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Design of a Universal Partial Discharge Simulator

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DOI: 10.1109/CATCON47128.2019.CN0014

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 Design of a Universal Partial Discharge Simulator
2019 IEEE 4th International Conference on Condition Assessment Techniques in Electrical Systems (CATCON) 978-1-7281-4331-6/20/$31.00 ©2020 IEEE 10.1109/CATCON47128.2019.CN0014
Lekshmi A. Kaimal∗ , Himanshu J. Bahirat† , Prakash P. Vaidya∗ , Shrikrishna V. Kulkarni†
∗ Vivekanand Education Society‘s Institute of Technology, (Affiliated to University of Mumbai), Mumbai, India
† Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
Abstract—The processes of inception, growth, and propagation
of Partial Discharge (PD) along the dielectric are complicated.
Their analysis requires a thorough understanding of underlying
physics. A software simulation tool has been developed to study
typical PD processes. The simulator generates pulses of varying
amplitudes, shapes and time of occurrence of pulses observed
in practice using National Instruments LabVIEW software as a
base platform. The rise time of PD pulses plays an important
role in the characterization of PD. The rise time formulation
has been attempted based on the approach using the dipole
moment development and law of conservation of energy. PD
phenomenon is usually studied with the assumption of an air-
filled void being energized by parallel plate/ coaxial cylinder
electrode configuration. An SF6 -filled spherical void inside a
dielectric between two coaxial cylinder electrode plates is used as
another configuration. Phase-resolved partial discharge (PRPD)
pattern and the characteristics of PD pulses simulated are in
agreement with results reported in literature. The contribution
of this paper is versatility of the simulator for detailed study and
comprehensive analysis of PD without the use of high voltage
(HV) setup.
Index Terms—Partial Discharge, universal simulator, high
voltage
I. I NTRODUCTION
The major reason for sudden breakdown of HV equipment
in service is the insulation or dielectric breakdown which
is normally preceded by presence of repetitive discharges,
each of which further deteriorates the insulator [1]. These
discharges are referred to as Partial Discharges (PD) and their
detection is essential for assessing the health of the insulator
and predicting its failure. These discharges are complex and
require significant understanding to be imparted in order to
model and teach the involved processes. Besides the equipment
required to demonstrate the PD are large and very expensive.
PD is a complex phenomenon involving physical and chem-
ical processes which occur in the voids of the dielectric
material when applied voltage exceeds a certain threshold. The
initiation of a PD depends on the presence of a free electron
which leads to variable initiation times and the electron could
be generated by different methods like cosmic radiations,
dislodging of electrons due to excessive applied voltages, etc
[1]. The acceleration of the electron in the void leads to
further ionization due to collisions an/or field emission. The
multiplicative nature of the process results in the formation
of an electron channel which establishes a current path. This
eventually leads to a complete breakdown of the electric
material.
The physical and the chemical processes have been studied
by several researchers [2–8]. The stochastic nature of the
PD pulses has been investigated in [9–12]. The discharges
are influenced by the applied voltage and its frequency. The
impact of these have been investigated in [2–4] wherein it
has been found that the number of discharges will increase
with the input voltage while that the number of PDs per
cycle is lower at lower frequencies. The time lag for initiation,
which is termed as the statistical time lag, is investigated in
[4], [5], seems to increase when the voids do not have free
electrons. The discharges are also affected by temperature and
cavity conditions; the effect of which has been analysed in
[5], [6]. The statistical time lag reduces with higher material
temperature. PD patterns are seen to be influenced by the size
of the spherical cavity. The discharges taking place depend on
the location of the void, the residual field and the critical field
intensity inside the void; the impact of these parameters are
analysed in [7]. The cavity surface conductivity and surface
emissivity play an important role in PD and are thoroughly
investigated in [4], [6], [8]. The PDs are random and are known
to exhibit certain peculiar properties at different stages of
insulation ageing. This stochastic nature has been investigated
in [9–12].
Several researchers have implemented mathematical models
of PD to better understand and explain the influence of differ-
ent parameters. The implementations range from detailed finite
element models to simple analytical models. In a classroom
environment, students may face difficulty in visualization of
the processes and it is difficult to demonstrate the phenomena
in the laboratory environment due to prohibitive costs and
safety concerns. Thus a need is felt for a tool to explain
