‫ملخص كتاب اللغه للمرحله الثالثه‬

‫‪Linguistics :Teach yourself‬‬

‫‪Jean Aithesion‬‬

‫مكتبة ‪NBS‬‬

‫متخصصه باللغه االنكليزيه‬

‫كركوك‪ /‬شارع المحافظه‪/‬عمارة العجائب‬

‫‪1‬‬
 Linguistics

Chapter One : What is linguistics ?

Q/ What is language ?

The language is defined as ‘the best means of communication’ . It

helps us to deliver our thoughts, ideas, and feelings toward the
others . Language is not only strings of talks written or spoken but it
is also it is a way of identifying things in our life

Q/ What is meant by linguistics ? And what is a linguist ?

Linguistics is the scientific study of language that is concerned with the

aspects of language such as syntax ,semantics, ……etc . On the other hand,
the term ‘Linguist’ is the person who works in the field of studying a
language .

2
-How does linguistics differ from traditional grammar .

1- Firstly , linguistics is descriptive , not perspective . it means that the

linguists here are interested of what is said not what to think ought to be
said . They describe language in all of its aspects , but they do not describe
the rules of “correctness”

2- Linguistics regards the priority of the spoken form of the language not
the written . While the traditional school give the priority of the written
form , they heavily depended on the literary works such the language of
Shakespeare .

3-Tradtional school is Latin-Based while linguistics does not force a

language into a Latin rules , linguists here think of each language has
special characteristics differ from the other language .

Scope of Linguistics
The scope of Linguistics is vast and huge. And its covers a wide range of
fields and topics. Thus, Phonetics is concerned with the sounds of
languages, phonology with the way sounds are used in individual
languages, morphology with the structure of words, syntax with the
structure of phrases and sentences, and semantics with the study of
meaning. A number of linguistic fields study the relations between
language and the subject matter of related academic disciplines, such as
sociolinguistics (sociology and language) and psycholinguistics (psychology
and language). In principle, applied linguistics is any application of linguistic
methods or results to solve problems related to language, but in practice it
tends to be restricted to second-language instruction. However, the scope
of Linguistics is given below:

3
Phonetics :is the subfield of linguistics that comprises the study of the
physical sounds of human speech. It is concerned with the physical
properties of speech sounds (phones), and the processes of their
physiological production, auditory reception, and neurophysiological
perception.

It is the scientific study of the production, transmission and reception of

speech sounds. It studies the medium of spoken language, touching upon
physiology and physici, phonetics is now a pure science that studies speech
processes including the anatomy, neurology and pathology of speech, as
well as the articulation, description, production and perception of speech
sounds. The study of phonetics can divides hoto three main branches -
Articulatory Phonetics studies the speech organs, which produce sounds of
language ; Acoustic phonetics studies the physical properties of speech
sounds such as frequency and amplitude in their transmission, and Auditory
Phonetics studies the way in which human beings perceive sounds through
the medium of the ear. Phonetics studies the defining characteristics of all
human vocal noise, and concentrates its attention on these sounds which
occur in the languages of the world. In other words, Phonetics try to study
how the various organs of speech the lungs, the larynx, the soft palate, the
tongue and the lip function in the production of speech.

Semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic signs— that is, words,
expressions, and sentences. Scholars of semantics try to answer such
questions as "What is the meaning of (the word) X?" They do this by
studying what signs are, as well as how signs possess significance—that is,
how they are intended by speakers, how they designate (make reference
to things and ideas), and how they are interpreted by hearers. The goal of
semantics is to match the meanings of signs—what they stand for—with
the process of assigning those meanings.

Semantics as "relating to signification or meaning". Broadly speaking,

semantics is the aspect of linguistics which deals with the relations
between referents (names) and referends (things) that is linguistic levels

4
(words, expressions, phrases) and the objects or concepts or ideas to
which they refer - and with the history and changes in the meaning of
words. A semanticist would like to find how a man is able to paraphrase,
transform, and detect ambiguities and why the surrounding words
sometimes force him to choose one interpretation rather than another. A
semantic analysis, for example, of English must also explain antonyms,
Synonyms, Hononyms and transformations of the language.

Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of

speech sounds in a language. It is, in effect, based on a theory of what
every speaker of a language unconsciously knows about the sound
patterns of that language. Because of this theoretical status, phonology is
concerned with the abstract or mental of the sounds in language rather
than with the actual physical articulation of speech sounds. Phonology is
about the underlying design, the blueprint of the sound type, which
serves as the constant basis of all the variations in different physical
articulations of that sound type in different contexts

Thus, when we think of the (t) sound in the words star, writer, and eighth
as being the same, we actually mean that in the Phonology of English,
they would be represented in the same way. In actual speech, these (t)
sounds are all very important.

Considered from this point of view, we can see that Phonology is

concerned with the abstract set of sounds in a language which allows us
to distinguish meaning in the actual physical sounds we say and hear

Grammar: , the term grammar goes back to a Greek word grammatika or

grammatika techne which may be translated as 'the art of writing'. But for
a long time this term has been used very loosely to incorporate the whole
study of language. The Greeks considered grammar to be a branch
philosophy concerned with the art of writing. By the Middle Ages
5
grammar had come to be regarded as a set of rules, usually in the form of
a text-book, dictating 'correct' usage. So in the widest and the traditional
sense, grammar came to mean a set of normative and prescriptive rules in
order to set us a standard of 'correct usage'. And grammar was both the
art and the science of language. The grammarian until the nineteenth
century was the law-give. Though it is still a valid interpretation for a law
man, no contemporary or modern linguist will accept this definition of
grammar in our age.

