні речення, апосіопесіз,
асиндетон, парцеляція, повтор, перелік, тавтологія, полісиндетон, паралельні конструкції, інверсія,
відокремлення, хіазм, анафора, епіфора, риторичне запитання.

Stylistic syntax is the branch of linguistics which investigates the stylistic value of syntactic forms, stylistic
functions of syntactic phenomena, their stylistic classifications as well as their appurtenance to styles.

Syntax - is a branch of language science which studies the types of relations between words, word-combinations,
sentences and larger spans of utterances. And answer the questions ‘what to say’ and ‘how to say’.

Syntactic expressive means and stylistic devices of the English language are subdivided into several types:

SD based on the interaction of syntactic constructions of several contact clauses or sentences:

Parallelism - is a repetition in close succession of the constructions formed by a similar syntactical pattern. Like
inversion, parallelism may be complete and partial.
 Complete parallelism e.g.  He door-bell didn't ring. His telephone-bell didn't ring  
 Partial:  I want to see the  mom at home, I want to see dad and I want to see granny .
Chiasmus - the word order of the sentence that follows becomes inverted,e.g.  He sat and  watched me, I sat and
watched him.
Anaphora - is a repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences, e.g.  Еrgo, she didn't:
Ergo, there never was such a bet.  Ergo, Beresford was lying.
Epiphora - is the repetition of the final words or word-groups in succeeding sentences or clauses, e.g.  I come to you on
the level. Studsy says you are on the   level. Be on the level.

SD based on the interaction of types and forms and connection between clauses and sentences.
 Parcellation is a deliberate break of the sentence structure into two or more isolated parts, separated by a pause and a
period. Parcellation is typical of colloquial speech. For example: They stood around him. Talking
The main stylistic functions of parcellation are as follows: specification of some concepts or facts; characterisation of the
personages' emotional state; description of the events or giving the personages' portrayal
Coordination - combining two sentences that are of equal value: Maria loves dogs, so she went to the animal shelter to
adopt one.
Subordination - combining two sentences in a way that makes one more important than the other: Marty drinks tea
because it is filled with healthy antioxidants.
The usage of coordination instead of subordination helps the author to show different planes of narration, in this case
the connection itself is more important stylistically than the contents of the sentence.

SD based on transposition of meaning of a syntactic structure in the given context

Rhetoric question is an emotional statement or negation expressed in the form of a question. Rhetoric question does
not require any answer or demand any information. Function: to render speaker’s emotions or to call the attention of
the listener, to involve the readers into the discussion or emotional experience, give them a clue and make them to
arrive at the conclusion themselves. Example: Is the day of the supernatural over? / Being your slave, what should I
do?
Represented (reported) speech is a stylistic device peculiarly combining the features of direct and indirect speech. It
creates the effect of the character’s immediate presence and participation.
There are 2 types of RS:
 Represented inner speech is more widely used. It allows to give a fuller and more complete picture of the
character’s state of mind as if from within: Then with a sigh, feeling, well, I’ve earned it, he lit the cigarette.
 Represented uttered speech is a reproduction of the character’s uttered remark or even a whole dialogue. It
appeared earlier than inner speeceh: Angela, who was taking in every detail of Eugene’s old friend, replied in what
seemed an affected tone that no, she wasn’t used to studio life: she was just from the country, you know – a regular
farmer girl – Blackwood, Wisconsin, no less!..

EM based on the deliberate reduction of some elements of the sentence structure

Ellipsis - is the omission of a word necessary for the complete syntactical construction of a sentence, but not necessary
for understanding. e. g. You feel all right? Anything wrong or what? Function of Elliptical Sentences:To reproduce the
direct speech of characters; There are 2 types of ellipsis:

Missing of the subject: Omission of the predicate:

Was running late that day. They lunch after business class.
Aposiopesis – is a sudden break in speech often occurs in the oral type of speech. It is caused by strong emotion to
finish the sentence. In belle-letters style a break in speech is often used in dialogue to reflect its naturalness. You just
come home or I’ll...
Nominative sentence - one-member structures: It is called nominal because its basic component is a noun. Morning.
April.
Asyndeton - is deliberate omission of structurally significant conjunctions and connectives.e.g. He couldn't go abroad
alone, the sea upset his liver, he hated hotels.
Expressive means which consists in the connection between parts of a sentence or between sentences without any
formal sign.

EM based on the redundancy (expansion) of some elements of the sentence structure

Repetition is a reiteration of the same word or phrase to lay an emphatic stress on certain parts of the sentence.
Types of repetition :
 ordinary repetition repeated unit occurs in various positions …a, …a…, a… She talked, in fact, and talked, and
talked 
 framing repetition - the initial part is repeated at the end. (a…, …a) I cooled off; he didn't notice, but I cooled
off 
 extended repetition - repetition of a word with words modifying it. ...a, … ba, … ca... Pain, even slight pain
tends to isolate
 chain repetition- presents several successive anadiplosis. ...a, a...b, b...c, с... (A smile would come into
Mr.Pickwick's face. The smile extended into laugh; the laugh into roar, the roar became general  )
Enumeration - is a stylistic device by which separate things are named one by one. (homogeneous parts of speech)
(There were cows, hens, goats, peacocks and sheep in the village. There was a great deal of confusion and laughter and
noise.  )
Syntactical  tautology  - based on the repetition of words which are in meaning and grammatically synonymous with one
sentence 
(Miss Perry, she took me for her son … Mr Brendson, he slept forty days and nights without waking up. )
Polysyndeton  is a repetition of conjunctions in close succession which are used to connect sentences and make the
utterance more rhythmical He no longer dreamed of storms, nor of women, nor of great fish, nor fights, nor contests of
strength
Emphatic  constructions - the emphatic construction with (‘do’, ‘it is smb/smth who/that’) may intensity or contrast any
part of the sentence. It was the horses he loved; he spoke little to the jockeys .
Parenthetical  clauses  is a group of words that has been separated from the rest of a sentence, adding extra information
without changing the meaning of a sentence. She was glad that she had brought a sweater, even though it was old,
because it was chill.

EM based on the violation of word-order in the sentence structure

Inversion  is the violation of the fixed word order within an English sentence. He reacts so quickly --- So quickly he react.
Inversion may be of two types: complete, (comprising the principal parts of the sentence), partial (influencing the
secondary parts of the sentence)
Separation is the splitting of a noun phrase by the attribute adjunct which is removed from the word it modifies. e.g. He
had never seen the truth before, about anything .
Detachment is a separation of a secondary part of the sentence with the aim of emphasizing it, e.g. Formidable and
ponderous, counsel for the defence  a rose.
In spoken language detached parts of the sentence are marked by intonation, pauses, and special stress; in written
language they are generally separated by commas or dashes.

7. Функціональні стилі англійської мови. Поняття стилю у стилістичній науці, стиль мови, мовлення та
мовленнєвої діяльності; підходи до визначення поняття «стиль»; класифікація функціональних стилів
сучасної англійської мови.

A functional style of language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in
communication. They can be researched according to the deductive and inductive approaches.
According to Galperin: Functional Style is a system of interrelated language means serving a definite aim in
communication. It is the coordination of the language means and stylistic devices which shapes the distinctive features
of each style and not the language means or stylistic devices themselves. Each style, however, can be recognized by one
or more leading features which are especially conspicuous. For instance the use of special terminology is a lexical
characteristics of the style of scientific prose, and one by which it can easily be recognized. FS appear mainly in the
literary standard of a language.

Deductive Inductive
 beles-lettres style (fiction, poetry, drama, or  Oratorical (public speeches)
essays)  Colloquial (casual communication)
 oratorial style (speeches given to an assembly,  Poetic
intended to persuade the group to accept a  Publicist (political literature)
course of action on a particular problem)  Newspaper (reporting in media)
 lecturing style (covers lengthy lecture sessions or Official (laws, orders, agreements)
one-way presentations)  Scientific (scientific laws and new phenomena)
 Belles-lettres style 
 Galperin's classification of the FS of the English language

 The Belles-Lettres Style is a generic term for three substyles in which the main principles and the most general
properties of the style are materialized. These substyles are: the language of poetry, emotive prose, the language of
the drama.
 The Publicistic Style falls into three varieties: the oratorial substyle (spoken variety), the essay (moral,
philosophical, literary) and journalistic articles (political, social, economic).
 The Newspaper style is a system of means which is perceived by separate linguistic unity that serves the
purpose of informing and instructing the reader. It is conveyed through the medium of: brief news items; press
reports; articles purely informational in character; advertisements and announcements.
 The Scientific Prose Style The aim of the FS is to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose
relations between different phenomena.
 The Style of Official Documents the usage of a special system of terms in their logical dictionary meaning

8. Інтерпретація тексту. Образ автора, образ персонажа, оповідач, імпліцитний автор.

Text interpretation focuses on the opening of the content the author had inserted into the text. The
interpretation of texts began in the time of the early philosophers and poets. By the time of Plato, in regards to
education, studying the interpretation of Greek poetry was a foundation of learning.

The main task of text interpreting is to draw as much information from the text as possible, but not to cross the
limit of interpretation.

The implicit author of a literary work is the textualized author, that is, the image of the author that projects a
certain work, or the one that transpires through the reading of the work, based on their intellectual and ethical
judgments, positions against to the characters and actions, construction of the plot, presuppositions that we
deduce from the text, etc.

The author may select either of the following four types of narrators:

 The main character. The author places himself in the position of the main character and tells of things
that only the main character saw and felt. (The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger, or The Great Gatsby by Sc.
Fitzgerald, or All the King's Men by R.F. Warren.).
o Advantages: 1) a very effective means of revealing the personality of narrator. 2) increase the trueness of
the story.
o Disadvantage: a story told by a character is limited to what he or she is avaliable to know.

