CHAPTER-2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURECHAPTER-2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Reviews of the related studies are foundation for research. The review of the results of previous researches brings out areas of agreement from and disagreement and shows how the present study across contradictions or inadeque 's of earlier investigations. A careful review of the research journals, books, dissertations, theses and other sources of information on the problem to be investigated is one of the important steps in the planning of any research study The present chapter deals with the review of related literature, which is divided into two parts as below- (i) Studies conducted Abroad (ii) Studies conducted in India 2.1 STUDIES CONDUCTED ABROAD Reynolds, G. Phil ps.and Suh, Suhyun. (2005). explored the relationships between self-concept and life difficulty among international college students. The study identified that there was no significant difference on the other two dimensions: Identification vs. Alienation and Anxiety. Only one self-concept scale was correlated to the difficulty variables. The Leadership and Initiative self-concept scale appeared to be negatively related to Academic Hardship and Relationship Difficulty. Hardin, Erin, E., and Leong, F..L.(2005). analysed the optimism and pessimism as mediators of the relations between self- discrepancies and distress among Asian and European Americans. Results show that for both Asian Americans and European Americans, greater similarity to the undesired self is equally predictive of symptoms of depression, whereas distance from the undesired self is more predictive ofsocial anxiety for Asian Americans than for European Americans. Wehr-Flowers, Erin. (2006). studied the differences between male and female students’ confidence, anxiety, and attitude toward learning jazz improvisation. The study reported that a main effect was found for gender, and a sub analysis revealed significant differences between men and women on all three dependent variables confidence, anxiety, and attitude at the level of p less than 0.05. Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficients were 0.93 for confidence, 0.93 for anxiety, and 0.88 for attitude. Results suggest that social-psychological issues are influencing female participation in jazz improvisation. Thomas, Cathy R., and Gadbois, Shannon. A. (2007). analysed the academic self-handicapping: the role of self-concept clarity and students' learning strategies. This study showed that students’ self-concept clarity and learning strategies are related to their tendencies to self- handicap and their exam performance. The role of students’ ways of learning and their self-concept clarity in self-handicapping and academic performance was explored. Thompson, Ted., and Dinnel, Dale. L. (2007). studied is self-worth protection best regarded as intentional self-handicapping behaviour or an outcome of choking under pressure? They also reported greater anxiety across experimental conditions and claimed greater anxiety impairment than students low in self-worth protection. These outcomes provide little support for an interpretation of self-worth protection as If-handicapping behaviour, instead supporting an interpretation of self-worth protection as an outcome of choking under pressure, fuelled by evaluative threat Afolabi, E. R. I. (2007). explored the effects of test format, self concept and anxiety on item response changing behaviour. Results indicated that more changes were made in true-false than in multiple- choice test items, and students having moderate trait anxiety made ~25~significantly more changes than those having low or high trait anxiety. Academic and general self concept was not found to have significant influence on response changing behaviour. Ho, Esther., and Sui-Chu. (2007). revealed the association between self-related cognition and mathematics performance: the case in hong kong. The study found that self-efficacy and self-concept were significantly associated with mathematics performance even after controlling background factors of both students and schools. High level of mathematics anxiety might not have direct effect on mathematics achievement; however, it might reduce the self-concept and self-efficacy of girls, which in turn, might affect their mathematics performance. Hardin, Erin, E., et.al. (2007). analysed the self-discrepancy and distress: the role of personal growth initiative. The results suggest that those higher in PGI(personal growth initiative )experience less social anxiety in part by maintaining lower self-discrepancies Mills, Nicole, Pajares, Frank.,and Herron, Carol. (2007). revealed the self-efficacy of college intermediate french students: relation to achievement and motivation. The study indicated that female students reported greater self-efficacy for self-regulation, interest, value, and enjoyment in learning about both the French language and culture than did male students, despite the fact that men and women had similar achievement. Findings are interpreted from the