Around the central core of the Linguistics, are various branches of

linguistics: such as Psycholinguistics, Sociolinguistics, Neurolinguistics,
anthropological Linguistic, Cognitive linguistics, Generative linguistics.

Psycholinguistics: Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study

of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to
acquire, use, and understand language. Modern research makes use of
biology, neuroscience, cognitive science, and information theory to study
how the brain processes language. Psycholinguistics covers the cognitive
processes that make it possible to generate a grammatical and
meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structures, as
well as the processes that make it possible to understand utterances,
words, text, etc. Developmental psycholinguistics studies children's ability
to learn language.

Sociolinguistics: is the study of the effect of any and all aspects of society,
including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language
is used. Sociolinguistics overlaps to a considerable degree with
pragmatics.

6
Synchronic linguistics

The study of a language at a given point in time. The time studied may be
either the present or a particular point in the past; synchronic analyses can
also be made of dead languages, such as Latin. Synchronic is mainly
contrasted with diachronic linguistics .

diachronic linguistics (or historical linguistics),

the study of a language over a period of time. In the 20th century,

synchronic description has come to be regarded as prior to diachronic
description; the latter presupposes that synchronic descriptions at various
stages of the development of a language have already been carried out.
Previously, linguists had placed emphasis on diachronic linguistics. The
terminological distinction between synchronic and diachronic linguistics
was first made by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913).

7
-Chapter two: What is language :the use of signals

The properties of human language and animals communication :

1- Arbitrenness .

In animals :there is a link between the signal and the message ,an animal

EX. A cat arches it’s back in attacking attitude.

In human beings ;there is no link between the signal and the message . The
symbols are used ‘’ Arbitrary’’

EX. The word ‘’elephant’’ and the animals it symbolizes.

2- The need for learning.

In animals . communicate each other without learning .This system

genetically inbuilt.

EX. Chaffinch reared in a sound proof room away from other chaffinches ,it
will have an abnormal type of song.

In human beings; If someone brought up in isolation he will not aquire

language . So human needs expose to language . Which is culturally
transmitted.

3-Duality;

In animals. Can use each basic sound only once. So the number of sounds
used by animals is restricted to the number of basic sounds (animals use
syllable)

In human beings: use phonemes the average number is between thirty and
forty but each phoneme meaningless is isolated and it is meaningful if it
combined with another phonemes.

8
EX. Book , has two lexical features as a verb and as a noun .

4-Displacement:

In animals they can communicate about things which are in present time .
Animals can’t give information about past or future . They produce sounds
in a state of pain ,danger and shutting.

In human beings . They Can communicate about things that are absent as
easily as about things that are absent. This phenomenon known as
(displacement) this occasionally occurs in animals world.

EX. If a worker bee finds new nectar, it returns it does a complex dance in
order to tell the other bees of exact location. But ever bees are limited in
this ability

5-Creativity (productivity) :

In animals : Most animals have limited number of message which they can
send or receive.

EX.Bees can communicate about nectar .Dolphins in spite of intelligence

seem to be restricted to communicate about the some thing.

In human beings. Humans can produce new utterances whenever they

want to . A person can utter sentence which has never been said before

EX. S V

Ali sleeps

He sleeps

He is sleeping

The boy sleeps

9
6-Pattering.
In animals:

In human beings: Use the phonemes and the letters in specific structure but
according to rules. We are obliged to follow the rules in combining words
each other.

EX.In english the speaker is obliged to say the noun and then the adjective.

7-Structure dependence :
Human beings use the language according to the rules which are occurred
by (patterning). While in animals communication ,there is no organized
system that is to be used by animals .

10
Chapter three: The study of language.

-Nineteenth century: Historical linguistics .

.‫هذه الحقبه مهمه النها شهدت ظهور وليام جونس ولغويين اخريين‬
-1786 The year which many people regard as the birthdate of linguistic by
an Englishman (Sir William Jones)

-William Jones made comparison among Greek, Latin, Celtic and German.
That fired comparative grammars.

‫ ولٌام جونس اكد على ان اكثر اللغات هً مستخرجه من مصدر واحد وان كال من اللغات‬/‫م‬
. ‫الخ‬.... ‫هً تشترك فً صفات معٌنه مثال ان كل اللغات تحتوي على اسماء صفات ظروف‬

-Early to mid-twentieth century : Descriptive language

-In twentieth century the emphasis shifted from language change to
language description . A linguist began to describe single language at
particular point of time.

-De Saussure (The father of modern structural linguistics) he died without

writing any work on general linguistics . His students collected his lecture
notes after his death and published as the title (Course in general
linguistic).

-He said that all languages are interlink . This was an aspect of language
which had not been stressed before.

-Also, he said that language which has properties or characteristics it is

considered as language by itself differs from other language .

-Because of that he concluded that there is no need to return to Latin .