 The minor character. The author places himself in the position of a minor character and gives this
character's version of the events and personages. (Paul Auster’s  Winter Journal, Italo Calvino’s  If on a Winter’s
Night a Traveler, Umberto Eco’s  The Name of the Rose)

 The omniscient author. The author may narrate his story anonymously, analysing and interpreting the
character's motives and feelings. The omniscient author reproduces the characters' thoughts and comments on
their actions. (the prose of Fl. O'Connor, C. McCullers, E. Hemingway, E. Caldwell, Cornelia Funke’s  Inkheart,
1984, by George Orwell).
There are no limitations on the freedom of the omniscient author.
1) The omniscient author may state his personal view - the author's digression. It usually involves a change of
tense from the past to the 'timeless' present.
2) The omniscient author may tell about characters, hiding their own point of view.
3) The omniscient author may tell the story so vividly that his presence is forgotten.

 The observer-author. The observer-author merely records the speech and actions of the characters
without analysing them (as it is often done in E. Hemingway's stories). The story is a scene, narrated by an
 looker who does not give any comments. The observer-author lets the reader see, hear, and judge the
characters and their actions for himself. Stories may be presented in
o The dramatic form (one scene follows another and nobody comments them - Philip Roth “American
Pastoral”, F. Scott Fitzgerald “The Great Gatsby”, Arrangement in Black and White by D. Parker and The Killers
by E. Hemingway serve.)
o The pictorial form (the observer- author pictures the scenes, without analysing their motives. - (Indian
Camp by E. Hemingway illustrates the pictorial form of presentation).

When told by a character in the story, the story is a first-person narrative. When told by the author it is a third-
person narrative.

When the story is told be a first-person narrator, there are two versions of it:

 the subjective version (the narrator's version)

 the hidden objective version. To understand it one should realise which type of narrator the story-teller
is.

The narrative method determines the dominant point of view, depending on who tells the story.

The narrative method conditions the language of the story. Thus if the story is told by an omniscient author, the
language is always literary. When the story is told by a character, the language becomes a means of
characterization.

ТЕОРЕТИЧНА ФОНЕТИКА

1. Фонетика: вивчення мовних звуків. Аспекти фонетики. Розділи фонетики. Фонетика та викладання
мови.

Phonetics studies the sound system of the language, that is segmental units (phonemes, allophones),
suprasegmental units (word stress, syllabic structure, rhythmic organization, intonation). Phonetics is closely
connected with general linguistics but has its own subject matter (Investigation).

All speech sounds have 4 aspects (mechanisms):

 Articulatoty – it is the way when the sound-producing mechanism is investigated, that is the way the speech
sounds are pronounced
 Acoustic – speech sound is a physical phenomenon. It exists in the form of sound waves which are pronounced
by vibrations of the vocal cords. Thus each sound is characterized by frequency, certain duration. All these
items represent acoustic aspect.
 Auditory – sound perception aspect. The listener hears the sound, percepts its acoustic features and the
hearing mechanism selects from the acoustic information only what is linguistically important.
 Functional – every language unit performs a certain function in actual speech.

In accord with these 4 aspects of speech sounds 4 branches are distinguished, each of them has its own
method of investigation:

 Articulatoty phonetics - studies (investigates) sound producing mechanism. Its method consists of observing
the way in which the air is set in motion, the movements of the speech organs and the coordination of these
movements in the production of single sounds and trains of sounds.
 Acoustic phonetics - studies the way in which the air vibrates between the speaker''s mouth and the listener''s
ear. Has its basic method – instrumental. Acoustic phonetics comes close to studying physics and the tools
used in this field enable the investigator to measure and analyse the movement of the air in the terms of
acoustics.
 Auditory phonetics- the branch of phonetics investigating the hearing process. The means by which we
discriminate sounds — quality, sensations of pitch, loudness, length, are relevant here.
 Functional phonetics – is also termed phonology. Studies the way in which sound phenomena function in a
particular language, how they are utilized in that language and what part they play in manifesting the
meaningful distinctions of the language.

2. Фонема та вивчення фонемної системи. Артикуляційна база англійської мови. Фонема та її функції.
Алофони. Сполучуваність фонем. Модифікація фонем у зв’язному мовленні. Фонологічні опозиції.

The phoneme is a smallest unit capable of distinguishing one word from another word, one grammatical form
of word from another.

The English articulation basis:

 The tongue is flat and lies rather low in theу mouth cavity.
 The body of the tongue is retracted from the teeth.
 The tip if the tongue is slightly raised in the direction of the alveolar range. The tip of the tongue doesn’t touch
the teeth.
 Since the back part of the tongue is in a low position, the glottis is widened.
 Lips are slightly spread in order the upper teeth to be visible but not to be protruded.

The opposition of phonemes serves to distinguish the meaning of the whole phrase as well. For example, He
was heard badly and He was hurt badly.

Thus we may say that the phoneme can fulfill the distinctive function. Secondly, it is material, real and
objective.

Allophones are a kind of phoneme that changes its sound based on how a word is spelled. Think of the
letter t and what kind of sound it makes in the word "tar" compared with "stuff." 

Allophones of the same phoneme must meet the following requirements:

 though they possess similar features, they frequently show considerable phonetic difference;
 they never occur in the same phonetic context, so they can’t be opposed to each other and can’t
differentiate the meaning. In this case allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.

English vowels are modified by the neighboring consonants, mainly by the following consonant, or a consonant
to a vowel, is known as accommodation.

 Accommodation can be progressive, regressive or mutual. If the articulation of a sound is modified under the
influence of the preceding sound, i.e. its articulation is adapted to the articulation of the preceding sound the
accommodation is progressive (e.g. the ~ of /i:/ in “mẽ”). If the articulation of a sound is adapted to the
articulation of the following sound, the accommodation is regressive (e.g. the labialization of /t/ in “toe”).
 Assimilation is the process of adapting the articulation of sounds that are of a similar or identical nature.
Assimilation involves changes in the central phases of the adjoining sounds (as in /nð/ or even in all their
phases (as in /sj/>/ /).

Phonological oppositions:

 If the opposition is based on a single difference in the articulation of two speech sounds, it is a single
phonological opposition, e.g. [p]-[t], as in [pen]-[ten]; bilabial vs. forelingual, all the other features are the
same.
 If the sounds in distinctive opposition have two differences in their articulation, the opposition is double one,
or a sum of two single oppositions, e.g. [p]-[d], as in [pen]-[den], 1) bilabial vs. forelingual 2) voiceless-fortis
vs. voiced-lenis
 If there are three articulatory differences, the opposition is triple one, or a sum of three single oppositions, e.g.
[p]- [ð], as in [pei]-[ ðei]: 1) bilabial vs. forelingual, 2) occlusive vs. constrictive, 3) voiceless-fortis vs. voiced-
lenis.

3. Транскрипція та її типи.
 Generally, transcription means converting an audio or video file into a written format. However, transcription
involves much more than that.

 The first kind is the verbatim transcription. In short, the written format of a verbatim transcription must be an
exact replica of the audio or video file as recorded. It is of the utmost importance the transcriber pays very
close attention to all of the sounds in the audio or video file. This includes the emotions expressed, the spoken
words, the mumbled, garbled or half sentences in the audio or video file, (which may or may not be
grammatically correct), and where the transcriber is unable to understand what the speaker is saying, or is not
100% sure. This type of transcription is most often used for legal proceedings or movies, films, videos,
commercials, etc.

 The second type of transcription is edited transcriptions. Edited transcriptions are when the transcriber can
omit parts of the audio or video file, so long as the meaning of the recording does not change. This type of
transcription is also quite time-consuming because the transcriber must be able to differentiate between what
is important and what is not important in the audio or video file. Edited transcriptions require the transcriber
understand the meaning and purpose of the audio or video file and basically, clean up the clutter, while still
retaining the integrity of the audio or video file. These types of transcriptions are generally used for speeches,
conferences, seminars, classes, etc.

 The third type of transcription is the intelligent transcription. These transcriptions do not need to include the
emotions, half-sentences, mumbled or garbled speech in the written format. The end result of this
transcription is that it is straightforward and the final written product reads intelligently. This transcription
actually costs more and takes more time due to the “intelligent” nature of the transcription. It requires a more
highly qualified, trained and experienced transcriber to do this kind of work, because they need to have a
complete understanding of what the speaker is trying to convey. It is a lot more about editing and less about
the transcription itself.

4. Класифікація голосних та приголосних.

English vowels are classified according to the following principles:

1. Position of the lips: rounded [o, o:, u, u:] and unrounded – all the rest. The main effects of lip rounding on
the shape of the mouth are to enlarge the oral cavity, to diminish the size of the opening of the oral cavity.

2. Position of the tongue: are divided into front, front-retracted, central, back and back-advanced. Front
vowels [i:, e, æ]. Front-retracted [i]. Central vowels [з:, ə, Λ]. Back vowels [o, o:, u:]. Back-advanced vowels [u,
α:].

3. According to the length English vowels are divided into long [i:, u:, o:, α:, з:] and short [i, u, o, æ, e, ə, Λ].

4. Degree of tenseness. They are divided into tense and lax. Tense vowels are articulated when the muscles of
the lips, tongue, cheeks and the back walls of the pharynx are tense. Lax vowels are articulated with all these
organs relatively relaxed. All long vowels are tense while all short vowels are lax.

5. The character of the end. English vowels in stressed position can be checked and unchecked (free). The
checked vowels are pronounced without any lessening of the force of utterance towards the end. They occur
in close syllables and are abruptly interrupted by the following voiceless consonant. The unchecked vowels
occur terminally or before a voiced consonant. The vowel [ə] does not occur in the stressed position so it is not
regarded inside these classes.

6. Stability of articulation: monophthongs, or simple vowels and diphthongs, or complex vowels.

Monophthongs are [i, i:, u, u:, o, o:, e, ə, Λ, α:, æ, з:]. Diphthongs are [ai, oi, ei, au, əu, εə, uə, iə]. Diphthongs
are unisyllabic, that is its parts can not belong to different syllables. Their length should not exceed the length
of a single phoneme. They can not be divided morphologically. There is an opinion that one element of a
diphthong is accented while the other is not. A diphthong may be falling – when the nucleus is stronger than a
glide, rising – when the glide is stronger than a nucleus, and level – when both elements are equal. English
diphthongs are falling with the glide toward [i, u, ə]. According to the articulatory character of the second
element, diphthongs [ai, oi, ei, au, əu] are called closing, while diphthongs [εə, uə, iə] are called centring.
 English consonants are classified according to the following principles:

1. Work of the vocal cords and the force of exhalation. Voiced consonants are produced with the vocal cords
brought together and vibrating. They are [b, d, g, v, z, ð,3, d3, l, m, n, j, w, r, ŋ]. Voiceless consonants are
produced with the vocal cords taken apart and not vibrating. They are [p, t, k, f, s, θ, ∫, t∫, h]. The force of
exhalation and the degree of muscular tension are greater in the production of voiceless consonants.