perspective of Bandura's (1986) social cognitive theory as it related to foreign language motivation and learning. Kaloyirou, Chrystalla., and Lindsay, Geoff. (2008). explored the self-perceptions of bullies in cyprus primary schools. The results reveal that the bullies who participated in this study understood that their behaviour was usually inappropriate. Their self-perceptions varied across a number of dimensions, indicating the need to examine the complexity of ~26~their view of themselves as part of any attempt to seek to implement behavioural change Hong, Li. (2008). studied the college stress and psychological well- being: self-transcendence meaning of life as a moderator. Findings of the study partially confirm the moderating effects of self-transcendence meaning on the psychological well-being under college stress. Implications ed of the findings for future study are discu Chu, H 4J.(2008). had given comments on social physique anxiety, obligation to i-Wen., Bushman, Barbara. A., and Woodard, Rebecca. ise, and exercise choices among college students. The study presented that women, however, appear to have higher levels of anxiety regarding how others evaluate their physique than do men. The combination of level of activity and sex do not appear to be associated with social physique anxiety or obligation to exercise. Ybrandt, H. (2008). analysed the Relation between Self-Concept and Social Functioning in Adolescence . The study showed that adolescents of 15, 16 years of age had a stronger relationship between a negative self-concept and externalizing problem behavior than younger and older adolescents. Internalizing problem behaviors such as anxiety and depression predicated aggressive and delinquent behavior. These findings highlight the importance of promoting of a positive self-concept in every adolescent in various psychosocial contexts. Gamble, Wendy. C., and Yu, Jeong, Jin. (2008). studied adolescent Sibling’ Looking Glass Self-Orientations: Patterns of Liabilities and Associations with Parenting. The results of SEM analy: 's implicate parenting characterized as coercive. rejecting and chaotic in association with the tendency to rely on others for approval. A mediating role for looking glass self-orientations in associations between parenting and depressive symptoms, anxiety or academic performance was also found. a2Giani . Loren. M., and Smith, Jane. Ellen, (2008), analysed the body dissatisfaction me diates the relationship between self-esteem and restrained eating in female undergraduates, Results indicated that self esteem was not predictive of eating behavior during the taste test, but was predictive of a chronic pattern of restricted eating and diet-breaking behavior (p less than 0.01). if Usher, Ellen. L., and Pajares, Frank. (2008). explored the s efficacy for self-regulated learning: a validation study. Results reveal a unidimensional construct with equivalent factor pattern coefficients for boys and girls and for students in elementary, middle, and high school. Elementary school students report higher self-efficacy for self-regulated learning than do students in middle and high school. The latent factor is related to self-efficacy, self-concept, task goal orientation, apprehension, and achievement. Raju, P. Mohan., and Asfaw, Abebech. (2009). had given comments on recalled test anxiety in relation to achievement, in the context of general academic self-concept, study habits, parental involvement and socio-economic status among grade 6 ethiopian students. The study found that stepwise multiple regression on achievement resulted in the selection of general academic self-concept, study habits and parental involvement as significant contributors to achievement in that order. Test anxiety was found to be a non-predictor of achievement in the presence of other variables. Seli, Helena., Dembo, Myron. H., Crocker, Stephen. (2009). studied the self in self-worth protection: the relationship of possible selves and self-protective strategies. The study reported that partial support for the notion that possible selves serve as a cognitive link between motivation and behavior and could serve as a foundation for interventions. Shepherd, Robin-Marie., and Edelman, Robert. J.(2009). studied ~28~the interrelationship of social anxiety with anxiety, depression, locus of control, ways of coping and ego strength amongst university students. The study reported that while the results are relational rather than being predictive of causality they raise a number of issues with regard to theory prevention, intervention and promoting mental health within a university setting. Putwain, David. William. (2009). analyzed situated and contextual features of test anxiety in uk adolescent students. The study identified that the experiences of the final two years of compulsory schooling were conceptualized as a significant developmental antecedent of test anxiety. ‘The perception of low ability increased the perceived likelihood of failure in a particular examination, suggesting that academic self-concept and test anxiety are also closely related constructs. Assessment performance may only be detrimentally affected when a catastrophic response follows anxiety. Bonaccio, Silvia., and Reeve, Char! L, (2010). investigated the nature and relative importance of students’ perceptions of the sources of test anxiety. The study analysed that whereas students perceive test-related properties as most anxiety-inducing, self-perceptions appear to be more strongly empirically related to the level of test anxiety they experience. Stankov, Lazar.