Geotextiles and Geomembranes 9 (1990) 369--395

Destructive Testing of Geomembrane Seams: Shear and

Peel Testing of Seam Strength

Henry E. Haxo, Jr & LawrenceC. Kamp

Matrecon, Inc., 815 Atlantic Avenue, Alameda, California 94501, USA

A BS TRA CT

An essential step to assure the proper long-term performance of a

geomembrane liner that is in the process of being installed is 100%
inspection of the seams to ensure their continuity. This step must be
complemented with destructive testing of the seams to ensure their strength
and integrity. At the present time, the principal destructive tests of seams
involve strategic sampling and testing of the seams in accordance with
standard A S T M methods for seam strength in shear and peel modes. This
paper describes the seam testing of the different types of geomembranes
and discusses specific tests that are used. Also discussed are the variables
that are involved in the testing and the requirements that should be stated in
the specifications in order to assure full understanding of the acceptance
criteria and the requirements of quality control and quality assurance. The
results of testing current geomembranes are presented. Finally, some
limitations of destructive testing of seams are discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Critical to the success of a g e o m e m b r a n e - l i n e d facility is the integrity of

the seams of the g e o m e m b r a n e panels and sheets that must be joined
together to form a continuous barrier. The low permeability of properly
selected g e o m e m b r a n e s to most gases, water, dissolved inorganic species,
and to m a n y of the organic solvents and liquids is well established.
H o w e v e r , the presence of holes in the liner can result in substantial
369
Geotextiles and Geomembranes 0266-1144/90/$03.50 (~) 1990 Elsevier Science Publishers
Ltd, England. Printed in Great Britain
370 Henry E. Haxo, Jr, Lawrence C. Kamp

leakage. Of the various types of hole that may develop in geomembranes,

the opening or breaking of seams is the most commonly reported. As a
consequence, assuring the integrity of the seams in a g e o m e m b r a n e liner at
the time of installation is essential to ensure the long-term high perform-
ance of a g e o m e m b r a n e liner system.
Although quality seaming of geomembranes can be performed relative-
ly easily under ideal conditions, such as those in a factory, field installation
and seaming are performed in environments that may affect the quality of
the seam. Job site factors that may influence a field seaming operation,
which is largely manually controlled, include:
1. The ambient temperature at which the seams are produced.
2. The amount of wind.
3. The skill of the seaming crew.
4. Proper preparation of the membrane surfaces to be joined.
5. The cleanliness of the seam interface, i.e. the amount of airborne
dust and debris present.
To ensure the adequacy of the liner system at the time of installation, an
intensive quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) program must be
carried out during the construction of the facility and the installation of the
liner. 1"2 As a part of the program, two basic types of test must be
performed on the seams:
1. Nondestructive testing or inspection performed on 100% of the
actual seam; such testing would be on intact seams and would involve
no damage to the seams.
2. Destructive testing of both factory and field seams; this type of
testing would result in damaging the intact seam and would require
repair of the seam. Samples would be cut from sections of the seams
at a predetermined frequency in order to conduct various physical
tests and chemical analyses.
Nondestructive testing includes visual inspection and testing by probe,
air-lancing, vacuum box and ultrasonic techniques. 3'4 Such testing indi-
cates that at least a fraction of the width of the seam is continuous and
nonleaking, but does not give an indication of the integrity and physical
strength of the seam.
The destructive testing of seams will indicate the strength and quality of
the seam at the time of the sampling. These tests satisfy a necessary
condition for an initially nonleaking seam, but not the sufficient condition
of the long-term durability of the seam; neither does such testing indicate
the seam strength at elevated temperatures. In addition to strength tests,
 Destructive testing of geomembrane seams 371

the samples could be subjected to chemical analyses and microscopic

examination.
This paper discusses the destructive testing of the seams of geomem-
brane liners with particular emphasis on the routine type of strength
testing in peel and shear modes that is currently being used in assessing the
quality of the seams and is being incorporated in specifications.

TYPES OF GEOMEMBRANE

Polymeric geomembranes used in the construction of liner systems vary in

polymer type, composition and design. They generally require specific
seaming methods, different test procedures, and different interpretations
of test results. The range of polymers that are or have been used in
manufacturing geomembranes is described in the US Environmental
Protection Agency's Technical Resource Document, 'Lining of Waste
Containment and Other Impoundment Facilities' and by Koerner. 3"5
Based on composition, geomembranes fall into the following classes:
1. Thermoplastics, such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorosulfonated
polyethylene (CPSE), polyethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) and chlor-
inated polyethylene (CPE). These geomembranes are manufactured
both with and without fabric reinforcement. In addition, new
materials are becoming available based on two or more thermoplas-
tic polymeric compositions that have been coextruded.
2. Thermoplastic semicrystalline materials, such as polyethylene (PE),
polypropylene (PP), and polybutylene (PB). None of these materials
is fabric-reinforced.
3. Elastomeric materials, such as butyl rubber, ethylene propylene
rubber (EPDM), and neoprene (CR). Elastomeric geomembranes
are generally crosslinked during manufacture and are supplied in
both unreinforced and fabric-reinforced versions.
Seaming methods differ depending on the composition of the geomem-
brane and whether or not it was crosslinked during manufacture.
Thermoplastic geomembranes, such as those based on CSPE, CPE and
PVC, are seamed with solvents, bodied-solvent adhesives, or heat. The
semicrystalline PEs are seamed by various thermal methods, e.g. hot air,
hot wedge, or by one of several other welding methods. Cured or
vulcanized geomembranes such as EPDM and CR are usually seamed with
a tongue-and-groove-type seam using gum tape or a two-part adhesive
system which can crosslink at low temperatures.
372 Henry E. Haxo, Jr, Lawrence C. Kamp