2. Active organ of speech and the place of obstruction. Labial consonants are subdivided into bilabial and
labiodental. Bilabial consonants are articulated with both lips. They are [p, b, w, m]. Labiodental consonants
are articulated with the lower lip against the edge of the upper teeth. They are [f, v].

3. Manner of the noise production and the type of obstruction. Occlusive consonants are articulated with the
air on its way out breaking up a complete obstruction. In English occlusive consonants are subdivided into
plosives [p, t, k, b, d, g] which are articulated with distinct and quick separation of the obstruction and
sonorants [m, n, ŋ]. Constrictive consonants are articulated with incomplete obstruction through which the air
comes out. In English constrictive consonants are subdivided into fricatives [s, f, z, ð, θ, ∫, v,3, h] which are
articulated with the air passage narrowed to such an extent that the air passing through it produces friction,
and sonorants [w, r, j, l] which are articulated with the air passage wide enough to make the cavity function as
a resonator. Occlusive-constrictive consonants are articulated with the complete obstruction gradually and
uninterruptedly opening into narrowing. In English they are [t∫, d3].

4. Position of the soft palate. According to the position of the soft palate consonants are subdivided into oral
and nasal. Nasal consonants are articulated with the blocked passage for the flow of air through the mouth
cavity which is effected by lowering of the soft palate. They are [m, n, ŋ]. All the rest consonants are oral. Oral
consonants are articulated with the raised soft-palate, thus the air goes out through the mouth cavity.

5. Склад як фонетична та фонологічна одиниця. Типи складів. Теорії утворення складів.

Syllable is the minimal grouping of vowels and consonants necessary for articulation (phonetic unit) and for
storing strings of phonemes in the mental representation (phonologica lunit). 

Syllables are frequently described as consisting of an onset, which is a consonant, or a few consonants, and
a rhyme, often subdivided into a nucleus (a vowel), and coda (any following consonants). In the English
language coda does not always have to occur in a syllable, like for instance in the words: he (CV), or too (CV)

Functions of the syllable:

 Constitutive. It lies in its ability to be a part of a word itself. The syllables form language units of greater
magnitude that is words, morphemes, and utterances.

 Distinctive. In this respect the syllable is characterized by its ability to differentiate words and word-forms.

There are seven different types of syllables in the English language.

1. Closed: ends in a consonant, has a short vowel sound

2. Open close open close: does not end in a consonant, has a long vowel sound

3. Vowel-consonant-"E": The final "e" is silent and makes next vowel before it long.

4. Diphthong: two vowels next to each other that together create a new sound and Vowel team: two
pronounced vowels next to each other

5. Consonant-"LE":

6. Power-"R": a syllable where a vowel is followed by the letter "r". The "r" takes control of the vowel
and changes the way that it is pronounced.
 7. Schwa: This can end in a consonant or not, and is an unemphasized syllable whose vowel is somewhat
swallowed and pronounced like "uh". Other syllable types can be reclassified as a schwa based on
experience of how a word is regionally pronounced.

There are several theories of syllable formation and syllable division and none of them is shared by all
linguists.

 The most ancient theory states that there are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels. This theory
is primitive and insufficient since it does not take into consideration consonants which also can form
syllables in some languages, neither does it explain the boundary of syllables.
 The so-called “breath-puff” (expiratory, chest-pulse, or pressure) theory  is based on the fact that
expiration in speech is not a continuous and uninterrupted process as it is in ordinary breathing, but a
pulsating one. According to this theory there are as many syllables in a word as there are expiration pulses
made during its utterance, because each syllable corresponds to a single expiration. Each vowel sound is
pronounced with a fresh expiration, so vowel sounds are always syllabic. 

6. Типи словесного наголосу. Функції словесного наголосу. Теорії

постановки словесного наголосу. Акцентуальні типи англійських слів.
Фразовий наголос. Розподіл фразових наголосів у висловлюванні.
Stress is the relative emphasis that may be given to certain syllables in a word, or to certain words in a phrase
or sentence. The term is also used for similar patterns of phonetic prominence inside syllables. The word
accent is sometimes also used with this sense.

Three types of stress can be found in English:

 Primary stress refers to the strong emphasis a speaker puts on the most important syllable of a
particular word.
 Secondary stress refers to a less strong emphasis on the next most important syllable.
 Zero stress refers to any syllable that receives no stress, and it is also called unstressed syllable.

Word stress in a language performs three functions:

1. Word stress constitutes a word, it organizes the syllables of a word into a language unit. The word
stress performs the constitutive function. Sound continuum becomes a phrase when it is divided into
units organized by word stress into words.
2. Word stress enables a person to identify a succession of syllables as a definite accentual pattern of a
word. This function of word stress is known as identificatory (or recognitive). Correct accentuation
helps the listener to make the process of communication easier, whereas the distorted accentual
pattern of words, misplaced word stresses prevent normal understanding.
3. Word stress alone is capable of differentiating the meaning of words or their forms, thus performing
its distinctive function. The accentual patterns of words or the degrees of word stress and their
positions form oppositions, e.g. 'import — im'port, 'billow — below.

Different syllable in one and the same word are usually pronounced with a different degree of prominence.
Such special prominence given to one or more syllables in the same word is called word accent (or word
stress). Different linguists define word accent differently.

There exist different ways of making a syllable more prominent. That is why we may speak of different types
of word accent:

1) The pronunciation of a syllable may be made more prominent if the syllable is said with greater force.
Prof.D.Jones said in this respect “stress may be described as the degree of force with which a sound or a
syllable is uttered. A strong force of utterance means energetic action of all the articulating organs. This
generally gives the objective impression of loudness “. Word accent of this type is known as force accent (or
dynamic accent).

2) A syllable may become more prominent if it is pronounced at different pitch levels or in different pitch
directions. Word accent of this type is called musical accent(or pitch accent).

3) A syllable may become more prominent if its vowel is pronounced longer than the same vowel in an
unstressed position. For instance, the /i:/ vowels of the word /’θi:s:z/ (theses) are of different lengths. It is
longer in a stressed position and shorter in an unstressed one. This type of word accent is known as
quantitative accent.

4) A syllable may become more prominent if the vowel is pronounced distinctly and its quality is not obscured.
For instance, the /iə/ vowels in /’siəriəs/ (serious) are a bit different in quality: the stressed /iə/ is distinct and
clear, while the unstressed /iə/ is somewhat obscured. According to Prof.G.P.Torsuyev this type of word
accent is qualitative accent.

All existing languages have either the force or the musical type of word accent as leading principle, while the
quantitative and the qualitative types play a subsidiary role.

Phrase accent in English is the pronunciation of individual words more emotionally than others, which are
called unstressed.

As a rule, in English, the shock words are:

 nouns;
 verbs (semantic);
 adjectives;
 demonstrative pronouns;
 interrogative pronouns;
 adverbs;
 numerals.

Usually unaccented are: personal pronouns, articles, unions, auxiliary verbs, prepositions.

You can say that the phrase accent is in the same functions as the verbal one. It is divided into two types:
centralized and decentralized.

The centralized view is as the center of the word or many words on which the speaker makes an accent. With a
decentralized type, the speaker focuses on the whole sentence. This separates not the concrete word, but the
entire phrase.

7. Ритм в англійській мові, його типи та функції. Ритм в прозі та поезії.

Rhythm is a complicated language system. This system comprises well organized elements of different
sizes in whish smaller rhythmic units are joined into more complex ones: a rhythmic group – an
intonation group – a phrase (a line in poetry) – a phonopassage.

- Rhythm serves to unite elements in speech: smaller units are organized into larger ones, larger units
include smaller ones. So rhythm unites text segments into a whole and at the same time cuts the
discourse into elements. This is integrative and delimitative function.

- Rhythmically organized speech is easily perceived. From the psycholinguistic point of view the
regularity in rhythm seems to be in harmony with his biological rhythms.

- On the linguistic level the pragmatic value of speech rhythm is realized in its volitional
function. Rhythm is capable of expressing different degrees of emotional effect of the listener.
 Eg. ˋWill you 'stop that 'dreadful ˋnoise.

Types of rhythm : lamb (x/); trochee (/x); spondee (//), Dactyl (/ x x); Anapest (x x /).

8. Інтонація як повнозначна одиниця. Система англійської інтонації.

Структура інтонації на акустичному та перцепційному (сприйняттєвому)
рівні. Функції інтонації. Системи графічного відтворення інтонації різними
фонологічними школами. Стилістичне використання інтонації.

Intonation is a phonetic phenomenon generally studied within the following language aspects:
acoustic, auditory and functional.

Types of intonation in phonetic materials are often named and described according to types of
sentences in which this or that intonation is used. For example:

 intonation of statements;

 intonation of Yes-No questions;

 intonation of items in a series; intonation of direct address.

This is a simple and practical way of describing English intonation – you easily memorize where
this or that intonation is used while listening to audio samples.

Types of intonation are also named and described using the terms "falling intonation, rising
intonation, high-rising intonation", and the like.
The most important functions of intonation are to distinguish types of sentences (statements,
questions, commands, requests) and to divide sentences into sense groups. Also, intonation allows speakers to
express various emotions.
 to structure the information content of a textual unit;
 to differentiate the actual meaning of textual units;
 to structure a text, to define the number of terminal tones;
 to determine the speech function of a phrase;
  to convey connotational meaning of “attitude”;
 stylistic function of intonation.

