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JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH: SOLID EARTH, VOL. 118, 1609–1618, doi:10.1002/jgrb.50112, 2013

In situ calibration of and algorithm for strain monitoring using

four-gauge borehole strainmeters (FGBS)
Zehua Qiu,1 Lei Tang,1 Baohong Zhang,1 and Yanping Guo1
Received 5 April 2012; revised 29 January 2013; accepted 30 January 2013; published 4 April 2013.

[1] Borehole strainmeters have proved very useful in geodynamic research. Because the
sensors are imbedded in rock, their in situ calibration is of crucial importance. The
four-gauge borehole strainmeter (FGBS) is a Chinese invention to monitor the temporal
variation in horizontal strain. The four gauges in the FGBS are arranged at 45
intervals to
bring about a simple self-consistency equation, which serves as a means of checking that
the measurements obtained from the FGBS are correct. The instruments currently used in
China are usually placed at depths of several tens of meters to avoid disturbances at the
surface, while still being sufficiently near the surface for the vertical stress to be regarded as
zero—the premise on which the theoretical model of this observation is based. In this
paper, an index of data credibility is established, based on the self-consistency equation, to
allow evaluation of the observations. A relative in situ calibration has been developed to
calculate a relative correction factor for each gauge’s sensitivity, termed the gauge weight,
and this has proven effective in enhancing data credibility. Parameters for deriving strain
from readings are determined by a concise absolute in situ calibration with the aid of the
theoretical Earth tide. Instead of averaging four groups of solutions, a simpler
comprehensive algorithm is developed to transform readings into strain. Data from 24
Chinese sites of YRY-4-type FGBS are processed and evaluated to be fairly good.
Citation: Qiu, Z., L. Tang, B. Zhang, and Y. Guo (2013), In situ calibration of and algorithm for strain monitoring using
four-gauge borehole strainmeters (FGBS), J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth, 118, 1609–1618, doi:10.1002/jgrb.50112.

1. Introduction
[2] Four-gauge borehole strainmeters (FGBS) have been
used in mainland China for more than 30 years. The first
FGBS, the RZB-1 strainmeter, was designed in China in
the late 1970s by a group of scientists led by Ouyang Zuxi
[Ouyang, 1977; Ouyang et al., 1988], as a successor to the
borehole stressmeter that used piezomagnetic sensors, and
was sponsored by J. S. Lee in the early 1960s [Zhang
et al., 1981; Qiu, 2010a]. Both instruments were designed
to monitor temporal changes in horizontal stress-strain, with
the aim of forecasting large and devastating earthquakes.
The RZB-type FGBS utilizes electric capacitance transdu-
cers and can resolve strain changes as small as <108.
Although there are only three independent variables in plane
strain, an FGBS has four gauges arranged at 45
intervals in
a cylindrical case, which measure the changes of diameter in
the corresponding azimuths. The additional measurement acts as
a self-check, offering an advantage over three-component bore-
hole strainmeters [Gladwin, 1984; Sakata and Sato, 1986; Hart
1
Institute of Crustal Dynamics, China Earthquake Administration,
Beijing, China.
Corresponding author: Z. Qiu, Institute of Crustal Dynamics, China
Earthquake Administration, P. O. Box 2855, Xisanqi, Beijing 100085,
China. (qzhbh@163.com)
©2013. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.
2169-9313/13/10.1002/jgrb.50112
et al., 1996; Ishii, 2001] and playing a key role in confirming that
the instrument measures changes in strain as expected. Although
a fourth gauge was added to the Gladwin borehole tensor strain-
meters deployed in the Plate Boundary Observatory [e.g.,
Roeloffs, 2010], there is a shortcoming to that arrangement in that
the four gauges are not equally spaced, as they are in the FGBS.
[3] At the beginning of the new millennium, the develop-
ment of the FGBS in China was accelerated thanks to the U.
S. Plate Boundary Observatory project, in which it was
planned to deploy a large number of borehole strainmeters.
Since then, a new type of FGBS, namely, the YRY-4, man-
ufactured by Chi et al. [2009], has been developed and was
deployed by the China Earthquake Administration as a
means of updating its obsolete network. Although reliable
earthquake forecasting is not currently possible, the YRY-4
is a great technical improvement on previous technologies.
There are currently more than 50 FGBS sites in the mainland
of China, of which approximately 40 now use the YRY-4
(Figure 1). Data from the China Earthquake Administration
borehole strain-monitoring network are sampled every
minute. Auxiliary measurements of atmospheric pressure,
downhole temperature, and water level are synchronously
maintained at every site for use in comparative analyses.
These data have been used in scientific studies, e.g., coseis-
mic stress-triggering [Qiu and Shi, 2006], free oscillations of
the earth [Qiu et al., 2007], and strain monitoring in soil
[Qiu, 2010b], in addition to identifying warnings of major
earthquakes [Qiu et al., 2011].
[4] After discussing the theoretical model for the observa-
tions and the reasons for shallow installation, we then address