(2010). studied the unforgiving confucian culture: a breeding ground for high academic achievement, test anxiety and self doubt? The study presented that this relatively unforgiving attitude, coupled with the belief that effort rather than ability is the primary source of success, may be able to explain both high achievement and high anxiety and self-doubt among Confucian Asian students. Putwaii, David. W., Woods, Kevin. A., and Symes, Wendy. (2010). explored the personal and situational predictors of test anxiety of ~20~students in post-compulsory education. The findings provide partial support for the self-regulatory model of test anxiety suggesting that additional routes are required to account for the role of parental pressure and teachers’ performance-avoidance goals and a re-examination of the relationship between test anxiety and achievement goals Putwain, David. William., and Daniels, Rachel. Anne. (2010). revealed the relationship between competence beliefs and test anxiety influenced by goal orientation? These findings may reflect how Mathematics may be uniquely related to a fear of failure among school subjects and how the gendered nature of verbal self-concept becomes important when peer comparison is a salient goal for pupils. Goetz, Thomas., et.al . (2010). explored the academic self-concept and emotion relations: domain specificity and age effects. The study reported that self-concept and emotion relations further differed as a function of the specific emotion assessed, with pride showing the strongest and boredom the weakest relations with academic self-concepts in the four domains assessed. AL, Zyoudi, Mohammed. (2010). studied the differences in self- concept among student with and without learning disabilities in al karak district in jordan .The study indicated that differences were found between the groups on the intellectual and school status and behavior subscales, students without learning disability scoring higher on both scales. There was also a significant difference between boys and girls Legerstee,J.S., etal. (2011). studied the Cognitive Coping in Anxiety-Disordered Adolescents. Results showed that anxiety-disordered adolescents had significantly higher scores on most of the cognitive coping strategies than non-anxious adolescents. The cognitive coping strategies rumination, self-blame and catastrophizing accounted for most of the variance. Gender did not modify the results. Further analyses within the ~30~anxiety-disordered sample indicated that adolescents with a generalized anxiety disorder scored significantly higher or rumination, but not on other cognitive coping strategies, than social phobic adolescents. The results suggest that cognitive coping is a valuable target for psychological assessment and treatment in adolescents. Pace,Ugo., and Zappulla, Carla.(22011). studied the Problem Behaviors in Adolescence: The Opposite Role Played by Insecure Attachment and Commitment Strength. Results supported a unique contribution of both insecure styles to the prediction of internalizing and externalizing problems, whereas commitment negatively predicated only internalizing behaviors. The data supported a joint effect of avoidant attachment and commitment such that commitment contributed to moderate the display of internalizing and externalizing problems among avoidant adolescents. Ahmed, Wondimu., Minnaert, Alexander., Kuyper, Hans., van, der. Werf. Greetje. (2012). studied the reciprocal relationships between math self-concept and math anxiety. The analysis showed a reciprocal relationship between self-concept and anxiety in math (ic., higher self concept leads to lower anxiety, which in turn, leads to higher self- concept). Rubie-Davies, C. M.; Lee, K.(2013). studied the self-concept of students in higher education: are there differences by faculty and gender. The results showed some differences in verbal and maths self-concept by faculty. Generally, students in faculties teaching subjects more reliant on maths skills had higher maths self-concept than those in faculties where facility in verbal skills was important. The opposite results were found for verbal self-concept. No overall gender differences were found for general, academic, verbal and maths self-concept although a statistically significant difference was found for problem-solving self 3k2.2. STUDIES Mathur, D. (1982). studied the Rorschach Diagnostic indicators of CONDUC DIN INDIA intelligence, anxiety, self-image and level of aspiration, The results indicated that the mean score analysis of both frequency scores and proportion scores (controlling number of