11
-He was a lecturer in QENEVA University . His early works were in
philosophy. In ninetieth century linguistics were interested in historical
studies (Diachronic)

-In twentieth century , the emphasis shifted into synchronic descriptive non
historical.

-De saussure’s central ideas concerning the study of language in the form of
pairs of concepts :

*Note. Language specific words to name the things .

A-Diachronic v.s sychronic

B-Language / language parole

C-Sytagmmatic / paradigmmatic.

Note: He found Two sides to the study of meaning :

Signifie—objective =sense

Significant —reference , it identifies the object.

De Saussure brought two sides of study the meaning :

A-Signfined—the thing

B-Significant—identifies the things (sound image)

BLOOMFIELD:

Leonard Bloomfield was an American linguist who led the development of

structural linguistics in the United States during the 1930s and the 1940s.
His influential textbook Language, published in 1933, presented a
comprehensive description of American structural linguistics. He made
significant contributions to Indo-European historical linguistics, the
description of Austronesian languages, and description of languages of the
Algonquian family.

12
-Bloomfield also
A-He concerned with all language not only the studying of Amer-India .

B-The studying of language in America can be achieved by

1-Data collecting from native speaker.

2-How to analysis the language

C-He proposes that the meaning as something is unchangable and the word
don’t carry rules and if it carries rules these rules are logically and
philosophy and need for mental processes .

D-He put the foundations of modern language in America . He tried to

make scientific studies , he said instead of saying water=H2O

But this process was not applicable because the people were not erudites
and they were not educated and people have tendency to vernacular .

E-He invented a kind of chats for the soldiers to encourage them in their
military life . He proposed to insert this oral activities in primary schools
and pupils can memorize by repeating.

F-In behaviorism : He gave the structural linguistics accurate explanation . If

a person does not work in linguistics field he can’t understand the
structural because he made his study scientific study and abstract . He
followed scientific steps and said the meanings have not any role and logic
or philosophical roles .He concluded that he analysis of meaning most
postpone .

13
Q/What is the meaning of (Explicit) when it is used in connection with
grammars?

-Well-formed sentences and there is no way for occurrence ill-formed

sentences as for as rules are applied correctly.

-MID – to – late 20th century : Generative linguistics and search

for universal.
1-Chomsky concerned with nature of the system which produces the
output.

2-According to Chomsky , Bloomfieldian was both:

A-Far too ambitious : It was unrealistic to expect to be able to laydown the

rules.

B-Far too limited: Because it concerned on data collecting from native

speaker.

3-Chomisky concentrated on the meaning and the role of the mind in

language acquisition from the environment . Chomsky got benefits from
Decart’s theories in dualities Chomsky could explain the matter about the
mind and the brain.

4-Chomisky was a student for Hariss who brought the movement of

vocabularies and that made Chomsky realizes that the movements must
have rules to show how the alterations happen within a sentence .

EX. I saw him two days ago.

Two days ago I saw him.

He found the roles and called them (T.G)= Transformation Grammar . He

emphasized on the role of the mind because of that he said the creativity
should play significant role.

14
TRANSFORMATIONSL GRAMMAR (T.G):

The changes in the form which happen by surface structure effecting on the
deep structure by using different means .

UNIERSAL GRAMMAR (U.G):

The study of the common grammatical rules and features that languages all
over world share.

Chapter four :Language as a game .

‫هذا الموضوع مهم جدا فً االمتحانات‬

On this conception of the philosophical enterprise, the vagueness of

ordinary usage is not a problem to be eliminated but rather the source of
linguistic riches. It is misleading even to attempt to fix the meaning of
particular expressions by linking them referentially to things in the world.
The meaning of a word or phrase or proposition is nothing other than the
set of (informal) rules governing the use of the expression in actual life.

Like the rules of a game, Wittgenstein argued, these rules for the use of
ordinary language are neither right nor wrong, neither true nor false: they
are merely useful for the particular applications in which we apply them.
The members of any community—cost accountants, college students, or
rap musicians, for example—develop ways of speaking that serve their
needs as a group, and these constitute the language-game (Moore's notes
refer to the "system" of language) they employ. Human beings at large
constitute a greater community within which similar, though more widely-
shared, language-games get played. Although there is little to be said in
general about language as a whole, therefore, it may often be fruitful to
consider in detail the ways in which particular portions of the language are
used.

15
Even the fundamental truths of arithmetic, Wittgenstein now supposed, are
nothing more than relatively stable ways of playing a particular language-
game. This account rejects both logicist and intuitionist views of
mathematics in favor of a normative conception of its use. 2 + 3 = 5 is
nothing other than a way we have collectively decided to speak and write, a
handy, shared language-game. The point once more is merely to clarify the
way we use ordinary language about numbers.

16
Chapter five: Sound Patterns .
1- Phonetics : it is the scientific study of human speech sounds
production. It is classified into
A- Articulatory phonetics B- Acoustic phonetics ً‫ادراك‬
C- Auditory Phonetics ً‫السمع‬
2- Phonology : it is the study of the sound system and function.