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QIU ET AL.: CALIBRATION AND ALGORITHM OF CHINA FGBS

Figure 1. Distribution of YRY-4-type FGBS sites in mainland China.

the problems of in situ calibration and describe the algorithms

for the FGBS. The unique design of this instrument enables
quantitative credibility estimation of the data by checking self-
consistency, which does not require the aid of the Earth Tide
or any special signals. In addition, a relative correction to gauge
sensitivities is presented and shown to be effective in improving
data credibility. The two parameters for calculating strains from
measurements are determined separately using a concise
approach. Instead of calculating four sets of solutions for the
strains, a comprehensive substitution is established to give one
single solution. Data obtained from 24 selected YRY-4 sites
in mainland China are analyzed.

2. Theoretical Model
[5] The theoretical foundation for FGBS in China was
described by Pan [1977, 1981]. Pan presented the plane
problem of a circular hole with rings in a plate subject to
stress and proposed to solve the problem by summing up
all the particular analytical solutions suitable for the bound-
ary conditions; he then derived the solution for the one-ring
model. In the one-ring model, only the cylindrical inclusion
of the sensor and the surrounding rock are included. In 1988, Figure 2. Sketch of the two-ring system for measuring
following Pan’s approach, Ouyang and Zhang [1988] strain in boreholes.
discussed the solution for the two-ring model, which
additionally took into consideration the effect of the grout relationship between the measurement Si and the strain
coupling of the inclusion and the host rock. Before the work changes (e1, e2, ’) is straightforward:
of Ouyang and Zhang, Gladwin and Hart [1985] had Si ¼ Aðe1 þ e2 Þ þ Bðe1  e2 Þ cos2ðθi  ’Þ; (1)
presented complete solutions using complex functions for
both one- and two-ring models. where e1 and e2 are the maximum and minimum principal
[6] To a first approximation, assuming linear elasticity and strains, respectively, ’ is the principal orientation, and A
isotropy of the medium, the two-ring model is suitable for and B are two parameters to be determined.
the observation of the horizontal strain state in rocks with a
borehole strainmeter (Figure 2). Gauge i in the cylinder di-
rectly measures the change in diameter in the corresponding 3. Installation Depth
azimuth θi that results from changes in strain state. Although [7] The observation depths for FGBS in China are mostly
the solutions are complex, the resulting formula of the limited to a few tens of meters. In fact, all YRY-4-type