G O A L S OF S E A M I N G G E O M E M B R A N E S

In order to achieve long-term integrity and durability of seams in service

conditions in which the geomembranes and seams will contact the
contained liquid, either of two conditions must be met at the interface of
the geomembranes being joined: 6
1. The polymer molecules at the surface of the two geomembranes
being joined shall be thoroughly intermixed on a molecular scale.
This is often achieved by various heat welding processes at tempera-
tures at which the polymers are molten, at which time there is
interdiffusion of the mobile molecules on both sides of the interface.
U n d e r such conditions, the interface becomes h o m o g e n e o u s with the
geomembranes. Molecular intermixing can also be achieved by
solvent-welding procedures in which the polymer on both sides of the
interface is solubilized and, at that time, can diffuse.
2. Primary chemical bonds must exist across the interface, i.e. active
chemical groups on both surfaces of the joint must have reacted with
each other. This is achieved by the appropriate chemical treatment of
the surfaces or by the selection of an appropriate reactive adhesive
which can chemically react with active groups on the geomembrane
surfaces. Such a condition can best be achieved by vulcanization or
crosslinking in the factory in which the seaming is done under heat
and pressure.
The interface between the two layers should essentially disappear. A
residual interface may indicate u n b o n d e d areas on a molecular scale which
may allow waste constituents to enter by diffusion and destroy the
adhesive bond. In particular, organic species can be absorbed and will tend
to separate the polymer molecules by swelling and cause a loss in the
mechanical properties of the mass.

M E T H O D S OF S E A M I N G G E O M E M B R A N E S OF
D I F F E R E N T TYPES

There are the three basic configurations used in seaming g e o m e m b r a n e

sheetings (see Fig. 1):
1. The lap seam, in which the geomembranes can be plied together by
bodied-solvent cement or heating, either thermal or dielectric, or
through the use of hot molten extruded compounds, such as are used
in seaming PEs. The heat may be applied to the outside of the seams
 Destructive testing of geomembrane seams 373

CONFIGURATION METHOD OF SEAMING

LAP SEAM

W'dh no adhesive Made by heat sealing,

t . _
dielectric sealing, end
Bonded surface solvent welding

With adhesive or extrudate

Made with bodied solvents,
i,/ adhesives, and by extrusion
welding

p--R.-,~
p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ] Made with an adhesive,
I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 heat seaming, dielectric
R= Required ovedap of fabric seaming, solvent welding,
(fabric - reinfopced FMLs only) and h u t gun

DUAL-BONDED LAP SEAM

Heat weld
~ Made with dual hot wedge
t I .... v__. ,~'~ ; and hot air seaming methods

Dual-Bonded Lap Seam

FILLET WELD SEAM Made by extruding molten

Extruded bead compound of the same
BUffed area,, ~ 13uffedarea composition as the FML
over the lap~¢l, edge;
a gum tack may be used
! t
for holding the edge
Gum tack of the FML down

/
Extruded area
Similar to above, except
Buffed area ~ ~ Buffed area
a heat gun is used to tack
edge of FML
I ~ ' ~ Hot t J - - i

BUTTERFLY SEAM
Made by a special
1 / heat sealing device

Fig. 1. Configurations of seams used in joining geomembrane sheets and panels and
method of seaming. The 'tacks' used sometimes in preparing the fillet weld seams are not
part of the seam.
374 Henry E. Haxo, Jr, Lawrence C. Kamp

or to the surfaces to be seamed together using heat guns or hot

wedges.
2. The fillet-weld seam, in which a hot extruded c o m p o u n d is placed on
the edge of the lap of two sheetings. This seam is used in joining
semicrystalline sheetings for the long field seams and for repairs,
patches and sealing at penetrations.
3. The dual-bonded lap seam, made with double hot wedges between
two layers of polyethylene.

Other types of seam have been used: (1) a butterfly type, in which two
sheets of unreinforced g e o m e m b r a n e are plied together under heat, and
(2) sewn seams which have been used with geomembranes having a
nonwoven geotextile backing and extruding a small bead at the apex on the
coating side of the seam.
The various types of seaming method that are used in the factory and in
the field to join the geomembranes based on different polymers are
summarized in Table 1. Of particular interest is the Environmental
Protection Agency's Technical Guidance Document on fabrication of PE
field seams. 7

D E S T R U C T I V E TESTS OF SEAMS

Although nondestructive testing may indicate that a seam is continuous

and apparently leak-proof, destructive tests are needed to determine the
strength of the seam and the homogeneity and completeness of the actual
bond. Such testing requires cutting samples from an actual seam and
performing a variety of chemical and physical tests on them as outlined in
A S T M Standard Practice D4437. 8 Destructive test procedures used in
measuring seam strength, particularly tests that measure shear and peel
modes (Fig. 2), are discussed below by geomembrane type.

