SOCIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF RELIGION
Functionalist Approach
This approach examines religion
in terms of fulfilling several
important needs of society.
Functionalists are concerned with
the contribution of religion
towards establishing social
solidarity and stability in society.
Marxist Approach
Marx saw religion as a social
drug that nullified the negative
effects of the exploitative
relationship between the owners
of the means of production
(capitalists/ bourgeoisie) and the
owners of labour (working class/
proletariat). For Marx, religion
serves to reinforce and legitimize
the position of the capitalists by
negating proactive actions on the
part of the afflicted working
class. Religion is therefore seen
as an illusion.
Interactionist Approach
In The Protestant Ethic and the
Spirit of Capitalism (1905),
Weber argued that the Protestant
Reformation paved the way for
the development of industrial
capitalism in Western Europe. He
identified three aspects of
Protestantism as being important
features: predestination, the
concept of a calling and
rationalism. Predestination
relates to individuals searching
for the signs of being saved or
damned by God. The concept of
calling emphasizes the need for
hard work to please God. The
final aspect of Protestantism is
rationalism, which is a means of
salvation.
Feminist Approach
Feminist theories, like Marxist
theory, view religion as an
instrument of domination and
oppression. However, they see
religion as a product of patriarchy
– rather than of capitalism –
where men oppress women.
1. Women were not always
subordinate in most religions. In
the Middle East, Asia and parts
of Europe, archaeologists have
uncovered symbols of the Great
Mother Goddess. There were few
early symbols of gods as men.
However, the status of women in
religion declined with time.
2. Jean Holm argued that,
although many religions stress
equality between men and
women, in practice, women have
been given subordinate roles.
Women’s second-class status is
often related to women’s
sexuality. For example,
menstruation and childbirth are

Emile Durkheim
In the Elementary Forms of
Religious Life (1912), Durkheim
states that the defining
components of all religions are
the separation of human
experiences into the profane and
sacred. The profane refers to all
the taken for granted day to day
routines and activities. The
“Religion is the sigh of the
oppressed creature, the feeling of
a heartless world, and the soul of
soulless circumstances. It is the
opium of the people .... The
abolition of religion as the
illusory happiness of the people
is the demand for their real
happiness.”
According to Weber, however, it
was not long before wealth
became an end in itself. At this
point, the moral values
underlying early Protestantism
had become the moral values
underlying early capitalism:
(1) Work is moral and everybody
should work hard;
(2) Rational cost/benefit
universally regarded as
‘polluting’.
3. Religion can be used by the
oppressors (men) to control the
oppressed (women) and it also
serves as a way of compensating
women for their second-class
status by assuring them of
equality in heaven. This helps to
maintain a status quo in which
women are unequal.
4. Religion became patriarchal
through the misinterpretation of
religious beliefs by men. As
monotheism became prominent,
religion became oppressive to
women. Therefore, the only way
women can improve their
position is by seeking their own
liberation
Analyse alternatives to traditional
religion such as feminist
reconstructions of God, religion,
and spirituality – for example,
theologies that favour the
Goddess, Earth Mother and the
inter-dependence of life and
motherhood; ■ question the
historically gendered
interpretation of God, e.g. in
profane tends to be known, (Marx quoted in Tucker, 1978, calculations should be the basis Judaism; ■ show that the Bible
controllable and malleable. In pp. 53–4) of economic decisions; has a view of the equality of men
contrast, the sacred are objects Marxist sociology therefore is of (3) Profits should be reinvested and women;
and events that are held in awe the view that how religion is rather than spent on luxuries; and
and high veneration. The sacred organised serves to justify social 4. wealth rather than aristocratic
is not known or controlled inequality and oppression and lineage is the best indicator of
this is ‘hidden’ from believers. people’s importance in society.
This view is critical of
Functionalists who maintain that
there is consensus in the society
because of the strength of the
primary and secondary
socialisation processes and that
religion fosters this consensus.
Functions of Religion While Functionalism and
Marxism are two perspectives
Durkheim believed that religion that give a different
was functional to both individuals understanding of social reality,
and society as a whole. they are both macro-perspectives
Individuals benefited from the and share some commonalities.
rituals and beliefs that surrounded
religious activities, which Similarities
provided a means of comfort and For example, both Durkheim and
solace especially in times of need Marx described religion as ■ a
and hardship. For example, in powerful force in society; ■ a
times of bereavement, individuals reflection of society rather than
derive solace and peace from the domain of a supernatural
engaging in the rituals associated entity; ■ a conservative force
with acts of burials and/or downplaying religion as a factor
cremation. The performance of in social change; ■ a social
the various religious rituals helps institution interacting with other
to nullify the impact of the loss of social institutions, such as the
the deceased. In other situations,
participation in religious
activities offers a sense of
belonging to individuals in the
form of moral cohesion. At the
societal level, Durkheim argued
that religion provided the
foundation for the promotion and
reinforcement of the main values
and norms of the society. These
values and norms rise above just
being usual ways of doing things
to becoming the moral code of
behaviour in the society. These
values and norms become sacred.
Therefore, he sees religion as part
of the way of life of a society that
helps to maintain cultural
traditions. Society will only
continue to survive if its people
share common beliefs. Therefore,
for Durkheim, the worship of
God is a disguise for the worship
of society
Malinowski’s Theory
Like Durkheim, Bronislaw
Malinowski (1948) sees religion
as reinforcing social norms and
values and promoting social
solidarity. He differs from
Durkheim in that i. he does not
family and the economy, to
influence the values and
ideologies of people.
Differences
The two perspectives differ in
relation to how order is
maintained in the society.
Functionalists understand order
to be built up through consensus,
for example, via religious
practices and rituals (religious
socialisation). Marxists critique
that position by saying that what
is really happening is that order is
maintained through the forms of
social control that religion exerts
on groups and individuals (which
they describe as states of false
consciousness)
see religion as reflecting society
as a whole; and ii. he does not see
religious rituals as the worship of
society

Criticisms
Malinowski has exaggerated the
importance of religious rituals in
helping people to cope with
situations of stress and
uncertainty. The rituals are
related to the maintenance of
prestige in that society, and have
little to do with cementing
solidarity or dealing with
uncertainty and danger.
Talcott Parsons

Parsons believed that religion

through its belief system provides
the foundation upon which social
order and stability can be achieved
in society. In other words, religion
contributes to the functional
prerequisites of society. Like
Durkheim, Parsons believes that
religion can provide solace and
comfort to members in society
when they are befallen by
unexpected sudden events such as
death. Additionally, Parsons
states that religion provides a
mechanism for coming to terms
with events of ‘uncertainty’, for
example, the questions that
would appear on a sociology
examination paper. Parsons also
believed that religion helps to
provide meaning to life.