The structure of an intonation pattern potentially includes the prehead, the head, the nucleus and the tail:

— the pre-head contains unstressed and half-stressed syllables preceding the head;

— the head includes syllables from the first stressed up to the last stressed one;

— the nucleus is the last stressed syllable presenting the change in the pitch direction;

— the tail consists of unstressed and half-stressed syllables following the nucleus.

The boundaries of an intonation pattern are marked by complete stops of phonation or temporal pauses.

Intonation plays a central role in stylistic differentiation of oral texts.

The uses of intonation in this function show that the information is, in many cases, impossible to separate
from lexical and grammatical meanings expressed by words and constructions in a language (verbal context)
and from the co-occurring situational information (non-verbal context). The meaning of intonation cannot be
judged in isolation.

One of the objectives of phonostylistics is the study of intonational functional styles. An INTONATIONAL STYLE
can be defined as a system of interrelated intonational means which is used in a certain social sphere and
serves a definite aim in communication.

Sokolova distinguishes 5 style categories:

(1) informational (formal) style;

(2) scientific (academic) style;

(3) declamatory style;

(4) publicistic style;

(5) familiar (conversational) style.

9. Мовна мелодика, гучність, фразовий наголос, темп, паузація, тембр

голосу та їхня взаємодія в англійському висловлюванні.
The pitchcomponent of intonation or speech melodyis the variations in the pitch of the voice which
take place with voiced sounds. It is present in every word (inherent prominence) and in the whole sentence,
because it serves to delimit sentences into sensegroups, or intonation groups.
The delimitative (constitutive) function of melody is performed by pitch variations jointly with
pausation, because each sentence is divided into intonation groups (on the auditory and acoustic level) or into
sense groups (on the semantic level) .
To describe the melody of an utterance it is necessary to determine the relevant pitch levels, pitch
ranges, directions and rate of pitch movement ineach intonation group.
Tempo is a feature, which like loudness can be varied from time to time by the individual speaker.

The rate of speaking varies constantly. When two strongly stressed syllables occur close together, it is slower;
when they are separated by unstressed syllables the speed is faster. The speed of utterance becomes slower
or faster according to the number of unstressed syllables between the stressed ones.

The tempo component of intonation implies variations in the rate of the utterance and pausation.
a) The rate of speech is divided into normal, fast and slow. It differs according to the importance of the parts of the
utterance, since the important ones are spoken slower, but unimportant ones are pronounced at a greater speed.

b) Pauses are complete stops of phonation dividing a stretch of speech into smaller units.

According to their length, the following kinds of pauses are distinguished:

— short pauses, which separate intonation groups within a phrase;

— longer pauses, which manifest the end of the phrase;

— very long pauses, which are used to separate phonetic wholes.

From the functional point of view there exist:

— syntactic pauses, which separate phonopassages, phrases, intonation groups;

— emphatic pauses, which mark parts of the utterance especially important for the speaker (She is the most ¦ talented
actress I’ve ever met ||);

— hesitation pauses, which are used in spontaneous speech to think over what to say next; they may be silent (It’s rather
a ... difficult question ||) or filled (I’ll have to ... eeh ... think it over ||).

The changes of pitch, loudness and tempo are not accidental. They are formalized in the abstracted set of intonation
structures called intonation patterns, which form the prosodic system of the English language.

Definite intonation patterns are actualized in real communicative situations with the help of intonation groups.

10. Територіальна різноманітність англійської вимови. Національні

стандарти в англомовних країнах. Received Pronunciation (RP) – літературна
вимова у Великобританії. Відмінності між Британським та Американським
стандартами вимови.
RP (Received Pronunciation):

• the conservative RP forms , used by the older generation, and, traditionally, by certain profession or social
groups;

• the general RP forms , most commonly in use and typified by the pronuncia tion adopted by the BBC,

• the advanced RP forms , mainly used by young people of exclusive social groups — mostly of the upper
classes, but also for prestige value, in certain professional circles

• Near-RP southern — many native speakers, especially teachers of English and professors of colleges and
universities (particularly from the South and South-East of England) have accents closely resembling RP but not
identical to it.

Different vowel sounds

• RP /ʌ/ — GA /ɜ/

‘worry, courage, hurry’

• RP /ɒ/ — GA /ɑ:/ ; /ɔ:/

‘holiday, want, bomb ; gone, coffee’

• RP /ɑ:/ — GA /æ/

‘dance, laugh, bath, answer’

 • Weak/lacking diphthongs in GA

‘hair, here, my’

Different consonant sounds

In GA, but not in RP

• /r/ is pronounced in all positions

• /l/ is more or less dark in all positions

• /t/ is a voiced flap /D/ before unstressed syllable

E.g. ‘better, writer, metal’ (but not ‘contain’)

• ‘wh’ is often pronounced /hw/

Different pronunciations

• many individual pronunciation differences

RP GA

ate /et || eıt / /eıt/

pasta /'pæstə/ /'pɑ:stə/

vitamin /'vıtəmın/ /'vaıtəmın/

tomato /tə'mɑ:təʊ/ /tə'meıtoʊ/

progress /'prəʊgres/ /'prɑ:grəs/

either/neither /'aıðə/ /'i:ðər/

Different word stress

• primary stress earlier in GA than in RP in some words

RP GA

address address

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research research

ЛІТЕРАТУРА АНГЛІЇ ТА США

1. Identify the features of the poem that make “Beowulf” a distinctive and powerful
work of literature.
«Beowulf» is an epic poem that is considered the first great work of English literature. Scholars do not
know who wrote «Beowulf», but they believe the poem dates from the A. D. 700's. It is written in Old English,
the language used by the Anglo-Saxons in England from about A. D. 500 to 1100. Like all old English poetry,
«Beowulf» has no rhyme but instead uses alliteration (words that begin with the same sound).

The poem begins in a customary way, by tracing tribal history from the reign of the first great king of
the Danes, Scyld Scefing (shild' shaf 'ing), down to the time of Hrothgar.
 Listen!
The fame of Danish kings
in days gone by, the daring feats
worked by those heroes are well known to us.
Scyld Scefing often deprived his enemies,
many tribes of men, of their mead-benches.
He terrified his foes; yet he, as a boy,
had been found a waif; fate made amends for that.
He prospered under heaven, won praise and
honor, until the man of every neighboring tribe,
across the whale's way, were obliged to obey him and pay him tribute. He was a noble king!

The poem describes the adventures of Beowulf, a mighty warrior who has the qualities most admired
be the Anglo-Saxons - strength, courage, loyalty, and generosity. Beowulf goes to the aid of the Danish king,
whose royal hall has been repeatedly raided by a savage monster named Grendel. Beowulf kills Grendcl and
later slays the monster's fearsome mother. In his final battle, Beowulf kills a fire-breathing dragon, but he
himself is fatally wounded. The poem ends with a description of Beowulf's funeral.
!!!
 It’s an epic, and English literature doesn’t have that many epics. It is also an epic that comes
from an oral tradition.
 It’s written in Anglo-Saxon, which makes it of linguistic interest; it demonstrates English
when it was a Germanic, inflected language before it evolved into Middle English.
 It is rich with the stylistic elements of Anglo-Saxon poetry, such as alliteration and kenning.
 The material is engaging: an exciting hero, three compelling villains, compelling themes,
women’s issues, historical information, etc.

3. Geoffrey Chaucer’s impact on English Literature.

1. Geoffrey Chaucer Father of English poetry
Spoke the Anglo-Norman composite called Middle English (the ancestor of Modern
English).

2. One of the first to write in English(French was the spoken language of the time)

3. Considered to be the greatest English writer before Shakespeare.

4. Most famous book:The Canterbury Tales

!!!

 Chaucer’s Language was the basis for the national literary language (15th – 16th c.).

 New spelling rules (digraphs) and new rules of reading (1 letter = several sounds) appeared

as compared to the Old English.

 New grammatical forms appeared (Perfect forms, Passive forms, “to” Infinitive

constructions, etc.).

 Chaucer tried to minimize the number of the French loans in the English Language.

  Chaucer introduced rhyme to the poetry.

4. Describe the periods of the humanistic literature of the Renaissance in

England.

English literature in the Renaissance period

Characteristics:

Flourishing, especially the second half of the 16th century, which is sometimes called the Elizabethan
period, the English Renaissance burst into a flowering of literature and England became “a nest of
singing birds.”

 Translation occupied an important place in the period.

 The nationalist feeling which had risen with the reign of Elizabeth awakened the people’s
desire for knowledge about England’s past history, Scottish and Irish history
 Another kind of literature prevailing at the time was found in the large number of books
describing discoveries and adventures.

Wars, plagues and unpleasant happenings brought great impact on people’s life. Their attitude toward
life has changed. They started living a new life. Everything around them has changed. They began
enjoying their life. They started focusing on their present life. They were no more interested in the soul.
Man and his body were significant instead of soul and essence.

Getting classical education has become the interest of the people. People were interested in studying,
history, philosophy, literature, physics and geometry. Virgil’s Aeneid is the epic that has allusions in
abundance. This was about the War of Troy and the start of Rome. Why did it appeal to the people? It
appealed because of its political bodies.

The political body of Elizabethan England mattered the most to Shakespeare. He loved and stood-in for
the political body of Rome. He wrote his bloodiest play, with the title of Titus Andronicus, which is about
the problems of Elizabethan England. His dramas have political conflicts which represent the political
condition of the age.