responses) indicated a generally This normal pattern of distribution for the Rorschach indicators use suggested overall validity for discrete indicators in terms of usage in the data sample selected. Prasad, S. (J982). investigated the factors that influence stability of the self-concept. He concluded that anxiety, insecurity, self-role incongruence and self-satisfaction were the factors which influenced stability of the self-concept. Sarswat, R. (1982). studied the self-concept in relation to adjustment, values, academic achievement, socio-economic status and sex of high school students of Delhi. The result shows that the boys’ self- concept was positively and significantly related to social adjustment, while the girls' self concept was positively and significantly related to home, health, social, emotional, school, as well as total adjustment. Bhagyavathy, N.E. (1983). studied the 'Self-Actualization' and she found that persons who perceived themselves as belonging to a high level of self-actualization were directed more by internal than by external reinforcements in comparison with those who perceived themselves as belonging to a low level of self-actualization Kulshreshtha, R. (1983). studied value orientations, interests and attitudes as correlates of self-concept among male & female adolescents. He found that value orientations affected the concept of self in adolescents and value orientation had a positive affinity with self-concept among male as well as female adolescents under different level of interest. Rai, G. (1983). studied the self-concept of the prospective teachers. ~32~He found that the self-concept of prospective teachers was positive and female unmarried postgraduate and Hindu prospective teachers had significantly better self-concept than their male married, graduate and non- Hindu counterparts respectively. Bharathi, G, (1984), studied self-concept and achievement motivation of early adolescents. The findings of the study were: (i) Older age-group subjects perceived themselves as being less able less aspiring for greater ability and showed more dissatisfaction with their ability (ii) No age difference were found in self-concept with respect to adjustment, (iii) No significant age differences were found in personal social orientation aspect of self-concept in the real self-concept. Gyanoni, T.C. (1984). studied the frustration reactions as functions of achievement motivation and anxiety at different age levels. The results indicated that the most of the subjects of the parent population were not very aggressive or passive in frustrating situations. The students with a high level of anxiety were found to be more intropunitive and obstacle- dominant, whereas the low level anxiety boys were more impunitive and need persistent. Pareek, A. (1984). studied the problematic behaviour of adolescents with special reference to their self and other acceptance and attitude towards freedom. He found that problematic adolescents did accept themselves as well as others. The attitude of adolescents did not entirely depend on their home environment. Environment played an important role in the building of personality. Prakash, A. (1984). studied the factor affecting levels of aspiration. The finding shows that area (urban or rural) as a single main variable dials not shows significant difference on the level of aspiration. Sex as a single main variable did not show any significant difference on the level of aspiration, Caste (S.C. and non $.C.) as a single variable did not show any ~33~significant difference on the level of aspiration Chadda, D.K, (1985). studied the sel concept of teachers and their emotional adjustment. He found that the distribution of the scores of self- concept through profile analysis was not normal for the total group of teachers as well as for the sub-samples of teachers consisting of male, female, rural and urban sub-groups. Kamat, V. (1985). studied the self-concept through personal guidance. He found that self-concept is a developmental aspect of personality. There was significant improvement in achievement of students because of coaching. Olivia, Sr.M. (1985). studied a psychological education input for the enhancement of self-concept and achievement motivation in the first year degree students of Apostolic Carmel College. The study generated the following major findings :- (i) The three phased input programme was effective in significantly raising the self-concept, self-confidence and n- ach. (ii) Self-knowledge, self-understanding, self-acceptance and self- discovery were intensified through the input exercises on ‘self. Pandit, I. (1985). studied the psychological needs and self-concept of adolescents and their bearing on adjustment. He found that there were significant differences between the ideal self and perceived self and ideal self and social self of adolescents. The difference between perceived self and social self was not significant. Panwar, P.S. (1986). investigated the roles of academic, achievement and school background in self-concept, self-disclosure and inferiority feeling among students of