-Phonemes : It is the smallest meaningful segment or unit that changes the

meaning . ‫وهً اصغر وحده من وحدات الكالم‬

-Phone : is the realization of the phoneme , “uttering it”. ‫لفظ الفونٌم‬

-Complementary distribution and free variation

Complementary distribution, as distinct from contrastive distribution and
free variation, is the relationship between two different elements of the
same kind, where one element is found in one set of environments and the
other element is found in a non-intersecting (i.e. complementary) set of
environments. It often indicates that two superficially different elements
are the same linguistic unit at a deeper level. It is possible for more than
two elements to be in complementary distribution with one another.

Free variation in linguistics is the phenomenon of two (or more) sounds or

forms appearing in the same environment without a change in meaning
and without being considered incorrect by native speakers.

Ex / / ti:/ , / tu:/ ,

17
-Shared properties of phoneme .

It is not right to say that all the phonemes share the same
properties but in fact each one is different from the other .for
example / p , t , b, m , n/ .
Theses phonemes share the followings:

1- The all are Consonants .

2- B,d are voiced (with vibration).
3- P,b,m labials .

‫ اكثر االصوات اللغوٌه هً تتشابه فً ما بٌنها اما من خالل مكان نطق الصوت او طرٌقة نطق‬/‫م‬
‫الصوت لكن مع ذالك التشابه فان فً االصوات االنكلٌزٌه ال ٌوجد صوت ٌشبه االخر كال ٌختلف‬
‫عن االخر اما من خالل‬

-Place of Articulation

-Manner of Articulation

-Voicing

-Distinctive features
In linguistics, a distinctive feature is the most basic unit of phonological
structure that may be analyzed in phonological theory.

Distinctive features are grouped into categories according to the natural

classes of segments they describe: major class features, laryngeal features,
manner features, and place features. These feature categories in turn are
further specified on the basis of the phonetic properties of the segments in
question.

Since the inception of the phonological analysis of distinctive features in

the 1950s, features traditionally have been specified by binary values to
signify whether a segment is described by the feature; a positive value, [+],

18
denotes the presence of a feature, while a negative value, *−+, indicates its
absence. In addition, a phoneme may be unmarked with respect to a
feature. However, in recent developments to the theory of distinctive
features, phonologists have proposed the existence of single-valued
features. These features, called univalent or privative features, can only
describe the classes of segments that are said to possess those features,
and not the classes that are without them.

-Natural class :
This class is a group of sounds which share common features such as nasal
consonants .

-Non-Segmental Phonology .
Suprasegmental or non-segmental phonology analyses those features of
speech which extend over more than one segment, such as intonation or
(in some theories) vowel harmony.

In speech, a segment is any one of the discrete units that occur in a

sequence of sounds. Also known as the phonological segment or the
phonetic segment.

Linguist John Goldsmith has described segments as "vertical slices" of the

speech stream.

metrical Phonology .
English language does not have tones ,but it possess some non-segmental
features which exists alongside the phonemes ,each word and word group
of words has its own rhythm , an interplay of stressed and unstressed
syllables. This branch of phonology is known as “Material Phonology”.

19
Chapter six /Words and pieces of words
-Defining Words .

‫(بلوم فٌلد ٌقول ال ٌوجد تعرٌف دقٌق لكلمة (الكلمه‬-

Bloomflied defines the word(word) as a minimum free form .

- ‫لكن هذا التعرٌف اٌضا غٌر دقٌق الن هناك بعض من الكلمات ال تبٌن الوظٌفه اللغوٌه لكلمة‬
‫(الكلمه) وان الكلمات اال تعطً معناها كما هً فً اللغه المكتوبه ا و المقروءه‬

Ex/ Seaside (Compound) ‘it has a special meaning but in the dictionaries
each one ‘sea’ and ‘side’ has its own isolated meaning .

The same case can be seen in the word (fly) as carries two different classes
as verb and noun .

Identifying words .
There are two stages in the analysis of any language

First : Finding Chunks , such as fly – flow

In finding chunks ’self-contained unit’ . We look to the sequences which

are not interpreted and non-mobile.

Ex/ Chickens (it is a word that cannot be divided into parts . It occurs in
different parts in the sentence.

Note / the above example comes vice-versa to the word (greenhouse) .

Second : Deciding how many items are covered by each chunks (as with fly
which covers two lexical items).
20
-Morphemes
Morphemes that can stand alone to function as words are called free
morphemes. They comprise simple words (i.e. words made up of one free
morpheme) and compound words (i.e. words made up of two free
morphemes).

Examples:

Simple words: the, run, on, well

Compound words: keyboard, greenhouse, bloodshed, smartphone

Morphemes that can only be attached to another part of a word (cannot

stand alone) are called bound morphemes.

Examples:

pre-, dis-, in-, un-, -ful, -able, -ment, -ly, -ise

pretest, discontent, intolerable, receive

Complex words are words that are made up of both free morpheme(s) and
bound morpheme(s), or two or more bound morphemes.

21
-Recognitions of morphemes
We can know the morphemes through the inflections at the end of the
word

Sniffed writing windows

Helped speaking cars

Played walking students

The words above are different words but they carry the same endings .

Types of Morpheme :
1- Free morphemes: are minimum free forms with meaning that can
stand alone with other helper elements

Free morphemes are divided into:

A-Lexical (open class) includes nouns ,verbs ,adverbs ,..etc .

B-Functional (closed class) includes conjunctions ,prepositions ,…etc.