Seams of fabric-reinforced geomembranes

The strength of seams of fabric-reinforced geomembranes is commonly

determined in accordance with the methods described in the National
Sanitation Foundation (NSF) Standard 54. 9 The same tests are used
regardless of whether the seams are made in the factory or in the field or
whether different methods are used in seaming.
The bonded seam strength (shear strength) is measured in accordance
with a procedure that is a modification of the grab m e t h o d described in
A S T M D751. 8 In the modified procedure, the test specimen is 4 i n
 TABLE 1
Seaming Methods Available for Joining Thermoplastic Polymeric G e o m e m b r a n e s in Factory and Field

Thermal methods

Geomembrane Solvent Extrusion

methods welding

Base p o l y m e r Type of Place Neat Bodied Heat Heat Di- Lap Fillet Hot Ultra-
compound a used seal b gun electric c wedge sonic
seaming
e~

Chlorinated polyethylene TP Factory X X X X X ... X X ~.

Field X X X ... X X
Chlorosulfonated TP Factory X X X X ")(" ... x x
polyethylene Field X X X ... .... X X e~
Low-density polyethylene TP/CX Factory . . . . . . X ... X X
Held . . . . . X ... x x x
Medium-density TP/CX Factory . . . . . . X .. X X
polyethylene Field . . . . . . X x x" x x
High-density polyethylene TP/CX Factory . . . . . . X X X
Field . . . . . . X X X-- X X
Polyester elastomer TP/CX Factory . . . . . . x X X X
X Q I 4 X X
Field
Polyvinyl chloride TP Factory X X X X ... X X
Field X X X °.. ... X X
Polyethylene vinyl acetate TP/CX Factory . . . . . . ... X ")(" °.. ... X X
Field . . . . . . X ... ... X X

"TP = thermoplastic; CX = semicrystalline.

hApplicable to the geomembranes of 20 mil (0-50 mm) or less in thickness.
"Applicable only in the factory with polar polymers•
376 Henry E. Haxo, Jr, Lawrence C. Kamp

1 ? -i
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2. Modes of testing the seam strength. (a) Shear; (b) 'T' peel; (c) 180 ° peel. The 180 °
peel is used only with flexible geomembranes. Depending on the convention, 'T' peel is
sometimes considered 90 ° peel and sometimes 180 ° peel.

(100 mm) in width and has a total length of 9 in (230 mm) plus the width of
the seam (Fig. 3). The faces of the clamps used to secure the specimen in
the testing device measure 1 × 1 in (25 x 25 mm). The required distance
between the clamps at the start of the test is 6 in (152 mm) plus the width of
the seam, with the seam centered between the clamps. The rate of grip
separation is 12 in/min (305 mm/min). Five specimens are tested, and the
maximum stress applied to each specimen at yield or breakage as well as
the location of the break are recorded.
The peel strength of fabric-reinforced geomembrane seams is deter-
mined in accordance with the NSF Standard 54,9 which is a modification of
ASTM D413. 8 In this test, a 1 in (25 mm) wide strip specimen is peeled at
180 ° (by convention, usually 'T' peel) at a rate of 2 in/min (50 mm/min).
Five specimens are tested. The peel strength is calculated by drawing a line
on the stress-strain chart that best represents the average of the highest
and lowest force values necessary to separate the specimen. If an initial
high peak value occurs which is not typical of the remainder of the
stress-strain curve, then this value is ignored during calculations. The
locations of the breaks, e.g. the plane in which the specimens peel, are
recorded. Any voids or unbonded areas noted during testing are also
recorded. In the case of a film-tear bond, fabric-reinforced specimens
frequently separate at the plane of the scrim with the result that the ply
adhesion of the parent sheeting is actually being measured. Testing is
discontinued after 2 in (50 mm) of peeling in this manner.
Most specifications for field seams of reinforced (as well as unrein-
forced) thermoplastic geomembranes call for a minimum overlap area. A
bonded width of 4 in (100 mm) is frequently required for adhesive-welded
 Destructive testing of geomembrane seams 377

4"

Seam

Z Clamp
i
i
Fig. 3. Specimen for testing seam strength of fabric-reinforcedgeomembranes in accord-
ance with NSF Standard 54. 9 (Note: one inch -- 2.54 cm.)

seams. This area begins at the part of the seam that will be in contact with
the waste. If excessive adhesive has squeezed out during the seaming
process causing a larger than 4 in (100 mm) wide bonded area, specimens
being prepared for peel testing are usually separated by hand up to the 4 in
(100 ram) width.
Seam samples cut from a liner should have a minimum length of 30 in
(760 mm) in the direction of the seam to accommodate 5 specimens in peel
and 5 specimens in shear. The width of the sample cut from the
g e o m e m b r a n e depends on the width of the seam to meet the dimensions
required for the shear test specimen (Fig. 3). At the time the test
specimens are cut from the sample, the peel and shear specimens, if
possible, are alternated across the length of the seam sample.
For specification testing, dielectric or heat-sealed seam samples should
be conditioned for 24 h at 23°C prior to testing. Adhesive-welded seam
378 Henry E. Haxo, Jr, Lawrence C. Kamp

samples should not have a solvent odor at the time of testing. The NSF
Standard 54 [9] requires conditioning of adhesive-welded seam samples
for a minimum of 12 days at 23°C, during which time the solvent can diffuse
and evaporate from the bonded area of the sample. If, after conditioning,
the sample still has an odor of solvent, the sample can be oven-aged at 70°C
for 3 h and allowed to rest at 23°C for 48 h before testing. Exposing the
samples to direct sunlight can hasten the solvent evaporation or curing
cycle.