 Humanism – man is a wonderful creature whose potential is limitless

 Secularism - importance of worldly knowledge and experiences
 Art - artwork emphasized human themes, realistic look, classical myths
 Literature – writers concerned with human concerns: love, anger, friendship; wrote in
vernacular
 The “Renaissance Man”- knows/ does lots of things well

5. What are the central themes Shakespeare dealt with in his plays?

There are many individual themes from Shakespeare’s plays . Common themes I can think of would be :

1. Betrayal/Deception- Julius Caesar , Troilus and Cressida , Cymbeline , Macbeth , King Lear ,
Othello , The Winter’s Tale , As You Like It , Hamlet , Much Ado About Nothing , A Midsummer
Night’s Dream , All’s Well That Ends Well , The Two Gentlemen of Verona , Troilus and Cressida .
Henry IV pt.1 , Henry IV pt.2 , Richard II etc.
2. Misunderstandings/Misplaced Judgements/Mistaken Identity - Hamlet , Julius Caesar , Much
Ado About Nothing , Romeo and Juliet , As You Like It , The Winter’s Tale , Cymbeline , Twelfth Night
, A Midsummer Night’s Dream , Othello , King Lear , Macbeth , The Comedy of Errors , All’s Well
 That Ends Well , Love’s Labour’s Lost , The Merry Wives of Windsor , The Two Noble Kinsmen ,
Much Ado About Nothing , The Two Gentlemen of Verona .
3. Revenge -Hamlet , A Midsummer Night’s Dream , Othello , Julius Caesar , Twelfth Night , Titus
Andronicus , Antony and Cleopatra , Timon of Athens .
4. Family Relationships and Conflict (especially father-daughter) - The Merchant of Venice ,
Hamlet , Romeo and Juliet , Titus Andronicus , King Lear , Cymbeline , The Tempest , A Midsummer
Night’s Dream , Much Ado About Nothing , Richard III , The Taming of the Shrew , The Merry Wives
of Windsor , The Two Noble Kinsmen , The Two Gentlemen of Verona , Henry IV pt. 2 , Henry IV pt. 1
, Richard II.
5. The Price of Ambition - Richard III , Macbeth , Julius Caesar , Cymbeline , Titus Andronicus , King
Lear , King John , Much Ado About Nothing , Antony and Cleopatra , Richard II, Henry V , Henry IV
pt.1 , The Tempest .
6. Women in Society - The Taming of the Shrew , Romeo and Juliet , Macbeth , the Merchant of
Venice , A Midsummer Night’s Dream , Julius Caesar , The Winter’s Tale , King Lear , Much Ado
About Nothing , All’s Well That Ends Well , The Merry Wives of Windsor , Antony and Cleopatra ,
The Comedy of Errors .
7. The Course of True Love Never Did Run Smooth - Romeo and Juliet , Cymbeline , Love’s Labour’s
Lost , Much Ado About Nothing , A Midsummer Night’s Dream , Twelfth Night , All’s Well That Ends
Well , The Merry Wives of Windsor , Antony and Cleopatra , The Tempest , The Two Gentlemen of
Verona .

6. Major themes of Macbeth.

Here’s a list of major themes in Macbeth.
 Ambition
 The Destruction of Unchecked Power
 Masculinity
 Guilt

7. What are literary characteristics of English Restoration Period?

Restoration literature is the English literature written during the historical period commonly referred to
as the English Restoration(1660–1689), which corresponds to the last years of the direct Stuart reign in
England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland.
Scholars use the term “Restoration” to denote the literature that began and flourished under Charles II,
whether that literature was the laudatory ode that gained a new life with restored aristocracy, the
eschatological literature that showed an increasing despair among Puritans, or the literature of rapid
communication and trade that followed in the wake of England’s mercantile empire.

 Poetry
The Restoration was an age of poetry. Not only was poetry the most popular form of literature, but it was also
the most significant form of literature, as poems affected political events and immediately reflected the times.
It was, to its own people, an age dominated only by the king, and not by any single genius. Throughout the
period, the lyric, ariel, historical, and epic poem were being developed.

 Prose
Prose in the Restoration period is dominated by Christian religious writing, but the Restoration also saw the
beginnings of two genres that would dominate later periods: fiction and journalism. Religious writing often
strayed into political and economic writing, just as political and economic writing implied or directly addressed
religion.

Authors :
8. What are literary characteristics of English Enlightenment Period?
Early Enlightenment (1688-1740)

This period saw the flourishing of journalism. Numerous journals and newspapers appeared at that time. Most
popular were the satirical moralizing journals The Tattler, The Spectator, The Englishman edited by Joseph
Addison and Richard Steels. In their essays – short compositions in prose – these two writers touched on
various problems of political, social and family life.

Mature Enlightenment (1740-1750)

The social moralizing novel was born in this period. It was represented by the works of such writers as Samuel
Richardson (Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded, Clarissa, or the History of a Young Lady), Henry Fielding (The History
of Tom Jones, a Foundling and other novels), and Tobias Smollett (The Expedition of Humphrey Clinker and
other novels).Henry Fielding' s works were the summit of the English Enlightenment prose. In the novel The
History of Tom Jones, a Foundling the author created an all-embracing picture of the 18th century England.
Fielding also worked out the theory of the novel. In the introductory chapters to the eighteen parts of The
History of Tom Jones he put forward the main requirements that the novel should meet:

 to imitate life,
 to show the variety of human nature,
 to expose the roots and causes of man's shortcomings
 to indicate the ways of overcoming them.

Late Enlightenment (Sentimentalism) (1750-1780)

The writers of this period, like the Enlighteners of the first two periods, expressed the democratic bourgeois
tendencies of their time. They also tried to find a way out of the difficulties of the existing order. However,
while their predecessors believed in the force of intellect, they considered feelings (or sentiments) most
important. The principal representatives of sentimentalism in the genre of the novel were Oliver Coldsmith
(The Vicar of Wakefield) and Lawrence Sterne (Tristram Shandy, The Sentimental Journey) and in drama –
Richard Sheridan (School for Scandal and other plays)

9. Decide on the poet’s message and intention in the poem “The Tyger” (by
W.  Blake).
The title of the poem showcases the central figure which is a tiger, spelled as “Tyger”. Blake uses
the archaic spelling of the term for presenting the world just after God created it. There is an exotic flavor in its
name and the smell of oldness. Through this reference, the poet makes it clear that God, with his judicious
hands, symmetrically framed his creation long before the advent of humankind. This creature portrays the
destructive side of God, the creator, as P.B. Shelley projects in his revolutionary poem ‘Ode to the West Wind’.

Theme: The opening verses slowly lead to the poem’s primary objective: contemplating God in the heavens
above. In essence, the tiger is a beautifully enigmatic creature yet lethal at the same time. This also reflects the
nature of God as he contemplates that a God could be just as loving and just as lethal when needed be.

Religion is one of the primary themes of the poem. The poem explores the moral dilemma of the poet largely
concerned with the metaphysical entity. It becomes a symbolic allegory to God in hindsight. As the poet
contends, that such a powerfully destructive living entity can be a creation of a purely, artful God. The poet
precludes the notion of the tiger’s creation in any way accidental or haphazard. He feels that this tiger is
allotted immense physical strength as it can wield its command over weaker animals.

The final allusion to the lamb can connote his reference to the poem, ‘The Lamb,’ as he compares and
contrasts the timid living animal to that of a tiger. God created the tiger as a dominant creature, while the
lamb is simply a weakling compared to the tiger.

On the whole, ‘The Tyger’ consists of unanswered questions, the poet leaves his readers pondering the will of
the creator, his limitless power, and awe of his creation, a three-fold subject. In conclusion, the poet ends his
poem with perspectives of innocence and experience, both a subject of great interest to him.

10. Discuss the symbolism W. Blake used in the poem “Tyger”

This poem is full of symbols that are similar to the theme of his “Songs of Experience”.

Firstly, the tiger is a symbol of God’s destructive side. It projects how God has balanced his creation by making
a fierce creature like a tiger. It implicitly refers to another fact that He is both the perisher and the protector.
Readers can find the symbols of experience in the following words, “night”, “fire”, “hammer”, “chain”,
“furnace”, “anvil”, etc. The symbolic use of the words is consonant with the overall theme of Blake’s poem. It
sets the tone and mood of the work.

Symbolism: (2) the meaning of symbolism in “The Tyger” answers the previous question. Examples include: (1)
the tiger represents the dangers of mortality; (2) the fire imagery symbolizes trials (baptism by fire perhaps);
(3) the forest of the night represents unknown realms or challenges; (4) the blacksmith represents the
Creator; (5) the fearful symmetry symbolizes the existence of both good and evil, the knowledge that there is
opposition in all things, a rather fearful symmetry indeed.

11. Discuss the salient features of English Romanticism.

Main features

 An emphasis on emotional and imaginative spontaneity

 The importance of self-expression and individual feeling. Romantic poetry is one of the heart and the
emotions, exploring the ‘truth of the imagination' rather than scientific truth. The ‘I' voice is central; it
is the poet's perceptions and feelings that matter.
 An almost religious response to nature. They were concerned that Nature should not just be seen
scientifically but as a living force, either made by a Creator, or as in some way divine, to be neglected
at humankind's peril. Some of them were no longer Christian in their beliefs. Shelley was an atheist,
and for a while Wordsworth was apantheist (the belief that god is in everything). Much of their poetry
celebrated the beauty of nature, or protested the ugliness of the growing industrialization of the
century: the machines, factories, slum conditions, pollution and so on.
 A capacity for wonder and consequently a reverence for the freshness and innocence of the vision of
childhood. See The world of the Romantics: Attitudes to childhood
 Emphasis on the imagination as a positive and creative faculty
  An interest in ‘primitive' forms of art – for instance in the work of early poets (bards), in ancient
ballads and folksongs. Some of the Romantics turned back to past times to find inspiration, either to
the medieval period, or to Greek and Roman mythology. See Aspects of the Gothic: Gothic and the
medieval revival
 An interest in and concern for the outcasts of society: tramps, beggars, obsessive characters and the
poor and disregarded are especially evident in Romantic poetry
 An idea of the poet as a visionary figure, with an important role to play as prophet (in both political
and religious terms).

Who were the Romantics?

Some authors have been regarded as pre-Romantic:

 William Blake (1757-1827) a visionary poet who was also an artist and engraver, with a particular
interest in childhood and a strong hatred of mechanical reason and industrialization;
 Robert Burns (1759-1796) who worked as a ploughman and farm labourer but who had received a
good education and was interested in early Scots ballads and folk-song;
 Walter Scott (1771-1832), another Scot, who developed his interest in old tales of the Border and early
European poetry into a career as poet and novelist.