1610

QIU ET AL.: CALIBRATION AND ALGORITHM OF CHINA FGBS
FGBSs are installed at a depth of approximately 40 m. This
is due to the limits of the installation technique and also the
high cost of borehole drilling.
[8] Some authors argue that a borehole strainmeter should
be placed at least 100 m below the surface to avoid near-
surface disturbances [e.g., Gladwin and Hart, 1985]. Others
have suggested installing such an instrument deep into the
crust to observe strain changes there. In Japan, a so-called
multicomponent borehole instrument containing a multi-
component strainmeter has been successfully installed as
deep as 800 m below the surface [Ishii, 2001].
[9] Nevertheless, as the solution to a horizontal plane
problem of geometrical axial symmetry with a vertical bore-
hole at the center, the theoretical model (1) for the observa-
tions relies on the assumption that the vertical normal stress
is zero. This is true when the strainmeter is placed close to
the surface but may not be applicable at deep sites. The
depth to which this assumption applies is not usually known.
Similarly, the depth at which near-surface disturbances are
not significant is dependent upon a variety of factors.
[10] As discussed in the following sections, most YRY-4
instruments yield fairly good data. The data are considered
to represent strain variations at the surface and so can be com-
pared with data from other surficial geodetic observations such
as seismograms, GPS, and InSAR. The observation depth of
tens of meters largely helps to avoid near-surface disturbances.
Irrespective of how shallow the borehole is, the sensor of an
FGBS must be installed into intact rock. This is the most impor-
tant requirement for the establishment of an FGBS site.
4. Self-Consistency and Credibility of the Data
[11] Self-consistency is crucial in FGBS design. Accord-
ing to the theoretical model (1), because the four gauges
are arranged at 45
intervals,
8 k1 R1  k2 R2 þ k3 R3  k4 R4 ¼ 0:
>
> S1 ¼ Sθ1 ¼ Aðe1 þ e2 Þ þ Bðe1  e2 Þ cos2ðθ1  ’Þ
<
S2 ¼ Sθ1 þp=4 ¼ Aðe1 þ e2 Þ  Bðe1  e2 Þ sin2ðθ1  ’Þ
>
> S ¼ Sθ1 þp=2 ¼ Aðe1 þ e2 Þ  Bðe1  e2 Þ cos2ðθ1  ’Þ
: 3
S4 ¼ Sθ1 þ3p=4 ¼ Aðe1 þ e2 Þ þ Bðe1  e2 Þ sin2ðθ1  ’Þ;
where Si (i =1, 2, 3, 4) is the measurement obtained from each of
the four gauges. A simple relationship among the four measure-
ments can be obtained straightforwardly from equation (2):
S1 þ S3 ¼ S2 þ S4 :
[12] Equation (3) is the self-consistency equation of FGBS
and was first discussed by Su [1977]. The observations are
considered to be reliable when the data satisfy (3).
[13] As the sensor of FGBS must be placed into intact rock, it
is assumed that self-consistency is satisfied. When the measure-
ments do not fit the self-consistency equation, we have troubles
in using the data. As a quantitative indication of how credible
the data are, an index of data credibility is defined as
X where kij = 1 when i = j. It is important to note that there are
jðS1 þ S3 Þ  ðS2 þ S4 Þj
N95
X
C95 ¼ 1  ; (4)
1
jS1 þ S2 þ S3 þ S4 j
2
N95
where N is the total number of the incremental time series
data points. The subscript 95 indicates that 5% of the data,
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termed “bad points,” are removed. The “bad points” are
those data that do not agree with the self-consistency
equation and undermine the credibility of the whole data
set. They can result from, for example, rainfall or device
maintenance. Generally, 0 < C95 < 1. For credible data, the
index should be close to unity. The smaller the value of
the index, the lower the credibility.
5. Relative In Situ Calibration
[14] Unlike other geodetic instruments for surficial use,
once the FGBS sensor has been embedded into the borehole,
it is impossible to calibrate it precisely. However, the self-
consistency checking function significantly helps to calibrate
the gauges in the sensor in relative terms.
[15] To date, observations from most YRY-4-type FGBSs
have proved to be in accordance with the self-consistency
equation (equation (3)). This provides evidence that intact
rocks can be regarded approximately as an ideal elastic
medium. One possible reason for the data not to exhibit a
high self-consistency is that there may be errors in the sensi-
tivities of the downhole gauges. For instance, installation of
a sensor in a borehole may cause nonuniform changes to the
gauges’ sensitivities. Based on the assumption of equation
(3), the errors may be corrected using relative in situ
calibration.
[16] Regardless of the source of strain changes—
earthquakes, tides, or atmospheric pressure—given the initial
readings from an FGBS Ri (i =1, 2, 3, 4), the measurements are
assumed to be
Si ¼ ki Ri ; (5)
where the gauge weights ki are to be determined. Substitution of
equation (5) into equation (3) yields
(6)
(2)
[17] Fixing any one of the four gauge weights as unity, the
remaining three can be determined by inserting three sets of
different data into equation (6) and then solving the resultant
group of three equations. As there are numerous data, the
weights can be calculated statistically using the least squares
method. However, such results are asymmetric about all the
(3) gauge weights: the fixed weight will remain at unity, but the
others will vary according to the data used.
[18] A balanced approach is developed by defining kij = kj/
ki (i, j=1,2,3,4) to symmetrically obtain four nonhomoge-
neous equations for the calculation
8
>
> k11 R1  k12 R2 þ k13 R3  k14 R4 ¼0
<
k21 R1  k22 R2 þ k23 R3  k24 R4 ¼0
; (7)
>
> k R  k32 R2 þ k33 R3  k34 R4 ¼0
: 31 1
k41 R1  k42 R2 þ k43 R3  k44 R4 ¼0
12 unknowns to be calculated in equation (7) and the four
equations come from the single relationship (equation (3)).
Each equation must be solved separately and, due to random
fluctuations, give a set of gauge weights somewhat different
from those calculated using other equations.
[19] By summing up the individual results from the four
equations, the final gauge weights are given by the average
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QIU ET AL.: CALIBRATION AND ALGORITHM OF CHINA FGBS