Seams of unreinforced thermoplastic geomembranes

The bonded seam strength (shear strength) of unreinforced thermoplastic

geomembranes is measured in accordance with the method described in
NSF Standard 54, 9 which is a modification of ASTM D3083,8 permitting
either Method A or Method B of ASTM D882. 8 A 1 in (25 mm) wide strip
specimen is used with a grip separation of 4 in (100 mm) plus the width of
the seam. The seam is centered between the grips and the rate of
separation is 20 in/min (508 mm/min). Five specimens are tested and the
maximum stress applied to each specimen at yield or breakage as well as
the location of the break are recorded.
The peel strength is determined with a 1 in (25 mm) wide strip in
accordance with the same procedure used to test reinforced geomem-
branes. When cutting the test specimens, peel and shear specimens are
alternated across the length of the seam sample, if possible. The
conditioning of samples prior to test is the same as that for reinforced
geomembranes.

Seams of semicrystalline thermoplastic geomembranes

High-density polyethylene (HDPE), which represents the principal

geomembrane among the semicrystalline thermoplastic geomembranes, is
generally shipped to the job site in wide width rolls (i.e. 21-33ft
(6.4-10 m) in width), and all seaming takes place in the field. The seaming
methods that appear to be most frequently used are extrusion-fillet
welding, dual-thermal-wedge welding, and single-wedge welding.
Seam strength is determined by testing five specimens each in shear and
peel modes. Alternating specimens cut from the sample taken from the
seam are tested in peel and shear modes. The specimens for both tests are
cut out from the field sample using an ASTM D6388 Type I die. This
dumbbell-shaped specimen is 6.5 in (165 mm) in length, with the narrow
section being 0.5 in (12.7 mm) wide and 3.5 in (90 mm) long. The tab ends
are 0-75 in (19.0 mm) in width. If a strip specimen is used instead of a
 Destructive testing of geomembrane seams 379

dumbbell specimen, then the specimen may not break when tested in the
shear mode before the maximum extension of the tensile testing machine
is reached. The dumbbell-shaped specimen also prevents slippage in the
grips.
Determination of seam strength in the shear mode is performed in
accordance with a test method based on ASTM D638/3083. 8 The seam is
centered between the grips. Initial grip separation is approximately
4.5-5.0 in (115-127 mm). Rate of grip separation is 2.0 in/min (50 mm/
min). The maximum stress applied to the specimen at yield or break and
the location of break are recorded. In the case of fillet-weld-type seams, it
should be noted that the hot-tack portion of the specimen is not part of the
seam and should be opened prior to testing; thus, only the fillet-weld part
of the seam is tested. It is sometimes necessary to cut through the hot-tack
in order to open up the seam.
Determination of seam strength in the peel mode is performed in
accordance with a modified version of ASTM D4138 that allows for the use
of the ASTM D6388 Type I dumbbell test specimen. The rate of grip
separation is 2.0 in/min (50 mm/min) and the maximum stresses applied
are recorded. When dual-thermal-weld samples are tested, that part of the
weld that would be in contact with the waste is tested first and the sample
specimen is then reversed and the second weld is tested. The maximum
stress applied and the location of the break are recorded. If during the peel
test a specimen partially separates but then breaks, it would be classified as
a film-tear bond. However, the percentage of the area that is separated is
compared with the total seam area.
A few brittle fracture failures across and adjacent to weld areas of PE
geomembranes have been reported 1° and, as a result, a need has arisen for
the development of new test criteria. In response, several options to
develop new criteria are being investigated. One option involves recording
the elongation of the specimens at yield and at break when tested in the
shear mode. The method of calculating this elongation value needs to be
investigated further. A seam usually results in a mass of much greater
thickness than the parent sheeting and, consequently, will elongate less at
a particular stress than the parent sheeting. This causes stress concentra-
tion above and below the seam between the upper and lower grips of the
tensile testing equipment (see Fig. 4). The following parameters need to
be standardized before the industry can begin to specify criteria based on
the amount of elongation:
- - T h e length to be used in calculating elongation.
--Total grip separation distance at start of test.
--Distance where elongation is occurring from the grip to the edge of
the seam.
380 Henry E. Haxo, Jr, Lawrence C. Kamp

Griparea "I[

I Areaofelongation I---1
,.~

Areaof Areaof
elongation

ii';e
r iiilt,on
elongation

• !
Griparea "1 .]

(a) Fillet-typeweld (b) Dual-thermal-wedge

type weld

Fig. 4. The areas of elongation of the fillet-weld and dual-thermal-wedge seam specimens
under shear test.

R E Q U I R E M E N T S IN SPECIFICATIONS

Inasmuch as there is a variety of seam test procedures, acceptance criteria,

and ways of interpreting test results, it is essential that the specifications
for seam quality and testing clearly set forth such test conditions as
sampling procedure and frequency, specimen size, placement in the tester,
rate of grip separation, condition of sample before testing, and the
required acceptance criteria such as averaging procedures, the magnitude
of specific test values, and the acceptable locus of break. These factors are
discussed below.