The first generation of Romantics is also known as the Lake Poets because of their attachment to the Lake
District in the north-west of England:

 William Wordsworth (1770-1850) who came from the Lake District and was the leading poet of the
group, whose work was especially associated with the centrality of the self and the love of nature;
 Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834) was Wordsworth's closest colleague and collaborator, a powerful
intellectual whose work was often influenced by contemporary ideas about science and philosophy;
 Robert Southey (1774-1843), a prolific writer of poetry and prose who settled in the Lake District and
became Poet Laureate in 1813; his work was later mocked by Byron;
 Charles Lamb (1775-1834) was a poet but is best-known for his essays and literary criticism; a
Londoner, he was especially close to Coleridge;
 Thomas de Quincey (1785-1859) the youngest member of the group, best known as an essayist and
critic, who wrote a series of memories of the Lake Poets.

The second generation of Romantic poets included:

 George Gordon, Lord Byron (1788-1824); 

 Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822) was one of the leading poets;
 John Keats (1795-1821) was a London poet, especially known for his odes and sonnets and for his
letters, which contain many reflections on poetry and the work of the imagination.

12. What is the contribution of Byron to the literature?

Lord Byron’s Famous Works 

 Best Poems: Lord Byron is a great English poet, some his popular poems include: “She Walks in
Beauty”, “Darkness”, “There Be None of Beauty’s Daughter”, “The Eve of Waterloo”, “When We Two
Parted” and “And Thou Art Dead, As Young and Fair.”
 Other Works: Besides poetry, he tried his hands on the tragedy in verse form. Some of them include
The Two Foscari: A Historical Tragedy, Sardanapalus, Marino Faliero and The Prophecy of Dante.

Lord Byron’s Impact on Future Literature

Lord Byron’s unique literary ideas brought new perspectives for English literature. His distinctive writing
approach and experimentation with epics and lyrics made him stand out even among the best poets.
His narrative and lyrical works are regarded as masterpieces and had had significant impacts on generations.
He successfully documented his ideas and feelings about historical tragedies and romanticism in his writings
that even today, writers try to imitate his unique style, considering him a beacon for writing plays and poetry.

13. Discuss the characteristics of Romanticism in American Literature.

Romanticism as a cultural phenomenon has a number of tell-tale signs: an emphasis on emotion, imagination,
originality - a special fondness for the larger-than-life.

Walt Whitman (1819–1892), Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882), Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862), Emily
Dickinson (1830–1886), Edgar Allen Poe (1809–1849), Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804–1863, Herman Melville
(1819–1891).

 
Basic Characteristics
 Romanticism validated strong emotion as an authentic source of aesthetic experience. It emphasized
on emotions such as worry, horror, terror etc.
 Romanticism was influenced by industrialism and realism, which urged people to look at nature and
surroundings from a rational and scientific point of view.
 It permitted a person’s imagination and freedom in art and legitimized imagination as a critical
authority. 
 One of the basic characteristics of romanticism is the importance of free expression of feelings of the
poet or artist. For instance, William Wordsworth believed that poetry should be “spontaneous overflow of
powerful feelings”.
 For an artist or poet to express his feelings truly, the content of the art, whether poem or painting or
anything for that matter, should come from the imagination of the artist.
 Originality was an absolute essentiality of romanticism because the movement suggested that, the
influence of the models of other works may impede the artist’s imagination; to be derivative was
considered as a sin in romanticism.
 The ability of a person to produce an original work through the process ‘creation from nothingness’
was considered very important and such people were regarded as genius. This was considered as a key skill
to have, to become a romantic artist.
 Nature was of great importance in romanticism. Strong regards for nature was appreciated. The effect
of nature on the artist, especially when he was alone, was very valuable.
 Romantics believed that close association with nature was healthy, in terms of both mental and moral
health.
 A romantic artist interacted with the audience directly so that he can communicate with the people
through his personal voice.
 Isaiah Berlin said that “romanticism embodied a new and restless spirit, seeking violently to burst
through old and cramping forms, a nervous preoccupation with perpetually changing inner states of
consciousness, a longing for the unbounded and the indefinable, for perpetual movement and change, an
effort to return to the forgotten sources of life, a passionate effort at self-assertion both individual and
collective, a search after means of expressing an unappeasable yearning for unattainable goals."
Romanticism In Literature
 Friedrich Schlegel, a German philosopher, writer and critic, used the term ‘Romantic’ for the first time,
to designate a new school of literature which arose in opposition to the ‘Classicism’.
 Though the concept of Romanticism was identified much earlier, critics believe that Romanticism in
English literature dates from the Lyrical Ballads by William Wordsworth and Coleridge. It was in the preface
to the second edition of this work where Wordsworth stated that poetry results from the “spontaneous
overflow of powerful feelings”.
 The romantics were greatly interested in mystery, aspiration and adventure. These interests were
evidenced in Gothic romance, a particular form of novel writing that flourished in 18 th and 19th century
England, and in the historical novels written by Sir Walter Scott. 

!!!
True American Literature – the Romantic Period 1800-1840 
• Values feeling and intuition over reason
• Places faith in inner experience and the power of the imagination
• Shuns the artificiality of civilizations and seeks unspoiled nature
• Prefers youthful innocence to educated sophistication
• Champions individual freedom and the worth of the individual
• Contemplates nature’s beauty as a path to spiritual and moral development
• Looks backward to the wisdom of the past and distrusts progress
• Finds beauty and truth in exotic locales, the supernatural realm, and the inner world of the imagination
• Sees poetry as the highest expression of the imagination
• Finds inspiration in myth, legend, and folk culture

14. The role of the Chartist literature in nineteenth-century Great Britain.

 to emphasize the impact of constant limbo between good and evil on English literature;
 to explore the issues of good and evil and their display through Chartist movement in the works of
English authors of the XIX century;
 to retrace Dickens’s unique place in social novels and to observe his representations of good and evil
in different characters;
 to investigate Dickens’s Great Expectations as a sample of evil power of money;
 to make analysis of the novel Great Expectations and find out how the themes of good and evil are
represented in it.

15. What are literary characteristics of English literature of Realism.

The critical realism of the 19th century flourished in the 40s and at the beginning of the 50s.

The critical realists set themselves the task of criticizing capitalist society, exposing social contradictions. Their
strong point was their true reflection of life and their sharp criticism of existing injustice.

Charles Dickens (1812-1870) was born in Portsmouth on the 7th of February, 1812. He was the 2nd child and
the eldest son of John and Elizabeth Dickens. After a short period in London, in 1817 John Dickens was
transferred to the dockyard at Chatham and the family remained here until 1822. These were the happiest
years of Charles's childhood and youth.

When Charles was about 10, the family left Chatham as John dickens had been recalled to London.

William Makepeace Thackeray (1811-1863) was the second representative of critical realism in English
literature of the 19th century. Dickens and Thackeray were such near contemporaries that their work was
often compared, but Thackeray's life was different from that of Charles Dickens.

William Makepeace Thackeray was born into a prosperous middle class family. His father was a well-to-do
English official in Calcutta, India, where he was born. When his father died, the boy, aged six, was sent to
England where he attended the famous Charterhouse School. In 1828 Thackeray entered Cambridge
University. While a student he was clever at drawing cartoons and writing verses, chiefly parodies. He did not
stay long at the University. The stagnant atmosphere of the place suffocated him. Besides his wish was to
become an artist and therefore he left the University without graduating and went to Germany, Italy and
France to study art.

There were 3 Brontes- novelists: Charlotte (1816-1855), Emily (1818-1848) and Anne (1820-1849). Their
father was an Irish protestant, a clergyman in Yorkshire. Their mother died when the girls were little. The
children were entirely devoted to reading, writing, drawing wandering over the open moors and playing a
game of story telling about their imaginary heroes. The sisters received their education at a charity school and
worked as governesses. Private teaching was the only profession open to educated women, and the Brontes
had to earn their living.

Their life was hard and they tried to create a new world of their imagination. The sisters turned to literature
though they knew of the difficulties a woman writer had to face when it came to publication. Their first volume
of verse was published under a masculine pseudonym: "Poems by Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell" (1846).

16. Describe the literary style of Charles Dickens.

His writing style was heavily detailed. He used exaggeration in description to imply character traits. He was
fond of metaphor, simile and frequently repeated words in a sentence to emphasize a phrase (Lorcher, Trent).
This made it easier for people to read and understand his work and also made his words more memorable.

For example, the opening of A Tale of Two Cities uses repetition, “It was the best of times, it was the worst of
times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of
incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the
winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to
Heaven, we were all going direct the other way” (Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities).

This first line effectively establishes tone. It is also incredibly famous even now, years after its publication. He
was a master of dialect. This allowed him to develop full and relatable characters that engage in more realistic
and lively dialogue. Dialect was also used to establish class. Sam’s manner of speaking in The Pickwick Papers is
an example of Dickens masterful reproduction of a cockney accent, “All good feelin’, sir—the wery best
intentions, as the gen’l’m’n said ven he run away from his wife ‘cos she seemed unhappy with him”
(Dickens, The Pickwick Papers). W’s and V’s are switched, and the pronunciation of a handful of words is
mutilated.

Charles Dickens experimented with several different genres, but most of them were all critical of the industrial
revolution and Victorian England. He lived through what was called Pax Britanncia a golden time of peace but
was quite aware of distress and poverty within the country. Much of his work, whether it takes a comic, tragic
or spooky approach is a heavily descriptive view into what life was like in 19th century England. His renderings of
the world around him were so complete that even today people use the word “Dickensian” in regards to
anything reminiscent of his work or that represents low wage factory work ("The Tales").

17. Features of early American literature.

Early American Literature examines the cultures and literatures of the Americas from the colonial period
through the early national period of the United States (ca. 1820).  Beginning with Native American expressions
and oral traditions, it ranges widely across the Americas, from Francophone writings in the north to Ibero-
American literature in the south.

 Narrative Focus

Colonial American literature is characterized by the narrative, which was used extensively during this period.
Most of the literary works of this genre are composed of letters, journals, biographies and memoirs. An
example is Mary Rowlandson’s narrative account “The Sovereignty and Goodness of God: Being a Narrative of
the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson."