2-Bound Morphemes : are the affixes that are attached to the end of the
words ,these cannot stand alone .Bound morphemes are two types :

1- Inflectional morphemes include ( -s , -ing , -ed, -er…..).

2- Derivational morphemes include affixes like (ence ,ment, …).

22
Phonological Conditioning .
Some words function in the same way but they are different in
pronunciation .

The regularity of phonological conditioning is restricted. There are several

irregular forms that donut show the predictable direction of
morphophonemic changes. We can always explain reasonably why such
variant forms as the /t/~/d/~/id/ occur for past tense and /s/~/z/~/iz/ for
plural morpheme.

But such explanation is not possible in the case of the plural form of child –
children, and sheep – sheep. These forms are not phonologically
conditioned, i.e. the proximity of a sound does not affect these forms. en is
peculiar to children, oxen and brethren. Such changes are said to be due to
morphological conditioning.

Ex/Book ----- / -s / , cars /-z/ , bushes /-iz/ .

Lexical Conditioning.
The situation where a phonetic or phonological feature is present in only
some items and not in others which appear to be similar in structure.

Here , there is difference in the form then it leads to a difference in the

pronunciation :

Ex/ goose - geese ( here we have vowel change)

23
 lexical conditioning is when an irregular morph is used with a specific
lexical item or a small group of lexical items:

i. e.g. the noun plural “-en”; it is determined by child, ox, brother (in the
religious sense) (these are lexical items).

There is so little differentiation between grammatical and lexical

conditioning that I won’t hold the class responsible for this. However, I will
hold the class responsible for phonological containing and lexical condition
redefined.

Lexical conditioning: if the form of a grammatical affix is determined by a

special property of a lexical item (irregular form), then the conditioning is
called lexical conditioning

Word Class
Words are classified into word classes partly on their syntactic behavior and
partly on the basis of their morphological form .

The word from the same word class are put in the place within the
sentence

Ex/ He detested snail .

Ex/ He smiled .

‫ مالحظه هناك بعض الكلمات توضع بنفس الموقع من الجمله النها من نفس الصنف "كالهما فعل‬/‫م‬

24
But we also have words that are from different word class for example :

Ex/ He ate sandwich .

Ex/ He ate well .

‫ ٌجب ان نعلم ان الكلمات التً تظهر فً نهاٌة الجمله وفً نفس المكان لٌست بالضروره ان‬/‫م‬
‫ولكً نعرف هل هذه الكلمات تعود الى نفس الصنف او نفس‬. ‫ تكون فً نفس الصنف‬word class

‫فٌجب تحولٌها الى تراكٌب مختلفه من خالل المبنً للمجهول اذا تم بالشكل الصحٌح فانها من نفس‬
‫>صنف الكلمه‬

-Major Word Class

The major word class in English are the followings :

1- Nouns (N). 2- Verbs (V.) 3- Adjectives (Adj).

4-Prepossitions .

Ex/Big frogs swim under water .

The word classes above in the sentences behave differently in the

sentence but sometimes some word classes can function in a strange
way , means nouns would seem like adjectives , for example
Ex/Mavis is asleep . “asleep here looks like verb but it is an
adjective”.
This property can make us describe theses different word classes in
the same way of describing the distinctive features of the sounds .

25
-Note /Here we must know

-configurational languages

Languages with fairly fixed word-order and hierarchical constituent

structure, e.g. English and Hebrew. Such languages are contrasted with
non-configurational languages. Both types have received a great deal of
attention in government-binding theory as subject to parametric variation.
However, the typology is not unequivocally accepted.

Chapter 7 / Word Order .

The common and most favorite devices which show the relationship of one
word to another .We usually order the elements of the sentences through
the following devices :

1- Word order
2- 2 –Inflections

26
 3- 3- function words

4-Consituent analysis

5- Tree diagram 6-Re-write rules

1-Word Order

It depends on the sentence structure according to the rules to arrange

words in the sentence
( S V O)

Ex/ The large spider frightened Aunt Matilda .

Any change in this word order will affect meaning .

4- Inflections :These are the devices that are attached to the words

In specific languages like Latin ,word endings or the inflection indicate the
relationship between words in the sentence:

Ex/Magna aranea perterruti matlidam amitam

-Large spider frightened Matilda aunt.

This can show us that the order still gives us the same meaning if we say :
Ex/Large Matilda frightened anut spider .

In the linguistic terminology ,Latin is called as “Non-configurational

language “ means that word order is not critical

3-constituent analysis. ‫تحليل الجمله الى عناصرها االساسيه‬

27
In linguistics, immediate constituent analysis or IC analysis is a method of
sentence analysis that was first mentioned by Leonard Bloomfieldand
developed further by Rulon Wells. The process reached a full-blown
strategy for analyzing sentence structure in the early works of Noam
Chomsky. The practice is now widespread. Most tree structures employed
to represent the syntactic structure of sentences are products of some
form of IC-analysis. The process and result of IC-analysis can, however, vary
greatly based upon whether one chooses the constituency relation of
phrase structure grammars (= constituency grammars) or the dependency
relation of dependency grammars as the underlying principle that organizes
constituents into hierarchical structures.

Ex/ The duck bit the burglar .

This sentence can be divided into its main components as (SVO).