Sampling requirement
No standard frequency for sampling the in-place factory and field seams
for seam strength testing has been established. Sampling has been
specified both on randomized and judgemental bases of the number and
size of samples to be cut out per unit length of seam. Both factory and field
seams should be tested; however, the frequency needed for sampling
 Destructive testing of geomembrane seams 381

factory seams can be lower, since factory seaming operations are

performed under more highly controlled conditions.
For testing field seams in PE geomembranes, some engineering firms
specify cutting out one sample per 500 ft (150 m) of seam for testing. Two
1 in (25 mm) wide specimens are cut 42 in (1.07 m) apart at the required
location and the specimens are tested on a field tensiometer. If both
specimens pass the specified criteria, the 42 in (1-07 m) section is cut out
and divided into 3 parts, one 12 in (0-30 m) sample is given to the owner,
one 12 in (0-30 m) sample is retained by the engineering firm, and the
remaining 18 in (0.46 m) sample is sent to a third party laboratory for seam
strength testing. If either one of the original 1 in (25 mm) wide specimens
does not meet the criteria, then other sample areas are selected 10 ft
(3.30 m) to both sides and new specimens are cut. If these specimens pass,
then the 42 in (1.07 m) wide samples are cut out and the seam is repaired
up to these areas. This procedure is continued until samples that pass the
acceptance criteria are obtained, or it is agreed to repair the entire seam.
Similar sampling procedures are used at all geomembrane installations
though the size of samples might differ for other materials, e.g. PVC or
CSPE-R. In addition, the frequency can vary from one sample every 500 ft
(150 m) of seam to one sample every 1000 ft (300 m) depending on the
design specification.
The frequency of sampling needed for assessing factory seams used in
making panels is much lower than that for field seams. Many specifications
do not require a minimum frequency of sampling for factory fabrication. If
a frequency requirement is needed, it is usually based on the production of
one shift or per machine and could range from one sample per 2000 ft
(610 m) of seam to one sample per 4000 ft (1200 m) of seam depending on
the material and the method of factory fabrication.

Variations in sampling
Options are usually included in the project specification to provide for
additional sampling when certain conditions or changes in conditions
occur, such as:
1. Different or changing contour (slope, bottom).
2. Weather changes during installation (cloud cover, moisture, exces-
sive heat or cold).
3. Windblown dust or dirt.
4. Changes in seaming crew personnel.
5. Equipment changes or repairs.
6. Work stoppage, e.g. continuation after lunch hour or breaks.
Usually, if new equipment is being used or if there is a change in crew
382 Henry E. Haxo, Jr, Lawrence C. Kamp

personnel, a trial weld will be made and tested. For the other conditions,
additional samples will be taken from the seams and tested. The frequency
of sampling would be at the discretion of the quality control engineer/
inspector.

Reporting of seam strength and adhesion values

The results of destructive seam testing are reported both in terms of

quantitative strength and adhesion values for a seam sample and the
locus-of-break code of the test specimens. It is desirable that a seam has
the same strength as the parent sheeting; however, based on the geometry
of the test specimen, which is a tensile specimen, this is not possible. All
seaming methods result in flaws to the parent sheeting, including the seam
itself, both in the seam area and immediately adjacent to the seam area. As
a result, the seam strength when tested in the shear mode, which is
essentially a tensile test, will always be less than 100% of the actual
strength of the parent material.
Most engineering specifications pertaining to seam quality require
either 80 or 90% of the minimum specified strength of the parent sheeting
as a criterion for seam strength measured in the shear mode. With
unreinforced thermoplastic geomembranes (PVC) and reinforced
geomembranes (CSPE-R) the breaking strength is used for designing.
With semicrystalline materials (HDPE), engineers use the yield strength.
In the case of PVC and CSPE sheetings it should be noted that the criterion
is 80 or 90% of the minimum specified breaking strength, not the actual
breaking strength of the sheeting. The NSF Standard 549 presents values
for breaking strength of these sheetings that are reasonably close to the
values actually observed during normal manufacturing of the respective
materials. The breaking strength values of H D P E seams, however, are
much lower than the breaking strength values obtained by testing normal
manufactured goods. As a result, 80% of the specified value might mean
70-75% of actual strength of the parent sheeting with one type of
geomembrane, whereas 80% of the specified value of another type of
geomembrane could actually be 50% of the strength of the parent
sheeting.
Testing in the shear mode of a seam specimen provides information as to
how the membrane was affected by the seaming process, e.g. buffing,
damage and overheating. It does not provide enough information as to
the integrity of the seam and the completeness of the bonded area across
the seam. Testing a seam in the peel mode supplies information as to the
quality of the adhesion and the integrity of the seam. A specimen with only
a relatively low peel strength can break outside the seam area (i.e. in the
 Destructive testing of geomembrane seams 383

parent sheeting) when the seam is tested in the shear mode. Being able to
obtain numerical values of the peel test is important, as a seaming process
could yield a seam that would have a film-tear bond in peel, but severely
weaken and distort the parent sheeting. This possibility justifies the need
to test the seam strength both in the peel and shear modes. It is desirable,
regardless of the membrane, to have the specimen break as a film-tear
bond in the peel mode.

Locus-of-break code

The locus-of-break code is shorthand for describing the location of break

in the specimens and reporting them as part of the seam-testing proce-
dures. The four basic configurations of seams that are used in the seaming
of geomembranes are illustrated in Fig. 1. To identify the locus of break, a
code can be developed for each configuration. The description code list
must include those breaks for both the peel and shear modes. Figures 5-8
are examples of the locus-of-break codes used in identifying the exact
location of the break in a specimen for different types of seam.