 Religion and Poetry

Religion is prominent in colonial American literature and can be found mostly in Puritan writings. This literature
helped spread the message of God, suggesting that “life was a test” and the soul would face damnation if that
test was failed. Ambition and hard work were continuously stressed. Many of the Puritan works were written in
poetry form. Anne Bradstreet’s poetry, the “Bay Psalm Book,” and Pastor Edward Taylor’s “Preparatory
Mediations” are good examples of religious texts of the era. It was this type of writing that led to the
Puritanism and Great Awakening movements. Non-Puritan writers also used religion to show the religious
tension between the colonial settlers and Native Americans.

 The Enlightenment

In the 18th century, the Enlightenment showed a great shift in colonial American literature from a religious
foundation to scientific reasoning applied to human nature, society, culture and political awareness. Many texts
were written in pamphlet or narrative form and challenged the role of God and religious life, seeking to replace
them with reason. Rational thought and science were the new themes. “The Autobiography of Benjamin
Franklin” and the pamphlet “Common Sense” by Thomas Paine explored many of these new ideas. Similar texts
also led the way to more awareness of social, economic and scientific issues. The American Revolution played a
large part in this shifting of ideas.

18. The Dark Romanticism of Edgar Poe.

The genre of "Dark Romanticism" is thought to have emerged from the Transcendental Movement in 19th
century America. Whereas Transcendentalists felt perfection and their own divinity as innate qualities of
mankind (they thiought utopian communes would work), Dark Romantics believed humans gravitate to evil and
self-destruction (striving for a utopian society is a waste of time). 

Many consider Edgar Allan Poe to be the seminal dark romantic author. Many of his works are generally
considered part of the genre. Poe strongly disliked Transcendentalism. 

Much of his poetry and prose features his characteristic interest in exploring the psychology of man, including
the perverse and self-destructive nature of the conscious and subconscious mind. Some of Poe’s notable dark
romantic works include the short stories "Ligeia" and "The Fall of the House of Usher" and poems "The Raven"
and "Ulalume."

His most recurring themes deal with questions of death, including its physical signs, the effects of
decomposition, concerns of premature burial, the reanimation of the dead, and mourning

Practically all of Edgar Allan Poe's canon falls in the Dark Romantic genre, in which he explored the psychology
of the conscious and subconscious mind. A Descent Into the Maelstrom is a fine example. Many of Poe's works
are on the dark end of the Dark Romantic spectrum, into the realm of Gothic Fiction with macabre tales of
horror, morbidity, and madness. Fine example: The Fall of the House of Usher, which deals with mental
conditions such as hypochondria and hyperethesia (sensory overload). Poe was also credited as the creator of
the detective fiction genre, as in his story, The Purloined Letter. Poe literally provided a template for detective
authors to follow, including Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. A fun fact about Poe: he really disliked Transcendentalists,
referring to them as "Frogpondians" (after the pool in Boston Commons).

19. Major characteristics of Emily Dickinson’s poetry.

The major themes in her poetry include Friends, Nature, Love, and Death. Not surprisingly, she also refers to
flowers often in her poems. Many of her poems' allusions come from her education in the Bible, classical
mythology, and Shakespeare.

Dickinson did not give titles to her poems, an unusual feature. Others have given titles to some of her poems,
and often the first line of the poem is used as a title.

She wrote short lines, preferring to be concise in her images and references. A study of her letters to friends
and mentors shows that her prose style was composed of short iambic phrases, making her prose very similar
to her poetry.

Dickinson's poems are generally short in length, rarely consisting of more than six stanzas, as in "Because I
Could Not Stop for Death." Many of her poems are only one or two stanzas in length. The stanzas are quatrains
of four lines. Some poems have stanzas of three or two lines.

The rhythm in many of her poems is called common meter or ballad meter. Both types of meter consist of a
 quatrain with the first and third lines having four iambic feet and the second and fourth lines having three
iambic feet. The iambic foot is a unit of two syllables with the first syllable unstressed and the second syllable
stressed.

20. The impact of the works of Mark Twain on American literature.

Mark Twain indeed led the democratic movement in American literature of the nineteenth century. He broke
with the idea that literature had to be written in “literary English,”. Twain simplified American literary English.

Twain’s written works challenged the fundamental issues that faced the America of his time; racism, evolving
landscapes, class barriers, access to education and more. He is celebrated for works such as The Adventures of
Tom Sawyer (1876) and his memoir, Life on the Mississippi (1883). Every work stands as an outstanding
achievement of authenticity, and there are autobiographical elements in all of them, featuring real places and
experiences from Twain’s childhood to add further truth to his work.

Twain's greatest contribution to American literature is no doubt The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. It was the
first major American work to use a vernacular style throughout and is still studied today, despite years of
controversy over its subject matter. The book is one of the few to bear the distinction of being "The Great
American Novel."

More than this, Twain was probably the first memorable literary voice that was truly "American." While the
American authors that came before Twain could have just as easily have written what they did in England or
Ireland, Twain used his childhood time on the Mississippi and humorist mastery to create a style of prose that
was distinctly of the new world.

21. Summarise the nature and success of Sir Thomas Wyatt’s poetry.

Wyatt's professed object was to experiment with the English language, to civilise it, to raise its powers to equal
those of other European languages. He took subject matter from Petrarch's sonnets, but his rhyme schemes are
significantly different.

Wyatt experimented in stanza forms. He introduced the poulter's measure form, rhyming couplets composed
of a 12-syllable iambic line (Alexandrine) followed by a 14-syllable iambic line (fourteener),[18] and he is
considered a master of the iambic tetrameter.[19]

Wyatt's poetry reflects classical and Italian models, but he also admired the work of Geoffrey Chaucer, and his
vocabulary reflects that of Chaucer; for example, he uses Chaucer's word newfangleness, meaning fickleness, in
They Flee from Me. Many of his poems deal with the trials of romantic love and the devotion of the suitor to an
unavailable or cruel mistress. Other poems are scathing, satirical indictments of the hypocrisies and pandering
required of courtiers who are ambitious to advance at the Tudor court.

Wyatt's poems are short but fairly numerous. His 96 love poems appeared posthumously in a compendium
called Tottel's Miscellany. Wyatt was also responsible for the important introduction of the personal note into
English poetry, for although he followed his models closely, he wrote of his own experiences. His epigrams,
songs, and rondeaux are lighter than the sonnets, and they reveal the care and the elegance typical of the new
romanticism. His satires are composed in the Italian terza rima, again showing the direction of the innovating
tendencies.

22. Discuss major themes of the poem “She Walks in Beauty” by Lord Byron.

The primary theme of "She Walks in Beauty" is the perfect beauty and goodness of an idealized woman. Byron
makes no attempt to give his subject any individuality, instead making her universal, so that any man in love
can see his inamorata in the poem.

 In the first stanza, Byron compares the beauty of his beloved to "the night / Of cloudless climes and starry
skies.". The night sky has no bearing on the woman's physical appearance. She resembles it only in being
perfect and infinitely romantic.
 The second stanza continues with the theme of perfection, saying that the slightest amendment to the
appearance of the subject would impair her beauty. The last two lines add that this beauty is both internal
and external. The sweetness of her thoughts is reflected in the radiance of her face.
 The third stanza develops the theme of a beautiful mind reflected in a radiant appearance, adding action to
thought by saying that the subject's days are spent "in goodness" and emphasizing the peace and innocence
of both her life and her thoughts.

23. Discuss three main themes of the book “To Kill a Mockingbird” by Harper Lee

In To Kill a Mockingbird, themes are specific and yet applicable to any timeline. The novel shows
the dilemma of racism, along with the dark sides of human nature.

 Prejudice.  The unjustified and cruel prejudicial system of Maycomb destroys a person’s lives. The most
evident victim of discrimination is Tom Robinson, who is declared guilty of a false charge of raping a
white woman. Tom’s accuser is also a victim of prejudice. Her whole family is considered immoral by
the rest of the town. Scout and Jem also observe prejudice when Aunt Alexandra suggests Atticus to
fire Calpurnia and teach children the importance of class.
 The theme of racism serves as the backbone of the novel. Throughout the novel, Scout explores
differences between white people and black people. Tom is convicted because of the color of his skin.
The race is the only strong evidence that stands against him.
 Ambition is another major theme in the novel, To Kill a Mockingbird. Atticus Finch is ambitious to fight
for innocent, Tom Robinson and remains persistent in his efforts. He revolts against society and follows
his own principles to fight against inequality. Atticus’s ambition grows so strong that he faces the wrath
and anger of Maycomb, a place, where he is once respected and admired. The end of the novel shows
that Atticus was able to survive the odds and regain his lost dignity and respect. Hence, the theme
proves that being ambitious for the right cause will lead anyone to victory.

24. What are the periods of American literature?

 The Colonial Period (1607–1775)

This period encompasses the founding of Jamestown up to a decade before the Revolutionary War. The
majority of writings were historical, practical, or religious in nature. Some writers not to miss from this period
include Phillis Wheatley, Cotton Mather, William Bradford, Anne Bradstreet, and John Winthrop. 

 The Revolutionary Age (1765–1790)

Beginning a decade before the Revolutionary War and ending about 25 years later, this period includes the
writings of Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Paine, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton. This is arguably the
richest period of political writing since classical antiquity. Important works include the “Declaration of
Independence,” "The Federalist Papers," and the poetry of Joel Barlow and Philip Freneau.

 The Early National Period (1775–1828)

This era in American literature is responsible for notable first works, such as the first American comedy written
for the stage—"The Contrast" by Royall Tyler, written in 1787—and the first American Novel—"The Power of
Sympathy" by William Hill, written in 1789. Edgar Allan Poe and William Cullen Bryant began writing poetry that
was markedly different from that of the English tradition.

 The American Renaissance (1828–1865)

Also known as the Romantic Period in America and the Age of Transcendentalism, this period is commonly
accepted to be the greatest of American literature. Major writers include Walt Whitman, Ralph Waldo
Emerson, Henry David Thoreau. The years 1853 and 1859 brought the first novels written by African American
authors, both male and female: "Clotel," by William Wells Brown and "Our Nig," by Harriet E. Wilson.