the phenomena clearly and demonstrate the processes taking
place in the insulating material. It may be clearly seen that
the demonstration of the PD phenomena and condition moni-
toring maybe easily done if laboratory scale units were easily
available. Hence the objective of the paper is to report on the
development of a universal laboratory scale demonstrator.
This paper proposes a design of a universal physics-based
PD software engine along with a user-friendly Human Ma-
chine Interface (HMI) which simulates PD pulses without
the use of HV setup. The simulator generates PD pulses
with variable rise time and amplitude distributions which are
characteristic of the insulating material. The implementation
is scalable and it accounts for variation in environmental con-
ditions and helps in statistical analysis of PDs. The simulator
allows for certain processes to be “switched off” along with
the possibility of varying parameters which are usually non
deterministic. For example, the simulator facilitates study of
impact of variation of residual charge concentration on PD.
Apart from this, initiation processes could be considered with
or without initiation electrons, which is not possible in real
world experimentation. Thus, the versatility of the software,
as claimed, where it is possible to conduct detailed parametric
analysis for different dielectric configurations aiding compre-
hensive study of the PD phenomenon without the use of an
HV setup, makes it universal simulator.
The formulation reported in this paper is restricted to
simulation of streamer discharges. The details of formulations
are given in section II. The block diagram and description of
the functional blocks of the simulator are given in section III
while section IV discusses the results.
II. P HYSICAL P ROCESSES IN A PD
A. Defect Details
Fig. 1 shows a solid dielectric of relative permittivity r ,
height h with a virgin ellipsoidal void (r = 1) of dimensions
(a, b). The dielectric is held between parallel plates separated
by distance D. Based on [13], an ellipsoidal void is considered
as representative of all possible defect shapes in a solid
dielectric. For example, in case of a spherical void: a = b.
a
b
D For a virgin void, volume ionization initiates the electron
E0
h
Fig. 1: The void details
B. Streamer Inception
PDs are initiated in presence of free electrons, the source of
which could be cosmic radiations. The electron is accelerated
in the presence of an electric field Em . This can result in
the multiplication of the electron count, eventually leading to
formation of an avalanche. which is converted into a streamer
when the electron count exceeds a critical value [14–16]. The
Estr , electric field value above which the streamer is initiated
is given by (1) for a void [1].
B the probability that an electron will develop into an avalanche
Estr = Ecr [1 + ] (1)
(2ap)n
The value depends on the critical electric field, Ecr = ( Ep )cr p,
which is the field above which the ionization dominates
attachment process. The streamer inception is influenced by
the pressure in the void and the dimension of the void. Here,
the parameters, B and n characterize the ionization processes
of the gas in the void. The applied voltage corresponding to
Estr is given by Uinc = fE |∇υ0 | [1]. Einc has been computed
str
for air and SF6 using experimental data as given in [1].
C. Field Calculations
A sinusoidal input, u(t) = Um sin (2πf t), is applied to the
dielectric and the electric field at the point of the void is given
by (2).
Em = Um | ∇υ0 | (2)
The | ∇υ0 | depends upon the design of the electrodes [13].
The field in the void depends on the shape and surface charges
left behind after the previous PD, which is computed as (3).
Evoid = Ea + Eq = f Em + Eq (3)
Here Ea is due to the applied input voltage and Eq is field
modification due to surface charges [13]. f is a dimensionless
factor given by (4), which depends on the geometry and
permittivity, that accounts for field enhancement in the void.
k( ab ) is a proportionality constant [13].
[k( ab )]r
f= (4)
(1 + [k( ab ) − 1]r )
The electric field Eq is due to surface charges that have been
left behind after the previous PD and is given by (5) [1].
qs
Eq = (5)
0 πb2 [1 + r [k( ab ) − 1]]
D. Electron Generation
generation process, while the surface emission maintains the
production [13].
a) Volume Ionization: The rate of electron generation
due to volume ionization, Nv , is given by (6) wherein ηi is
indicative of the initiating mechanism of the ionization process
and it depends on gas in the void [13].
ρ −1 η
Nv = Crad φrad ( ) p V (1 − ν n ) (1 − ) (6)
p0 | {z } | {z α }
| {z } Vef f
ηi P
As mentioned previously, the initiating mechanism could be
cosmic radiations or radioactivity. ηi gives the factor which
depends on the quantum flux density of the radiation, φrad ,
and Crad which characterizes the interaction between radiation
and gas. The product Crad φrad is almost equal to 2×106 /kg-s
for natural radiations. Vef f is the effective volume inside the
void from which avalanches can grow into critical size and it
depends on the overvoltage ratio ν = Um /Uinc . P represents
which occurs when ionization is dominant in the void, i.e.,
α  η. The statistical time lag can be obtained as 1/Nv .