A C C E P T A N C E C R I T E R I A FOR D E S T R U C T I V E
TESTING OF SEAMS

Seams of unreinforced thermoplastic geomembranes

The generally used acceptance criteria for bonded seam strength (that is,
the strength of seams tested in shear) specify that the average of the
maximum strength of the five tested specimens be at least 80% of the value
for breaking strength of the parent sheeting called for in the specification.
The values appearing in NSF Standard 549 for the breaking strength of the
parent sheeting are often used in specifications. Some specifications may
call for 80% of the actual breaking strength of the geomembrane. In
addition to meeting a strength requirement, the specimens are usually
required to break so as to indicate a film-tear bond (FTB); that is, all of the
tested specimens must break at the seam edge (SE) or in the sheeting
outside the seam area (BRK). These criteria for strength and locus of
break are the same for both factory and field seams. Representative test
results are presented in Table 2 for samples cut from field seams of 30 mil
(0.74 mm) and 40 mil (1.0 mm) PVC geomembranes. They show that all
the specimens tested in the shear mode broke in the parent sheeting, and
that all the 30 mil (0.74 mm) specimens and most of the 40 mil (1-0 mm)
specimens met the value requirements.
384 Henry E. Haxo, Jr, Lawrence C. Kamp

Schematic of
Untested Specimen

Direction
of Peel X-X We~ Top Sheet
I
--0
Bottom Sheet
Locus-el-Break Break
Types of Breaks Code Oeecrlptlon Classification a
Clamp
% CL Break in sheeting
i - i
at clamp edge.

Ji i

i
BRK Break in sheeting. FTB

- i

%ru ,, I
}sE Break at seam edge. FTB

/
%

~:~ Break in s h e e t i n g
t ~ AD-BRK after some adhesion FTB
' failure between t h e
sheets.

, AD .Failure in adhesion Non-FTB

between the sheets.

Fig. 5. Locus of break for dielectric- or solvent-weld seam of unreinforced geomem-

branes. Note: Acceptance of CL-type breaks may depend on whether test values meet a
minimum specification value. In general, though, a CL-type break should be considered a
'no test'. If specimens for a particular sample break consistently at the clamp edge, changes
in the testing procedure should be considered, e.g. changing the clamp face, using a
dumbbell-type specimen. (aFTB = film-tear bond.)
 Destructive testing of geomembrane seams 385

Schematic o f • Seam of • 3-Ply

F a b r i c - R e i n f o r c e d FML

Di;ection
~ Fabric

~ . ~ Plies of
" ' Polymer
Seam
Locus-of-Break Break Claesl-
Types of Breaks Code Description flciUon a

Adhesion failure resulting in

AD delamination in the plane of Non - FTB
i the bond.

Delaminaticn in the plane

DEL of the scrim. (Applicable FTB
to peel only).

Deleminatlon in the plane

of the scrim after some
, AD-DEL de~aminaticnin the plane FTB
i of the bond. (Applicable
tO peel only)

Break in the sheet through

BRK both the fabric and the plies FI"B
of polymer. Fabric break may
precede break in sheeting.

Fabric pullout. Pullout of the

FP threads parallel to the direction
I No Test
i of test followed by break in the
plies of polymeric sheeting.

Fig. 6. Locus-of-break codes for a seam of fabric-reinforced geomembranes

(aFTB = film-tear bond.)
386 Henry E. Haxo, Jr, Lawrence C. Kamp

S c h w t t s t l c of
Untested Specimen
Bead Outer Area
, ~ ~ L f r.. Buffed Area

~- Hot Tack (delarninatedl

Locus-of-Break Bre|k
Types of Breaks Code Oeecrlptlon Clll~Hlcstion a

Failure in adhe~on, Specimens

AD1 may also delaminate unc~r the Non-FTB
bead ~ ~ throulih the thin
extruded rnMldll In the outer me¢

ADZ Failure in adhesion. Non-FTB

Off-Center Bead

Break through the fglet. Breaks

through the fillet r e ~ e from
bt~k,s = ~ at the ~ of
AD-WLD the top ~NN~ to breaks through Non-FTB b
the filet after some adhesion
failure between the fillet and
the bottom sheet.
2

~ , , SE Break at seam edge, Indicate

location by 1,2, or 3.
FTB

3 1
2 Break in the sheet. Use 1 to
indicate bottom sheet and 2
I '---' BRK to indicate top sheet. If break FTB
/
is in buffed area, indicate
1
with "(1B)'.
Break in the bottom ihlNiting
• , AD-BRK alter ~ IKIhllion l=llure FTB
the filet m~l the bottom
sheet. (~aplicllble to peel only).
Break ill the edge of the
, HT hot tack tot specimens which NO Test
could not be delamlnated in
the hot tack.

Fig. 7. L o c u s - o f - b r e a k codes a n d descriptions of s e a m b r e a k s for fillet-weld-type s e a m s

with e i t h e r hot tack or g u m tack. (aFTB = film-tear b o n d . b A c c e p t a n c e of A D - W L D
b r e a k s m a y d e p e n d o n w h e t h e r test values m e e t a m i n i m u m specification value a n d n o t o n
classification as an F T B or n o n F T B b r e a k . )

Specified acceptance criteria for peel strength usually require that the
samples meet a specified minimum strength value or break with an FTB.
For factory-made seams, NSF Standard 549 requires an FFB or a peel
strength greater than 10 ppi (1.75 kN/m). In almost all tests of factory
seams, the seams are FTB. Consequently, an acceptance criterion of
greater than 10 ppi (1.75 kN/m) which is frequently specified, does not
reflect the peel values that are commonly obtained. For most field seams of
 Destructive testing of geomembrane seams 387

Schematic of
U n t e s t e d Specimen

W ~ o p Sheet

~,~ ~ " BottomSheet

Direction of Initial Peel

Locus-of-Break Break
Types of Break Code Description Classification a

I ~ AD Adhesion failure. Non-FTB

_ ,,=

Break in sheeting. Break

BRK can be in either top or FTB
bottom sheet.