Kumaun Hills. He found that academic achievement had no significant effect on self-concept. Home background had significant effect on self-concept. School background had significant effect on self-concept. Tri thi, A. (1986). studied the self-image, self-disclosure and ~34~self-observation of the behaviour pattern among socially advantaged and disadvantaged school going adolescents. The result shows that the total self-image of students was higher in low socio-economic status schools as compared to that in high socio-economic status schools. None of the adolescents had a low level of self-image in any type of socio-economic status schools. Significant differences were found between male and female adolescents except in the variable of intelligence. Bhatt, P.D. (1987). conducted a more inclusive but culturally loaded study of alienation, dogmatism and self-image in relation to prolonged deprivation in Kumaoni and non-Kumaoni adolescents ultimately, thirty variables were studied and they showed many kinds of significant differences within each group. Singh, Geeta. (1988). investigated the relationship among intelligence, aspirations, adjustment and academic achievement of high school students. Rural students were found to have higher aspiration level. The false sense of high aspiration without proper assessment of one's capacity, ability will lead to imaginative life, and increase frustration and poor adjustment among adolescents. Srivastava, N., and Arunima, (1988-89). studied the aggression in adolescents in relation to self-concept, motivation and performance. They latter sought to make a socio-psychological appraisal of aggression in children, Srivastava found no significant correlation, except a curvilinear relationship between aggression and academic and non-academic performance. Arunima reported association between high aggression in children and low education/income/occupational status of parents but not their aggression or spousal relations or uncongenial childhood. Singh, Abha. (1989). studied the comparative study of self-concept and adjustment of advantaged and disadvantaged secondary school students. Findings showed that advantaged students, differ significantly ~35~from disadvantaged students on self-concept and all its dimensions except physical attribute showing thereby that advantaged students have higher self-concept than disadvantaged students. Kumari, $.(1990). explored modernity in undergraduate students in relation to SES, Self-concept and level of aspirations Girls were more modern than boys; modernity seemed to be related to SES and self concept, but not to level of aspirations. Ramiah, L. (1990). sought to relate self-concept to parental involvement in class 1X pupils and found the two to have a significant positive relationship. Pareek, D.L. (1990). compared the self-concept, personality traits and aspirations of adolescents in central schools, government schools and private schools in Rajasthan. The former two were reported to be more intelligent and imaginative and the latter more practical, with a higher percentage showing ‘average self-concept’. Verma, J. (1992). studied achievement motivation, anxiety and learning style in relation to ecological variables like age, gender caste, residence and SES of parents. Gender made differences in achievement motivation and anxiety, residence, in learning style and parents educational level in achievement motivation, Bageshwar, Saroj. (1993). investigated the value profile and self- concept of women teachers. She found that teachers of primary, secondary and higher level have placed knowledge value at the top and power value at the bottom. Age-wise comparisons indicate that women teachers in different age groups have scored highest on the knowledge value and lowest on the power value. Jaiswal, Anjana. (1994). studied the socio-economic status, self- concept and academic achievement of higher secondary students. Findings ~36~of this study revealed that academic achievement of students correlated positively and significantly to socio-economic status for male and female. Socio-economic status also correlated positively and significantly to self- concept for male and female. Sood, P. (1994). studied the self-concept of learning disabled students by using Saraswat's SCQ as a measure of self-concept. In this investigation learning disabled group scores significantly lower on self concept that the non-learning disabled group. Venkatesh, K.G., and Meena,C. (1997). investigated whether blind and normal adolescent students differ in their self-concept. The sample comprised 50 blind (25 male & 25 female) and 50 normal (25 male and 25 female-) adolescents students randomly selected from Mysore. Findings indicated that there was no significant difference between blind and normal adolescents with regard to self-concept. However, significant differences by sex and parent's educational background were evidenced. Singh, Badha. (2000). studied the comparative effects of video game on the concentration, eye-hand co-ordination and anxiety among basketball and table tennis players. The purpose