1X 4
Ki ¼ kij ði ¼ 1; 2; 3; 4Þ: (8)
4 j¼1
[20] Because of the linearity of the problem,
Si ¼ Ki Ri ði ¼ 1; 2; 3; 4Þ; (9)
also fits the self-consistency equation (3). In an ideal situation
where there are no errors in the sensitivities of gauges but good
self-consistency in the data, Ki = 1 and Ri = Si. In general, for
fairly good data, the values of Ki should be around unity.
[21] The results of relative in situ calibration for 24 YRY-
4-type FGBS sites are given in Figure 3. Hourly incremental
data were used for the relative calibration, with 5% of “bad
points” uniformly removed. K is approximately 1 for most
gauges (Figure 3), showing that most gauges work approxi-
mately as designed. However, the value of K varies from less
than 0.8 to more than 1.2, indicating that calibration correc-
tion is desirable.
[22] By applying the results of the relative calibration to
equation (9), the data credibility of Si increases from that
of Ri. Figure 4 shows the comparison of C95 of the 24
YRY-4 sites before and after relative calibration corrections.
It can be seen from Figure 4 that apart from site DLH, C95 of
the data before correction is generally at a level >0.7, with
17 sites >0.8. After correction, C95 of all 24 sites increases
to >0.8, with 16 sites >0.9.
[23] The most remarkable changes take place at two sites,
SHSH and DLH. For SHSH, C95 increases from 0.70 to
0.97; whereas for DLH, it increases from 0.63 to 0.93.
Taking these two sites as examples, some details of the
relative in situ calibrations of FGBS are given in the follow-
ing paragraphs.
[24] In practice, calculations of gauge weights are carried
out on a daily basis, i.e., a set of Ki (i =1, 2, 3, 4) are deter-
mined using 24-hourly incremental data. Thus, a time series
of Ki is obtained for each gauge as shown in Figures 5a and
5b. It is important to note that, except for some “bad points,”
the curves of Ki vary little with time and remain nearly con-
stant (Figure 5). This indicates that gauge weights actually
exist in the observations, and corrections to the data are
necessary and provide a firm basis for relative in situ cali-
bration. The effects of relative calibration correction can
be observed in Figures 6a and 6b: the deviations from
self-consistency before correction Rd = (R1 + R3)  (R2 + R4)
are much larger than Sd = (S1 + S3)  (S2 + S4) after correction.

Figure 3. Gauge weights for 24 YRY-4 sites.

Figure 4. Comparison of C95 of the 24 sites before and after the relative calibration correction.

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QIU ET AL.: CALIBRATION AND ALGORITHM OF CHINA FGBS

Figure 5. Time series of Ki for (a) SHSH and (b) DLH.