Break at outer edge of

seam. Break can be
SE1 in either top or bottom FTB
sheet.

Break at inner edge of

SE2 seam through both FTB
sheets.

Break in first seam

I ~ ~ after some adhesion
AD-BRK failure.Break can be FTB
in either the top or
bottom sheet.

Fig. 8. Locus-of-break codes and descriptions of test breaks for dual-wedge-thermal weld
seams. (aFFB = film-tear bond. Diagram not to scale.)

PVC geomembranes, the peel strength values are generally much higher,
as is shown in Table 2, thus indicating that higher values are possible and
should be specified for PVC seams. Low values may reflect partial
retention of the solvent by the PVC at the bond. A minimum peel strength
of 15 ppi (2-63 kN/m) is suggested for field seams of PVC geomembranes
up to and including 40 mil (1.0 mm) thicknesses. The recommended
criterion for factory-fabricated seams is an FTB or a peel strength greater
than 20 ppi (3.5 kN/m).

Seams of fabric-reinforced geomembranes

The bonded seam strength of fabric-reinforced g e o m e m b r a n e s , such as

C S P E - R , is frequently specified as 90% of the specified breaking strength
388 Henry E. Haxo, Jr, Lawrence C. Kamp

TABLE 2
Analysis of Representative Test Results for Samples of Field Seams of Unreinforced
Polyvinyl Chloride Thermoplastic Geomembranes

30 mil (0.76 mm) 40 mil (1.00 ram)

Parameter Peel Shear Peel Shear

Seam specification ~
Minimum value
(ppi b) (kN/m) 10(1.75) 55-2(9.66) 10(1.75) 73.6(12.88)
Class of break FTB c FrB C FTB c FFB ~
Number of samples
in test 22 22 24 24
Test values
Range of values
(ppi) (kN/m):
Low 13-0(2.28) 59.0(10-33) 6.2(1.09) 65-3(11.43)
High 30.6(5.36) 76.0(13.30) 30.0(5.25) 86.0(15.05)
Median value
(ppi) (kN/m) 21.1(3.69) 67.0(11.73) 17.6(3.08) 74-6(13.06)
Mean value
(ppi) (kN/m) 21.0(3.68) 66.9(11-71) 16.0(2.80) 75.6(13.23)
Standard deviation
(ppi) (kN/m) 5-0(0.88) 4.8(0.84) 5.7(1.00) 5.6(0.98)
Locus of break
Class of break
(%)~:
FFB c 68.2 100 13-4 100
NonFFB" 31-8 0 86.6 0
Type of break e
(%) AD (31-8) SE (97.3) AD (86.6) SE (94.2)
AD-BRK (57.3) BRK (2-7) AD-BRK (9.2) BRK (4-2)
SE (10.9) SE (4-2) AD-BRK (1.6)

aBased on NSF Standard 54. 9

bppi = Pound per inch of width = lbf/in.
cFI'B = film-tearbond;nonFFB = nonfilm-tearbond.
dpercentage of specimens in the test.
eTypes of break are illustrated schematically in Fig. 5.

of the parent sheeting, which is usually 200 ppi (35 kN/m) for 36 mil
(0.91 mm) CSPE-R and 250 ppi (43.8 kN/m) for 45 mil (1.14 mm) CSPE-
R. The reinforcing fabric in both geomembranes is a 10 x 10-1000 denier
polyester scrim and is the strength component of this type of geomem-
brane. The locus-of-break code should be a film-tear bond (SE or BRK).
However, if pullout or slippage of the fabric occurs during testing, the
 Destructive testing o f geomembrane seams 389

TABLE 3
Analysis of Representative Test Results for Samples of Field
Seams of Fabric-Reinforced Chiorosulfonated Polyethylene Geomembranes

Type 3-36 a Type 3-45 a

36 mil (0.91 mm) 45 mil (1.14 mm)

Parameter Peel Sheer Peel Shear

Seam specification a
Minimum value
(ppi b) (kN/m) 10(1-75) 200(35-0) 10(1.75) 250(43.8)
Class of break FFB c FFB c FrB C FrB c
Number of samples 11 11 21 21
in test
Test values
Range of values
(ppi) (kN/m):
Low 11-2(1-96) 265(46-4) 14-6(2.56) 245(42.9)
High 15.2(2.66) 343(60-0) 23-7(4.15) 328(57.4)
Median value
(ppi) (kN/m) 13.2(2.31) 320(56.0) 19.1(3.34) 302(52.9)
Mean value
(ppi) (kN/m) 13-1(2.29) 314(56.0) 19-4(3-40) 305(53-4)
Standard deviation
(ppi) (kN/m) 1-2(0.21) 23(4.02) 2.8(0.49) 16(2.80)
Locus of break
Class of break (%)d:
FTB ~ 100 100 100 100
NonFTB ~ 0 0 0 0
Type of break e DEL(100) BRK (100) D E L (100) BRK (100)

aBased on NSF Standard 54. 9

bppi = Pound per inch of width = Ibf/in.
CFFB = film-tearbond;nonFFB = nonfilm-tearbond.
dpercentage of specimens in the test.
eTypes of break are illustrated schematically in Fig. 6.

results are generally discarded and new specimens are tested. Representa-
tive test results for these geomembranes are presented in Table 3.
Specifications for peel adhesion of the seams of fabric-reinforced
thermoplastic geomembranes generally require a film-tear bond and a
minimum peel value. An FTB break of fabric-reinforced geomembranes
results in the ply separation at the plane of the scrim of one of the plies of
parent sheeting. The ply adhesion of this type of geomembrane is
specified. Factory-fabricated seams should always achieve an FFB.
NonFTB breaks have been observed in field-fabricated samples because
390 Henry E. Haxo, Jr, Lawrence C. Kamp