b) Surface Emission: An occurrence of PD results in
deposition of electrons on the surface of the void [13]. These
trapped electrons can augment the electron generation process
due to thermionic emission or phonon activation. The number
of detrapped electrons Ndt is given by (7) where, Ndt0 = ξ qe ,
is the number of electrons trapped at the previous PD event.
−t
Ndt = Ndt0 exp( ) (7)
τ
The exponential reduction in the number of detrapped elec- User Input Output
trons is due to loss mechanisms such as emission or diffusion
into deep traps. The time constant τ for the exponential decay
is an experimentally determined parameter [2], [13].
q
φ − eE void
4π0
Nsurf = Ndt ν0 exp(− ) (8)
kT
Equation (8) gives the rate of electron emission due to thermal
or phonon activation [13]. The surface emission process ap-
proximately obeys Richardson-Schottky scaling and requires
minimum amount of energy defined as work function (φ),
which depends on the material. The electric field Evoid reduces
the energy required forqelectron emission and is accounted Fig. 2: Screenshot of the Human Machine Interface
eEvoid
by the Schottky term 4π0 . Nsurf is also affected by
fundamental phonon frequency, ν0 , which represents the ther- III. PD S IMULATION D ESIGN
mal activations per second, Boltzmann constant, k, and the
temperature in Kelvin, T . Fig. 2 shows a screenshot of the Human Machine Interface
The total rate of electron production in the void is given by (HMI) developed for easy input data entry and output visual-
Nt = Nv + Nsurf [13]. The product of Nt and ∆t gives the ization. The mathematical formulations detailed in section II
probability of PD occurrence. If the probability, P , is greater are implemented as the computation engine using the native
than a uniformly distributed random number, R, PD is said to programming language of LabVIEW. The computation follows
occur. Values of R lie between 0 and 1. the algorithm 1 to calculate various parameters of the PD
which are essentially the dimensions of the void and the
E. Determination of number of charged particles insulation. In the first step, depending on the value of the initial
In order to calculate the field as given by (3), the total charges of the void, electric field inside the void is computed.
number of charges in the void are required [13]. These charges The electric field components, Ea and Eq are estimated. If
are influenced by the residual electric field Eres and the field the PD inception threshold Einc is exceeded, the total rate of
in the void before the discharge, Evoid . The change in the generation of electrons, Nt , is calculated. The probability of
field after the discharge, also termed as collapse in the field, PD occurrence in the present time step is then estimated and
is given by (9). compared with R. If the PD occurs, which implies P > R,
then the calculations of the total electric charge, apparent
∆Eaf terP D = Evoid − Eres (9) charge, rise time and pulse duration of the PD are performed.
In order to determine if PD occurs, 1000 random numbers
Usually Eres is unique to the void with typical values where are generated and the count is established for instances when
Eres is a fraction of critical field Ecr and it depends on the P > R. If the count exceeds 500 then the PD is assumed to
gas inside the void. For example, in an air-filled void, Eres = occur.
(0.2 − 0.5)Ecr whereas for a SF6 void, Eres ≈ Ecr [9]. The
The rise time of the pulses is calculated based on the number
change in the field, Eaf terP D (also termed as collapse in the
of electrons present in an avalanche which is based on the
field), results in charge separation and causes dipolar charge
concepts of dipole moment and the law of conservation of
deposition on the cavity surface. The total charge that flows
energy [19] [20].
in a PD void (qtrue ) is given by (10), where a and b are the
Rise Time Calculation: A void in the dielectric appears
dimensions of the void [13].
to be a capacitor and thus the rise time is approximated by
a RC time constant. This value is thus expected to depend on
qtrue = 0 πb2 (1 + r [k( ) − 1])∆Eaf terP D (10)
b the conductivity of the void and it’s permittivity. The electrons
The charge flowing through the external circuit, termed as dominate the total charge in a PD but ions are also present in
apparent or induced charge (qind ), is given by (11). the void. The total charges in PD can be approximated using
law of conservation of energy where the energy input by the
4 a
qind = − πab2 0 r k( )∆Eaf terP D ∇λ0 (11) external source is equated to work done in moving charges in
3 b the void. Thus, total charge is given by (12) where nt is the
This is influenced by the coupling of the PD site to the total number of dipoles in the void whereas the conductivity
electrodes, which is quantified by | ∇λ0 | which is the gradient of the void is given by (13).
of the dimensionless scalar field λ0 [13]. | ∇υ0 | and | ∇λ0 |
depend on the electrode configurations and the expressions are q = nt e2a∇λ0 (12)
readily available for parallel plate and coaxial cylinder [17],
[18]. ke = ne µe e (13)
Algorithm 1 Algorithm of PD Modelling
2k 2n 160 80
1: Enter input parameters. 1.5k 140
70
1k 1n 120
2: Calculate constants. 500 100
60