6. Absolute In Situ Calibration
[25] The two parameters A and B, called coupling coeffi-
cients, in theoretical model (1) are needed for calculating the
strains from the measurements. A and B are physically deter-
mined by several factors, including the elastic properties of
the materials involved and the geometries of the two-ring mea-
suring system [Gladwin and Hart, 1985]. Theoretically, if all
factors are known, the two parameters can be calculated
regardless of the complexity of the formulas. Because some
of the factors are not known, e.g., the elastic properties of
the grout, the inversion method is more practical for determin-
ing the two coupling coefficients.
[26] Two simple equations are derived for the inversion
herein called absolute in situ calibration:
 However, the strain signals are rarely available. In prac-
sa ¼ p ðe1 þ e2 Þ
2Affiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
; (10)
ss  s13 2 þ s24 2 ¼ 2Bðe1  e2 Þ
where
8 [29] To a first approximation, the absolute calibration of
< s13  S1  S3
s  S2  S4 : (11)
: 24
sa  ðS1 þ S2 þ S3 þ S4 Þ=2
[27] The two equations of equation (10) correspond to two
invariants, namely, the areal strain and the maximum shear
strain, which are independent of coordinates and azimuths.
These two equations can be rewritten as
(
ðeNffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
sa ¼ 2Aq þ eE Þ
; (12)
ss ¼ 2B ð2eNE Þ2 þ ðeN  eE Þ2
where (eN, eE, eNE) are the strains in geographical coordi-
nates. It should be noted that A and B can be determined
separately.
[28] If the strain signals on the right-hand sides of
equation (10) or (12) are known for the measurements on
the left-hand sides, A and B can be calculated directly.
tice, determining A and B requires the use of theoretical
earth tides of strain [Luo et al., 1989; Hart et al., 1996;
Roeloffs, 2010].
FGBS observations is carried out using a simple linear
correlation between the measurements and theoretical tides
according to the following equations:

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QIU ET AL.: CALIBRATION AND ALGORITHM OF CHINA FGBS

Figure 6. Effects of relative calibration correction Figure 7. A typical example showing the time series of
for sites (a) SHSH and (b) DLH. Upper graph plots Rd = measurements, theoretical tides, and A and B, respec-
(R1 + R3)  (R2 + R4) before correction; lower graph plots tively. (a) Absolute calibration for A; (b) absolute
Sd = (S1 + S3)  (S2 + S4) after correction. calibration for B.

 calibrations for the 24 FGBS sites are plotted in

sa ðtÞ ¼ 2ATa ðt Þ þ Ca
; (13)
ss ðt Þ ¼ 2BTs ðt Þ þ Cs
where sa(t) and ss(t) are the time series of the measurements,
and Ta(t) and Ts(t) are the time series of the theoretical
tide for the areal strain and the maximum shear strain,
respectively. Ca and Cs are constants. Figure 7 gives a
typical example from site GT, showing the time series
of measurements sa(t) and ss(t), theoretical tides Ta(t) and
Ts(t), and A and B, which are calculated on a daily basis.
From Figure 7, it can be seen that the theoretical and
observed tidal time series are consistent, and the time series
of A and B oscillate around consistent levels, which are
regarded as the practical values of A and B.
[30] Linear correlation coefficients rA and rB are adopted
to describe the degree of similarity between observations
and theory, and standard deviations stdA and stdB are used
for the amplitude of undulation of the coupling coefficient
time series, respectively. The results of the absolute
Figures 8a–8c. Hourly incremental data are used in the
absolute calibration with the 5% “bad points” removed.
The theoretical tides are computed for the radially
symmetric model of the Earth with Love numbers repre-
senting its elastic response [Beaumont and Berger,
1975]. Only gravitational forces imposed by the sun
and the moon are taken into account; other factors such
as loads from marine tides, bathometry, local geology,
and topography are not included [Berger and Beaumont,
1976; Agnew, 1997].
[31] It can be seen from Figure 8 that the values of A and B
are comparable for most of the sites. The former is always
smaller than the latter, which is in agreement with the behav-
ior of the steel cylinder, i.e., that it is more difficult to change
its area than its shape. As indicated by the linear correlation
coefficients rA and rB and standard deviations stdA and
stdB, the fit for A is much better than that for B for most
sites. The reason for this remains unclear.

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Figure 8. Results of the absolute calibration for the 24 FGBS sites. (a) Parameters A and B; (b) linear
QIU ET AL.: CALIBRATION AND ALGORITHM OF CHINA FGBS

correlation coefficients for A and B; (c) standard deviations of A and B.