Note/ the other possibility of analyzing the sentence as in :

Ex/ The duck slept . (SV).

3-Tree diagram (phrase marker).

Complex sentences can be represented very clearly by tree-diagrams ,so

it is called tress because it has branches resemble the branches of the
tree. It is also called ‘Phrase marker’ .

NP VP

28
 D N

The duck bit the burglar

.‫ من الجمله االساسيه نتحول الى الكلمات ومن ثم الى العناصر االساسيه المستخدمه في الجمله‬/‫م‬

5- Re-write rules (phrase structure rules).

These rules are alternative ways of expressing the information found
on a tree-diagram is by means of ‘re-write rules’ .Re-write rule is a
replaced rule in which the symbol to the left of an arrow is replaced
by an expanded form written to the right of the arrow .
Ex/ S NP+VP

5-Identifying Constituents .
I ‫هً عملٌة تقسٌم الجمله الى اجزائها االساسٌه وفصل بعضها عن االخر وهذا الٌنطبق‬
‫على كل انواع الجمل‬
EX/The mouse ran up the clock

How can we analyze this sentence above ?can we consider (ran up)
as a part isolated ,or it can be replaced by another particle .
The only way for solving this trouble is that to replace the place of
the phrase (ran up) in order to know is the preposition regarded as a
part of the verb or not .
*Up the clock ran the mouse .
*The mouse ran the clock .

29
 Both of these sentences are correct because of the phrasal verb .

-Layers of branches
-Adjective phrase : a phrase whose head is an adjective .

Ex/ very big. ( ‘big’ is the head of the phrase).

-X Bar theory :

This theory is suggested by Noam Chomsky .It means that a system of

syntactic description based on the notion that every constituents has a
head element .

The symbol (X) stands for any lexical head like nouns ,verbs …etc. while
the word “Bar” refers to the national symbol place over the X element .

The term X-bar is derived from the notation representing this structure.
Certain structures are represented by X (an X with a bar over it). Because
this may be difficult to typeset, this is often written as X′, using the prime
symbol or with superscript numerals as exponents, e.g., X1. In English,
however, this is still read as "X bar". The notation XP stands for X Phrase,
and is at the equivalent level of X-bar-bar (X with a double over bar),
written X″ or X2, usually read aloud as X double bar.

X-bar theory was first proposed by Noam Chomsky (1970),[1] building on

Zellig Harris's 1951 approach to categories, and further developed by Ray
Jackendoff (1977).[3] X-bar theory was incorporated into both
transformational and non-transformational theories of syntax, including
GB, GPSG, LFG, and HPSG. Recent work in the Minimalist Program has
largely abandoned X-bar schemata in favor of Bare Phrase Structure
approaches.

30
-Complex Sentences .
The complex sentence has sub-ordinates like since ,although , after , when
,because it consists of independent clause joined by one or more
dependent clause .

-Conjoining : extending sentences by joining complete structures or

complete and incomplete structures .

Ex/ The boy with red shorts kicked the ball and scored a goal .

Note/ we can add more ideas to the sentence by “and” .

The other way of inserting sentences to the basic structure is “Embedding”

Embedding is the constructing sentences by embedding more phrases

within the basic structure .

- Ex/ The boy kicked the ball .(super-ordinate).

- Ex/The boy with red shorts kicked the ball.(Sub-ordinate).

Both embedding and conjoining illustrate an important property of

language which is called “Recursion” .Recursion is the possibility of one
rule to get more than one sentence

31
- Verbs the syntax-meaning overlap “Thematic Relations “
‫هي العالقه بين االفعال واالسماء في الجمله وهذه العالقه لها قوانيين دالليه مختلفه‬

1- Theme : the main idea in the sentence

Ex / The snowball (theme) rolled down the hill .
2- Agent (doer of the action) ex/ Tom kicked the door .
3- Patient (receives the action ).ex/ I gave Ahmed a pen .
4- Recipient (receives something) refers to changes in possession .
Ex/ Paul sent a letter to peter .
5-Direction or goal .
Ex/ The caravan continued on toward the distant oasis .

In brief ,thematic relations are used to express the role of the noun
phrase that works with respect to the action or state described by
sentence’s verb .

32
Chapter seven : Meaning .
The study of meaning is known as “semantics” .it is concerned how the
words are arranged in the sentence .

In linguistics, meaning is what the source or sender expresses,

communicates, or conveys in their message to the observer or receiver, and
what the receiver infers from the current context.

-Coping with overlaps .

The linguists try to divide the lexical words into their minor branches such
as phonemes :

Ex/ the phoneme (-s) can be ( -s , -z, -iz ) .

Such processes are achieved through “componential analysis” which means

the attempts to divide lexical items into their component parts

Example:

Bull cow calf

Male female bovine

Bovine bovine non-adult

Lexical relations
The branch of semantics that deals with the word meaning is called
lexical semantics. It is the study of systematic , meaning related, structures
of words. Lexical field or semantic field is the organization of related words

33
and expressions in to a system, which shows their relationship with one
another

There are different types of lexical relations :

1. Synonymy

It is used to mean the sameness of meaning . It is obvious that for the

dictionary maker many sets of words have the same meaning ; they are
synonymous , or are synonyms of one another. e.g. almost/nearly,
big/large, broad/wide, freedom/liberty, etc.