of the study was to determine the effects of video games on concentration, attention and anxiety. A total of 28 male players (14 of basketball and 14 of table tennis sport) between 12 to 18 yrs. of age participated from different sports club. Result indicates that video games exercises are very helpful in developing accuracy, concentration and eye-hand co-ordination of individual in both sports. It has been observed that the anxiety of table tennis players was significantly developed (P < 0.001), where as the basketball players had not shown any difference in anxiety. Saha, Sujata. (2000). compared the academic achievement of disabled and non-disabled students with reference to their self-concept and ~37~locus of control. The main objective of the study is to find out the difference between disabled and non-disabled students on AA, self- concept, LOC and SES. Findings show that with regard to AA, disabled and non-disabled students did not differ significantly. With regard to self concept, non-disabled students were found to be having a significantly higher total self-concept. They had significantly higher means on all six dimensions of the self-concept also. Gupta, S. (2001). studied the effect of white noise on critical flicker fusion scores in high and low anxious individuals. This study was designed to investigate the effects of white noise of critical flicker fusion performance in subjects with- trait anxiety as measured by Hindi version of trait scale of state-trait anxiety inventory. The study supported the following conclusions: The critical flicker fusion scores were higher under "white noise" conditions that under quiet conditions 2. High anxious. subjects performed better under quite conditions than under white noise conditions, whereas low anxious subjects performed better under white noise" conditions than under "quite" conditions. Ojha, Satya. (2002). compared the anxiety, level of aspiration and locus of control of students of different disciplines. The main purpose of the study is to find out the anxiety level, level of aspiration and locus of control of students of different disciplines. She found that the mean scores of all the students of anxiety indicate lower level of anxiety. The goal discrepancy scores of all the students indicate high level of aspiration. The average scores of LOC of all students indicate their internal locus of control. No significant difference was observed in anxiety level of students of different disciplines. Singh, Susila. (2006). studied a study of self-concept of science and arts students in relation to their level of aspiration and anxiety. The study ~38~revealed that student having higher and positive level of aspiration supposed to have higher level of self concept and vice-versa and if a student is good at the self-concept level, a minimum anxiety level is supposed for him and vice-versa. Imran,M. (201i). studied the relationship among. self-concept, somatotype and sensation seeking anxiety state in body-builders and weight-lifiers. The findings of the study indicated that significant links between physical self-concept, sensation seeking, anxiety state and somatotypes among bodybuilders and weightlifiers existed. Rani, Rekha. (2011). studied a study of self-concept, emotional intelligence and academic anxiety of visually challenged students in inclusive and exclusive schools in relation to scholastic achievement. The findings of the study indicated that school setting has a significant impact on self-concept and emotional intelligence of visually challenged students. The students placed in inclusive school setting possess better self-concept and are emotionally more intelligent than those of placed in exclusive school setting. Similar results have been obtained for male and female students of both the groups on these two variables. On the contrary the results indicate that school ambience has no effect on academic anxiety but it influences the academic anxiety of female students significantly. Moreover significant gender difference has been found on academic anxiety. Zavinabegum, G., (2012). studied a study of academic achievement of female student teachers of Karnataka in relation to their learning style, adjustment, intelligence and self-concept. She found that intelligence, learning style, adjustment and self-concept have significant influence on academic achievement of B.Ed. students. ~39~2.3. CONCLUSION On the basis of the above studies, the following generalization and conclusions may be derived- 1. That Anxiety exists among people. All people do have anxiety at one time or another. That self-concept is affected by many psycho-social and educational variables. 3. That self-concept and anxiety is related to each other. Moreover, the investigator had not found any empirical study between the self-concept of higher secondary students in relation to their levels of anxiety. On the basis of foregoing discussion and conclusions, the researcher has opted for studying the relationship between self-concept of higher secondary students in relation to their levels of anxiety. semi ~40~