Count

Count
0 0
3: Compute Evoid = Ea + Eq -500
80
60
50

40
4: if Evoid > Einc ? then -1k -1n 40
-1.5k 20
30
5: Compute Nt = Nv + Nsurf -2k -2n 0 20
0 100 200 300 400 1n 500p 0 -500p -1n 0 2n 4n 6n 8n 10n
6: Estimate P = Nt × ∆t phase(deg)  
Amplitude (C) Rise time (s)

7: Initialize Rcount , P Dcount to zero (a) PRPD pattern (b) Amplitude distribution (c) Rise time distributions
8: for Rcount 0 to 1000 do
Fig. 3: Simulation results for complete analysis of PD for an
9: Generate R
air-filled spherical void in parallel plate electrode configuration
10: if P > R? then
at 20 kV (ν = 2.4) are shown. NHW = 10.85
11: P Dcount + +
12: if P Dcount > 500 then
13: GoTo 24: cycle NHW observed in this phase is 10.85. A phase shift is
14: else observed between the pattern for positive and negative pulses
15: GoTo 9: which is due to difference in the detrapping phenomenon
16: end if for positive and negative charges. The charge of the surface
17: else depends upon whether there was a change in polarity between
18: GoTo 9: consecutive PD events. A reduced value of ξ is used when
19: end if there is no change in polarity whereas a ratio of ξ+ /ξ− = 50
20: end for is used, for polarity inversion. Fig.3b presents the amplitude
21: else in pC obtained from the simulation of the PD. The similar
22: GoTo 3: amplitude values are observed for both positive and negative
23: end if pulses, which is indicative of internal PDs, i.e.discharges in
PD occur. qtrue used to estimate Eq for next PD cavities of the solid insulation material. Fig. 3c depicts the rise
24: Calculate qtrue , qind , tr & tP D time in ns obtained from the simulations for a virgin void. The
25: return qtrue amplitudes are seen to be large (>260 pC), while rise times
26: GoTo 3: are observed to be <10 ns.

6k 2n
Using, total charges and conductivity, the rise time is given 1.5n
160
140
80

4k 70
by (14). 2k
1n 120 60
0 r 0 r 500p 100
50
tr = =
Count

Count
(14) 0 0 80
ke nt µe e -2k -500p 60
40
-1n 40 30
-4k -1.5n
The conductivity of electron has been computed for air and -6k -2n
20 20
0 10
0 100 200 300 400
SF6 using experimental data as given in [14], [21]. phase(deg)
1n 500p 0
Amplitude (C)
-500p -1n 0 2n 4n
Rise time (s)
6n 8n 10n
 