2. Antonymy

The term antonymy is used for ‘ oppositeness of meaning’; words that are
opposite are ANTONYMS.

Antonymy or oppositeness of meaning has been recognized as one of the

most important semantic relations .e.g. quick-slow, big-small, long-short,
rich-poor, etc.

Antonyms are divided into several types:-

a. Gradable antonyms/pairs:-

They can be used in comparative constructions like bigger than or smaller

than, etc. Also the negative of one member of the gradable pair does not
necessarily imply the opposite. e.g. not hot does not mean cold.

b. Non-gradable antonyms/complementaries:-

The relation of oppositeness is that which holds between the pairs as

single: married, man: woman, etc.

34
The denial of one implies the assertion of the other and the assertion of
one implies the denial of the other. It is the characteristic of
complimentaries.

c. Reversives:-

It is important to avoid most antonym pairs as one word meaning the

negative of another. e.g. undress can be treated as the opposite of dress, it
doesn't mean not dress. It actually means do the reverse of dress .Other
common examples are enter/exit, lengthen/shorten, tie/unit.

d. Converse pairs:-

Another kind of antonymy is forming converse pairs. e.g. Conversives is

used to refer to the relationship between buy and sell.

Classification (inclusion).
A further way of examining the lexical structures is to note the ways in a
language classifies items .in English for example “claret” band “hock” are
classified as “wines” related to each other is

It is the process of classifying the lexical words into their origins or root in
order to arrange the words semantically .

Ex / Wine ---------- claret , hock

Ex/ beverage ------------ tea , water , coffee .

This indicates that the vocabulary of English is partially and hierarchically

structured .

35
The advantage of looking at these relations that to enable us to understand
the multiple links between different words and secondly they can be
expressed in logical notation , so allowing us to explicit our description .

-Sentence Meaning .
One of the most important things to know the meaning of the sentence is
to look at the content of the sentence whether it contains :

1- Function words 2- Content words .

some linguists say that three is a need for knowing the logical shapes
in understanding the sentence , it is not enough to know the meaning
of the sentence only but we should also know anything comes with
something else in the sentence
Ex/ My brother is a spinster .

- Fuzziness and Family resemblances .

After this , linguists started thinking about (prototype) , linguists say that
they should choose one good example to classify thing into their semantic
features:

EX. When we say (Bird) the first thing which we image is the pigeon and this
good example (typical one) is named prototype. We use prototype to
represent things into their semantic features.

Fuzziness refers to specific words that cant be clearly interpreted to have

definite edges for example the word “Mug”

-Mental Model.
Make use understand the world. Either the language makes us understand
the external world or the external world makes us understand the
language and the world .
36
EX. The week is seven days , whereas in other cultures it is nine days
according to their understanding to the world . Mental modals represent
our understanding of life.

Chapter nine : Pragmatics

Pragmatics is mainly defined as the study of the speaker’s intended
meaning it is also known as “Using language” . It is concerned with how the
language used in context . It deals with how the listeners arrive the
attended meaning of the speaker .

-The cooperative principles (CP). ‫مهمه جدا‬

These maxims are proposed By H.Grice .

1-Maxims of quantity : give the right amount of information when you talk
if someone at the party asks “who is that person with Bob?”

A cooperative answer would be “that is his new girlfriend, Alison” and

uncooperative answer would be “A girl” .

2- Maxims of quality : be truthful , do not say any thing without

evidence or something with lack information .
Ex/ If someone asks you about unfamiliar animals such as platypus
answer it truthfully .
3- Maxim of relevance : be relevant stick to the topic
Ex/ if someone asks what do we have for supper ?
Say” fish and chips “ not saying “ chairs and tables”

4- Maxim of manner :You are required to be clear and provide clear

information .

37
-Speech acts . (Proposed by Searle).
A speech act in linguistics and the philosophy of language is an utterance
that has performative function in language and communication. According
to Kent Bach, "almost any speech act is really the performance of several
acts at once, distinguished by different aspects of the speaker's intention:
there is the act of saying something, what one does in saying it, such as
requesting or promising, and how one is trying to affect one's audience."
The contemporary use of the term goes back to J. L. Austin's development
of performative utterances and his theory of locutionary, illocutionary, and
per-locutionary acts. Speech acts are commonly taken to include such acts
as promising, ordering, greeting, warning, inviting and congratulating.

1- Direct speech act : It is a direct quotation of something said .

Ex/ Go to the bed .

In a judge’s statement “ I sentence you five years in the jail” this sentences
behaves like action here we notice that as if the judge took the person to
the imprisonment .

2- Indirect speech act : the speech whose force differs from what is to
be the literal meaning of the sentence uttered .
Ex/ The weather is hot .
The explanation of this indirect speech means “open the window”

Remembered framework

38
It similar the mental model but in the mental model ,it deals with words
whereas frames “frameworks” deal with the things .

Frames are the things which occur in human’s mind as symbols .

Ex/ when we say “tree” everyone can picture it in his mind .

Discourse analysis
It is the study of analyzing units larger than sentences , phrases and words .
It is basically developed by Zilling Harris . It overlaps with stylistic studies .