 The Realistic Period (1865–1900)

As a result of the American Civil War, Reconstruction and the age of industrialism. This period also gave rise to
regional writing, such as the works of Sarah Orne Jewett, Kate Chopin, Bret Harte, Mary Wilkins Freeman, and
George W. Cable. In addition to Walt Whitman, another master poet, Emily Dickinson, appeared at this time.
  The Naturalist Period (1900–1914)

American Naturalist writers such as Frank Norris, Theodore Dreiser, and Jack London created some of the most
powerfully raw novels in American literary history. Their characters are victims who fall prey to their own base
instincts and to economic and sociological factors.

 The Modern Period (1914–1939)

Its major writers include such powerhouse poets as E.E. Cummings, Robert Frost, Ezra Pound, William Carlos
Williams. Many of these writers were influenced by World War I and the disillusionment that followed,
especially the expatriates of the Lost Generation. 

 The Beat Generation (1944–1962)

Beat writers, such as Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg, were devoted to anti-traditional literature, in poetry and
prose, and anti-establishment politics. This time period saw a rise in confessional poetry and sexuality in
literature, which resulted in legal challenges and debates over censorship in America. 

25. What are the periods of English literature?

 Old English (Anglo-Saxon) Period (450–1066)

Much of the first half of this period—prior to the seventh century, at least—had oral literature. A lot of the
prose during this time was a translation of something else or otherwise legal, medical, or religious in nature;
however, some works, such as Beowulf and those by period poets Caedmon and Cynewulf, are important.

 Middle English Period (1066–1500)

with the Old English period, much of the Middle English writings were religious in nature; however, from about
1350 onward, secular literature began to rise. This period is home to the likes of Chaucer, Thomas Malory, and
Robert Henryson. Notable works include "Piers Plowman" and "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.

 The Renaissance (1500–1660)

The Elizabethan Age was the golden age of English drama. Some of its noteworthy figures include Christopher
Marlowe, Francis Bacon. The King James translation of the Bible also appeared during the Jacobean Age. 

 The Neoclassical Period (1600–1785)

The Neoclassical period is also subdivided into ages, including The Restoration (1660–1700), The Augustan Age
(1700–1745), and The Age of Sensibility (1745–1785).  Restoration comedies (comedies of manner) developed
during this time under the talent of playwrights like William Congreve and John Dryden. The Augustan Age was
the time of Alexander Pope and Jonathan Swift, who imitated those first Augustans and even drew parallels
between themselves and the first set. Daniel Defoe was also popular. The  Age of Sensibility. Ideas such as
neoclassicism, a critical and literary mode, and the Enlightenment, a particular worldview shared by many
intellectuals, were championed during this age.

 The Romantic Period (1785–1832)

This era includes the works of such juggernauts as Wordsworth, Coleridge, William Blake, Lord Byron, John
Keats, Charles Lamb, Mary Wollstonecraft, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Thomas De Quincey, Jane Austen, and Mary
Shelley. There is also a minor period, also quite popular (between 1786–1800), called the Gothic era. 

 The Victorian Period (1832–1901)

This period is named for the reign of Queen Victoria. It was a time of great social, religious, intellectual, and
economic issues, heralded by the passage of the Reform Bill, which expanded voting rights. Poets of this time
include Robert and Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Christina Rossetti, Alfred Lord Tennyson, and Matthew Arnold,
among others.

 The Edwardian Period (1901–1914)

This period is named for King Edward VII and covers the period of World War I. Although a short period (and a
short reign for Edward VII), the era includes incredible classic novelists such as Joseph Conrad, Ford Madox Ford

 The Georgian Period (1910–1936)

Georgian poetry today is typically considered to be the works of minor poets anthologized by Edward Marsh.
The themes and subject matter tended to be rural or pastoral in nature, treated delicately and traditionally
rather than with passion. 

 The Modern Period (1914–?)

The modern period traditionally applies to works written after the start of World War I. Common features
include bold experimentation with subject matter, style, and form. Some of the most notable writers of this
period include the novelists James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, Aldous Huxley, D.H. Lawrence.

 The Postmodern Period (1945–?)

The postmodern period begins about the time that World War II ended. Some notable writers of the period
include Samuel Beckett, Joseph Heller, Anthony Burgess, John Fowles, Penelope M. Lively, and Iain Banks. Many
postmodern authors wrote during the modern period as well. 

26. What are the main themes in "The Fall of the House of Usher" by Edgar Poe

The main themes in "The Fall of the House of Usher" are madness, the supernatural, and artistic purpose.

 Madness: The Usher family has a long history of incest and, as a result, many contemporary Ushers,
including Roderick, suffer from insanity.

 The supernatural: Whether there are supernatural forces at work is left vague, echoing the idea that
fear, madness, paranoia, and superstition often influence how people interact with the world.

 Artistic purpose: Poe espoused the notion of “art for art’s sake," aiming for a unity of aesthetic rather
than the conveyance of a didactic lesson or moral.

Fear is a pervasive theme throughout “The Fall of the House of Usher,” playing a prominent role in the lives of
the characters. The story shows that fear and imagination feed off one another. The narrator is afraid of the old
mansion, even though there is no specific threat. He recognizes that the individual aspects of the mansion are
normal, but when put together, they convey an ominous presence. He is more terrified by the house’s
reflection in the tarn, a distorted and ultimately imaginary image, than by the actual house.

27. What are the main themes of “The Raven” by Edgar Poe

The main themes of Edgar Allan Poe’s narrative poem “The Raven” are devotion, loos, and lingering grief that
cannot be diminished.

In Poe’s own words, he decided upon the raven as the poem’s primary symbol, because it represented
“Mournful and Never-ending Remembrance.” The raven instigates the grieving young man’s distress and helps
push him down the path towards what is expected that will eventually end in madness. By the end of the poem,
the narrator realizes that the raven is actually his own grief-imprisoned and tortured soul.

In addition, the narrator starts to venture about what the bird means by “Nevermore”. The narrator is
beginning to take the blackbird seriously. The Raven isn’t a symbol of a lost maiden but a symbol of death and
has always been a symbol of death. When we are young we are immortal because we don’t know we are
mortal.

28. Mark Twain’s writing style.

Twain's narrative writing style belongs to what people call Southwestern humor. This regional style of writing
features earthy language, at times crude humor and doses of cruelty as well as stock characters and situations
in which the trickster triumphs. Twain's life in Hannibal introduced him to many of these character types; it was
there that he familiarized himself with character types such as slave dealers, riverboat travelers and gamblers.
For example, one of Twain's most famous characters, Jim in "Huckleberry Finn," starts out as a stock character
but is transformed when Huck starts to see him as a person. This style of writing marks the ending of
Romanticism and the beginning of Realism in American literature.

29. Main characteristics of the 20-th century English literature.

Twentieth century writers experimented with other kinds of structures. Virginia Woolf, for instance, wrote
novels whose main plot was often "interrupted" by individual characters' memories, resulting in a disorienting
experience for the reader. Many of these writers aimed to imitate the feeling of how time is truly experienced
subjectively.

The 20th century saw the birth of the ironic narrator, who could not be trusted with the facts of narrative. Nick
Carraway, narrator of Fitzgerald's "The Great Gatsby," for example, tells the story with a bias toward the novel's
titular character.

The 20th century is distinguished as the century of urbanism. As more people moved to cities in Europe and
America, novelists used urban environments as backdrops for the stories they told. Perhaps the best known of
these is James Joyce's "Dubliners," a series of short stories that all take place in various locales in Dublin.

The 20th century gave voice to marginalized people who previously got little recognition for their literary
contributions. The Harlem Renaissance, for example, brought together African-Americans living in New York to
form a powerful literary movement. Writers such as Langston Hughes, Nella Larsen and Zora Neale Hurston
wrote fiction and poetry that celebrated black identity. Similarly, female writers gained recognition through
novels that chronicled their own experience. Finally, the post-colonial literary movement was born, with writers
such as Chinua Achebe writing stories on behalf of subjugated peoples who had experienced colonization by
Western powers.

30. Main characteristics of the 20-th century American literature.

At the beginning of the 20th century, American novelists were expanding fiction to encompass both high and
low life and sometimes connected to the naturalist school of realism.

The 1920s brought sharp changes to American literature. Many writers had direct experience of the First World
War, and they used it to frame their writings. Writers like Henry James, Gertrude Stein, and poets Ezra
Pound,  H.D. and T. S. Eliot demonstrate the growth of an international perspective in American literature.
American writers had long looked to European models for inspiration, but whereas the literary breakthroughs
of the mid-19th century came from finding distinctly American styles and themes, writers from this period were
finding ways of contributing to a flourishing international literary scene, not as imitators but as equals. 

The period of peace and debt-fueled economic expansion that followed WWI was the setting for many of the
stories and novels of F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896–1940). Fitzgerald also dwells on the collapse of long-held
American Ideals, such as liberty, social unity, good governance and peace, features which were severely
threatened by the pressures of modern early 20th century society.

Ernest Hemingway (1899–1961) saw violence and death first-hand as an ambulance driver in World War I, and
the carnage persuaded him that abstract language was mostly empty and misleading. He cut out unnecessary
words from his writing, simplified the sentence structure, and concentrated on concrete objects and actions. He
adhered to a moral code that emphasized grace under pressure, and his protagonists were strong, silent men
who often dealt awkwardly with women. The Sun Also Rises and A Farewell to Arms are generally considered
his best novels; 

In the 1950s the poetry and fiction of the "Beat Generation" developed, initially from a New York circle of
intellectuals and then established more officially later in San Francisco. The term Beat referred to the
countercultural rhythm of the Jazz scene, to a sense of rebellion regarding the conservative stress of post-war
society, and to an interest in new forms of spiritual experience through drugs, alcohol, philosophy, and religion

In the postwar period, the art of the short story again flourished. Among its most respected practitioners
was Flannery O'Connor, who developed a distinctive Southern gothic esthetic in which characters acted at one
level as people and at another as symbols. 
In the realm of African-American literature, Ralph Ellison's 1952 novel Invisible Man was instantly recognized
as among the most powerful and important works of the immediate post-war years.