IV. R ESULTS AND D ISCUSSION (a) PRPD pattern (b) Amplitude distribution (c) Rise time distributions

The mathematical formulation and the developed program
were verified by simulating air-filled and SF6 filled void with
2.5 mm diameter in epoxy resin separating parallel plates by
4 mm. The coaxial cylinder configuration used inner cylinder
of 70 mm and outer cylinder of 190 mm diameter. The results
are verified by comparing obtained PRPD pattern with ones
reported in the literature. The results of the simulation are
presented in Figs. 3, 4, and 5.
Fig. 3 shows PRPD pattern and the statistical distribution
of pulses for void in a parallel plate configuration. The PRPD
pattern is similar to pattern reported in the literature [1]. The
apparent charges vary around a fixed value, qmin , and appear
like a horizontal bar in the PRPD pattern. The statistical
analysis shows that mean value of the amplitude is about
375pC whereas the rise time has a mean value of 5.5 ns. This
statistical time lag in initiation of the PD is calculated to be
11.3 ms. The observed values are consistent with the values
reported in the literature. The number of PD pulses per half
Fig. 4: Simulation results for complete analysis of PD for an
air-filled spherical void in coaxial cylinder electrode configu-
ration at 50 kV (ν = 2.5) are shown. NHW = 11.23
Fig. 4 gives simulation results for the air-filled spherical
void in a coaxial cylinder electrode configuration at 50 kV
(ν = 2.5). Fig. 4a illustrates the PRPD pattern as observed in
a virgin void with Einc of 1.97566 MV/m. Here, the apparent
charges vary around a fixed value, qmin = 116 pC, and appear
like a horizontal bar in the PRPD pattern. The number of PDs
per half cycle NHW is 11.23. Fig. 4b presents the amplitude
in pC obtained from the simulation with the coaxial cylinder
electrode. Fig. 4c depicts the rise time in ns obtained from
the simulations of a virgin void. The amplitudes are seen to
be smaller with less scatter as compared to the previous case.
The rise times are observed to be < 3 ns with lesser scatter
with mean value of 2.25 ns.
Fig. 5 gives simulation results for complete analysis of

12.5k 1n 900
800
500p 700
5k
600
Count
0 0 500
400
-5k 300
-500p
200
100
-12.5k
0 100 200 300
-1n
400
0
1n 500p 0 -500p
phase(deg)  
Amplitude (C)
(a) PRPD pattern (b) Amplitude distribution (c) Rise time distributions
Fig. 5: Simulation results for complete analysis of PD for a
SF6 -filled spherical void in coaxial cylinder electrode config-
uration at 120 kV (ν = 2.7) are shown. NHW = 51.99
PD for the SF6 -filled spherical void in the coaxial cylinder
electrode configuration at 120 kV (ν = 2.7). Fig. 5a illustrates
the PRPD pattern observed in a virgin void with Einc of 4.4
MV/m. Here, the plot of apparent charges has a sinusoidal
envelope as mentioned in [22]. Here, the number of PDs per
half cycle NHW is 51.99. Fig. 5b presents the amplitude in
pC and Fig. 5c depicts the rise time in ns obtained from the
simulations. The amplitude is seen to be even smaller than 50
pC with less scatter. The rise time is observed to be < 3 ns
with a minimum rise time of 720 ps.
It is observed that Einc is very much greater for the
electronegative SF6 gas than that of air [17]. However, the
SF6 PD magnitudes are much lower. This can be confirmed
from the amplitude distribution in Fig. 5b. The rapidly moving
electrons in SF6 cause low rise times as low as picoseconds
as shown in Fig. 5c. These results are in agreement with the
literature [23].
PD pulses typically produced inside dielectric systems are
reproduced by this simulator currently. These pulses are influ-
enced by characteristics of practical PD detection systems. The
noise and false alarm observed in PD detection have not been
implemented presently. However, this can be done by adding
a mathematical model of the PD detection system with noise
to the simulator.
V. C ONCLUSION
The designed universal PD simulator comprises of HMI
and an engine modeling physical processes. The PD model
has been developed using the National Instruments LabVIEW
software. The rise time of the PD pulse has been formulated
based on the dipole moment development and the law of
conservation of energy. The PRPD patterns, amplitude and rise
time distribution of three different configurations for a solid
dielectric have been plotted.
Pulses with large and varying amplitudes with a rise time
less than 10 ns occur in an air-filled spherical void with a
parallel plate configuration. With coaxial cylinder configura-
tion, pulses of slightly smaller amplitude and lesser rise times
are seen. When the cavity is filled with SF6 , pulses with very
fast rise times and smaller amplitudes are observed. This is in
conformity with the available literature.
The designed HMI based PD simulator is flexible, scalable
and capable of simulating different conditions at which PD can
occur. Thus, this universal simulator can be used to study com-
1000
800
plex physical phenomena of PD in insulation materials, thus
600
facilitating training, calibration and research. Comprehensive
Count
400
knowledge about PD and its properties made available by the
200 simulator, will help industry personnel to get an idea about
-1n
0
0 2n 4n 6n 8n 10n
complex PD phenomena, aid in the characterization of PD
Rise time (s)
and hence, plan predictive maintenance schedule.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank members of Research
and Development Laboratory, VESIT (Vivekanand Education
Society s Institute of Technology) and Insulation Diagnostics
Laboratory, IIT Bombay for their help and co-operation at
every stage of this work. The author Lekshmi A. Kaimal would
like to thank VESIT for the award of Fellowship Grants.
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