The objects of discourse analysis (discourse, writing, conversation,

communicative event) are variously defined in terms of coherent
sequences of sentences, propositions, speech, or turns-at-talk. Contrary to
much of traditional linguistics, discourse analysts not only study language
use 'beyond the sentence boundary' but also prefer to analyze 'naturally
occurring' language use, not invented examples.[1] Text linguistics is a
closely related field. The essential difference between discourse analysis
and text linguistics is that discourse analysis aims at revealing socio-
psychological characteristics of a person/persons rather than text structure.

-Taking it in turns.
Turn-taking is a type of organization in conversation where participants
speak one at a time in alternating turns. In practice, it involves processes
for constructing contributions, responding to previous comments, and
transitioning to a different speaker, using a variety of linguistic and non-
linguistic cues.

One man and three women in military fatigues converse while standing

Individuals involved in a conversation take turns speaking.

While the structure is generally universal, turn-taking conventions vary by

culture and community. Conventions vary in many ways, such as how turns
39
are distributed, how transitions are signaled, or how much overlapping is
acceptable.

In many contexts, conversation turns are a valuable means to participate in

social life and have been subject to competition. It is often thought that
turn-taking strategies differ by gender; consequently, turn-taking has been
a topic of intense examination in gender studies. While early studies
supported gendered stereotypes, such as men interrupting more than
women and women talking more than men, recent research has found
mixed evidence of gender-specific conversational strategies, and few
overarching patterns have emerge.

-Repairs
It is the means of correcting other people mistakes . If a person you are
talking to make a mistake ,this mistake must be repaired .

Types of repairs
1-Self-repair : when the person corrects his mistakes by himself .

Ex/ Could you hand me a spoon ?

A teaspoon that is .

2-Other repair : when the preson corrects the mistakes .

Ex/ I assume you mean a teaspoon .

40
Chapter 16/ Seeking a suitable framework .

-Generative linguistics (Generative grammar).

Generative grammar is a linguistic theory that considers grammar to be a

system of rules that is intended to generate exactly those combinations of
words which form grammatical sentences in a given language. The term
was originally used in relation to the theories of grammar developed by
Noam Chomsky, beginning in the late 1950s. Linguists who follow the
generative approach, originated by Chomsky, have been called
generativists. The generative school has focused on the study of syntax, but
has also addressed other aspects of a language's structure, including
morphology and phonology.

Early versions of Chomsky's theory were called transformational grammar,

and this is still used as a general term that includes his subsequent theories.
The most recent is the Minimalist Program, from which Chomsky and other
generativists have argued that many of the properties of a generative
grammar arise from a universal grammar which is innate to the human
brain, rather than being learned from the environment .

41
-Linguistic universal (Language universals).
A linguistic universal is a pattern that occurs systematically across natural
languages, potentially true for all of them. For example, All languages have
nouns and verbs, or If a language is spoken, it has consonants and vowels.
Research in this area of linguistics is closely tied to the study of linguistic
typology, and intends to reveal generalizations across languages, likely tied
to cognition, perception, or other abilities of the mind. The field was largely
pioneered by the linguist Joseph Greenberg, who derived a set of forty-five
basic universals, mostly dealing with syntax, from a study of some thirty
languages.

-Transformational grammar
In linguistics, a transformational grammar or transformational-generative
grammar (TG, TGG) is a generative grammar, especially of a natural
language, that involves the use of defined operations called
transformations to produce new sentences from existing ones. The concept
was originated by Noam Chomsky, and much current research in
transformational grammar is inspired by Chomsky's Minimalist Program.

Deep and Surface structure .

In 1957, Noam Chomsky published Syntactic Structures, in which he
developed the idea that each sentence in a language has two levels of
representation — a deep structure and a surface structure. The deep
structure represented the core semantic relations of a sentence, and was
mapped on to the surface structure (which followed the phonological form

42
of the sentence very closely) via transformations. Chomsky believed there
are considerable similarities between languages' deep structures, and that
these structures reveal properties, common to all languages that surface
structures conceal. However, this may not have been the central
motivation for introducing deep structure. Transformations had been
proposed prior to the development of deep structure as a means of
increasing the mathematical and descriptive power of context-free
grammars. Similarly, deep structure was devised largely for technical
reasons relating to early semantic theory. Chomsky emphasizes the
importance of modern formal mathematical devices in the development of
grammatical theory:

But the fundamental reason for [the] inadequacy of traditional grammars is

a more technical one. Although it was well understood that linguistic
processes are in some sense "creative," the technical devices for expressing
a system of recursive processes were simply not available until much more
recently. In fact, a real understanding of how a language can (in Humboldt's
words) "make infinite use of finite means" has developed only within the
last thirty years, in the course of studies in the foundations of mathematics.

43
 ‫هذه الملزمه هً ملخص للفصول االكادٌمٌه التً درسها الطالب خالل مرحلة‬
‫البكلورٌوس وتمت االستعانه ببعض المصادر الخارجٌه للشرح لتوضٌح بعض‬
‫المواضٌع المعقد نوعا ما فً الكتاب لذالك قد ترى بعض االمثله والتوضٌحات غٌر‬
‫موجوده فً الكتاب المقرر ‪.‬‬

‫تمت بعون هللا‬

‫‪Good Luck‬‬

‫‪44‬‬