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QIU ET AL.: CALIBRATION AND ALGORITHM OF CHINA FGBS

8 1
7. Algorithm >
> ea ¼ sa
>
>
[32] The FGBS directly measures the deformation of < 2A
1
the cylindrical case of the sensor. Strain changes in g1 ¼ s13 ; (16)
>
> 2B
>
> 1
surrounding rock must be derived from the measure- : g2 ¼ s24
ments according to theoretical model (1) or (2). Because 2B
there are only three independent components of plane
where ea is a real strain, and g1 and g2 are two independent
strain, four measurements can provide four groups of
shear strains [Frank, 1966].
three independent equations and give four solutions
[37] Another commonly used expression of strain is (eN,
for the strain changes. When the data are perfectly
eE, and eNE) in geographical coordinates, where eN and eE
self-consistent, the solutions should be the same and
are the two normal strains orientated north and east, respec-
any of the solutions is acceptable. However, practical
tively, and eNE is the corresponding shear strain. The
data are generally not ideally self-consistent; hence, a
relationships between (e1, e2, ’) and (eN, eE, and eNE) are
comprehensive approach is needed.
[33] The unique design of the FGBS affords a neat sym- 8
> e1 þ e2 e1  e2
metric algorithm for this problem, which is developed based >
> eN ¼ þ cos2ð0  ’Þ
>
< 2 2 p 
on the substitutions of equation (11). According to theoreti- e1 þ e2 e1  e2
cal model (2), eE ¼ þ cos2  ’ : (17)
>
> 2 2 2
>
8 : eNE ¼  e1  e2 sin2ð0  ’Þ
>
< s13 ¼ 2Bðe1  e2 Þ cos2ðθ1  ’Þ 2
s ¼ 2Bðe1  e2 Þ sin2ðθ1  ’Þ : (14)
: 24
sa ¼ 2Aðe1 þ e2 Þ
[38] Substituting equation (15) into equation (17) yields
[34] From equation (14), simple formulas for the maxi- 8 1 1 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
mum and minimum principal strains and the principal orien- >
> eN ¼ sa þ s13 2 þ s24 2 cos2’
>
>
tation can be derived as follows: < 4A 4B pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 1
8 eE ¼ sa  s13 2 þ s24 2 cos2’ : (18)
1 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi >
> 4A 4B
> 1 >
> pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
>
> e1 ¼ sa þ s13 2 þ s24 2 : e ¼ 1 s 2 þ s 2 sin2’
>
> 4A 4B NE 13 24
< 1 1 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 4B
e2 ¼ sa  s13 2 þ s24 2 : (15)
>
> 4A  
4B
>
> 1 s
>
: ’ ¼ arctan 24 þ θ1 [39] According to equation (14),
2 s13
s24
tan2ð’  θ1 Þ ¼ : (19)
[35] It should be noted that A and B are not needed for the s13
calculation of ’.
[36] The new set of three measurements (equation
(11)) symmetrically contains all the information from [40] Therefore,
the four direct measurements (equation (2)). Figure 9 8
illustrates their physical meanings in the gauge coordi- > s24
< sin2ð’  θ1 Þ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
>
nates. In Figure 9, the solid circles represent original s13 2 þ s24 2
s13 : (20)
shapes and the dashed lines indicate deformation due >
: cos2ð’  θ1 Þ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
>
to positive changes in strain. In fact, the three measure- s13 þ s24
2 2

ments have direct relationships with the three indepen-

dent strain components (ea, g1, and g2) in gauge
coordinates: [41] By applying the triangular relations

Figure 9. Illustration of the three measurements and corresponding strains in the gauge coordinates. Solid cir-
cles represent the original shapes, and dashed lines indicate deformation due to positive strain changes.

1616

QIU ET AL.: CALIBRATION AND ALGORITHM OF CHINA FGBS
8
>
> cos2’ ¼ cos2½ð’  θ1 Þ þ θ1 
<
¼ cos2ð’  θ1 Þ cos2θ1  sin2ð’  θ1 Þ sin2θ1
; (21)
>
> sin2’ ¼ sin2½ð’  θ1 Þ þ θ1 
:
¼ sin2ð’  θ1 Þ cos2θ1 þ cos2ð’  θ1 Þ sin2θ1
to equation (18), the required formulas are obtained:
8 1 1 face of the Earth. This relates to the fact that tides exist not
>
> eN ¼ sa þ ðs13 cos2θ1  s24 sin2θ1 Þ
>
>
< 4A 4B
1 1
eE ¼ sa  ðs13 cos2θ1  s24 sin2θ1 Þ : (22)
>
> 4A 4B
>
>
: e ¼ 1 ðs cos2θ þ s sin2θ Þ
NE 24 1 13 1
4B
[42] In terms of (eN, eE, and eNE), the theoretical model (1)
can be rewritten as
Si ¼ AðeN þ eE Þ þ B½ðeN  eE Þ cos2θi þ 2eNE sin2θi : (23)
[43] Unlike equations (1) and (15), equations (22) and (23)
are apparent linear formulas, which maintain the same form
for both entire values and incremental values of strains.
They are practically important because derivatives (or differ-
ences) as well as integrals (or accumulations) can be carried
out using these formulas for the measurements and strains.
8. Concluding Discussion
[44] It is important to note that theoretical model (1)
comes from the two-dimensional model (Figure 2) in plane
stress, which is only valid near the surface of the Earth. This
sets a limit for the installation depth of this kind of multi-
gauge borehole strainmeters.
[45] A borehole strainmeter measures the changes in strain
at the “point” where it is located. The “point” can be so
small that “small scale geological inhomogeneity” [Hart
et al., 1996] can be neglected. The strains in theoretical model
(1) should be regarded to be those very close to the borehole.
Furthermore, to what areal extent the measurements from
borehole strainmeter are applicable is another important prob-
lem that must be resolved after in situ calibration.
[46] In an ideal situation where the cylindrical sensor is
properly inserted in intact isotropic rock, and all the gauges
have identical responses to deformation, the purpose of in
situ calibration of a multigauge borehole strainmeter is to de-
termine the coupling coefficients A and B according to equa-
tion (10) or (12). In practice, however, the gauges in the sen-
sor do not behave in exactly the same way but sometimes
differ significantly from each other, as observed in the exam-
ples of the SHSH and DLH sites discussed in this paper.
This complicates the in situ calibration, requiring new terms
such as “transducer factors” [Hart et al., 1996] or “gauge
weights” [Roeloffs, 2010]. With regard to FGBS, the even ar-
rangement of the four gauges allows a simple relative in situ
calibration to calculate the gauge weights, which is indepen-
dently applicable for all kinds of strain signals. When the data
show good self-consistency, the complicated problem of in
situ calibration may be simplified to require only the determi-
nation of A and B, herein termed absolute in situ calibration.
[47] Theoretically, the coupling coefficients A and B can
be determined using different known signals. However, the-
oretical solid Earth tides are the only currently available
1617
21699356, 2013, 4, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jgrb.50112, Wiley Online Library on [21/03/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
signals that can be generally used for absolute in situ calibra-
tion. Nevertheless, a variety of approaches to this problem
exist, giving rise to differing results. For instance, Roeloffs
[2010] claimed that vertical coupling plays a significant role
in addition to the horizontal rock-grout-sensor coupling sys-
tem due to the variation in atmospheric pressure on the sur-
only in the sea and solid Earth but also in the atmosphere.
To allow comparison of studies using borehole strainmeter
data, a reasonable standard tide model must be agreed.
[48] FGBS has an additional gauge in comparison with a
three-component strainmeter. The balanced use of all four
gauges makes the formula of transformation from strain-
meter output to formation strain even easier than for a
three-component strainmeter.
[49] Acknowledgments. This study was supported by the Special
Fund for Earthquake Research in the Public Interest (grant no.
201108009). The authors are very grateful to Tom Parsons for giving us
his helpful opinions on this paper. They thank an anonymous reviewer for
many insightful comments, which have helped greatly in the improvement
of the manuscript. They also thank Mr. Huang Zhong-xian and Ms. Zhang
Huai-su for correcting the English.
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