CSPE-R begins to surface cure on exposure to sunlight and moisture,

making field seaming more difficult. Special preparation of the geomem-
brane surface may be required. A minimum bond of 10 ppi (1.75 kN/m) is
generally used for field seams of this type of geomembrane; the scrim-
over-scrim overlap in the bonded area should be a minimum of 3 in
(76 mm) wide. Peel adhesion values significantly higher than 10 ppi
(1.75 kN/m) are frequently obtained, as is shown in Table 3; these results
indicate that higher values might be specified. Nevertheless, specification
values are limited by ply adhesion.

Seams of semicrystalline thermoplastic geomembranes

In general, the current acceptance criterion for the bonded seam strength
of seams of semicrystalline thermoplastic geomembranes, e.g. H D P E , is a
minimum value equal to 90% of the yield strength of the parent sheeting.
As with the other types of geomembranes, NSF Standard 549 is commonly
used as the source for the strength requirement. Because most require-
ments for yield strength are conservative, as is the case with those in NSF
Standard 54, 9 it has been suggested that the acceptance criterion for
bonded seam strength should be equal to or greater than 110% of the
specified yield strength. Also, all specimens tested in shear for bonded
seam strength should break in the parent sheeting, that is they should be
FTB breaks. Low values in shear are usually the result of damage to the
sheeting, e.g. severe buffing or gouging, during the seaming operation.
In many specifications, the acceptance criterion for peel strength of PE
seams is also related to the specified yield strength of the parent sheeting.
The minimum values for peel strength are often 60% of specified yield
strength. Other minimum values that have been specified include 65% of
specified yield value for extrusion fillet-type welds and 70% of yield value
for dual-thermal-wedge welds. The locus-of-break specified also must be
FFB; however, some specifications allow one nonFTB break in a set of five
specimens that meet the strength criterion of acceptance. In such cases,
the specification must be explicit as to strength values and to the number of
nonFTB breaks for a given number of specimens.
Examples of the seam strength values and the respective loci of breaks
(see Figs 7 and 8) obtained in the testing of samples of field seams made by
fillet- and dual-wedge-thermal welding are presented in Tables 4 and 5
respectively. Table 4 presents the results of testing samples of fillet welds
of H D P E geomembranes of 40, 60 and 100 mil (1-0, 1-5 and 2.5 mm)
thicknesses. The results show the significantly higher strength values both
in shear and peel than were specified, thus indicating that higher values
could be used in specifications. It is to be noted that there were a significant
 TABLE 4
T e s t R e s u l t s f o r S a m p l e s o f F i e l d S e a m s o f Fillet W e l d s o f H D P E Geomembranes

40 rail (I .00 ram) 60 rail (1.50 ram) 100 rail (2.54 ram)

Bond Adhesive Bond Adhesive Bond Adhesive

Parameter strength strength strength strength strength strength
(shear) (peel) (shear) (peel) (shear) (peel)

Seam specification ~
Minimum value (ppi b) (kN/m) 63 (11.0) -- 108 (18.9) -- 135 (23.6) --
Class of break' FrB d FTB PFB FTB FTB FTB
Number of samples in test 13 13 21 21 18 18
Thickness (mil) (mm)
e~
Median 40-5 (1-03) 64.8 (1.65) 106.4 (2-70)
Mean 39.9 (l.01) --~ 65-6 (1-67) --~ 106.0 (2-69) --~
Standard deviation 1.8 (0.046) 3.7 (0-094) 4.6 (0.117)
Test values
Range of values (ppi) 92-128 50-110 170-199 78-133 255-311 130-234
(kN/m) (16-1-22.4) (8-76-19-3) (29.8-31.8) (13-6-23.3) (44-6-54-4) (22-8-41-0)
Median value (ppi) (kN/m) 120 (21-0) 80 (14-0) 182 (31.9) 101 (17.7) 280 (49-0) 162 (28.4)
e~
Mean value (ppi) (kN/m) 116 (20-3) 77 (13.5) 181 (31-7) 105 (18.4) 280 (49.0) 167 (29-2)
Standard deviation (ppi) (kN/m) 9-6 (1-68) 16-5 (2-89) 10.5 (1.84) 16.0 (2.80) 14-4 (2.52) 24.2 (4.24)
Class and locus of break"
(% of specimens)~
Film-tear bond: SE 80 83 87 76 72 76
BRK 15 5 8 0 11 0
AD-BRK 0 0 0 10 0 0
Nonfilm-tear bond: A D 0 12 0 10 0 0
AD-WLD 0 0 0 1 16 24
No test: HT 5 0 5 3 1 0
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100

UBased on NSF Standard 54. 9

hppi = pounds per inch of width = lbf/in = 0.175 kN/m.
'Types of break are illustrated schematically in Fig. 7.
dFTB = film-tear bond = break in the parent sheeting.
"Percentage of specimens in the test.
392 Henry E. Haxo, Jr, Lawrence C. Kamp

TABLE 5
Tests of Field Seams of Dual-Wedge-Thermal Welds
of 40 mil (1.00 mm) HDPE Geomembranes

Adhesive strength
(peel)

Bond strength
Parameter (shear) Weld A Weld B

Seam specification a
Minimum value (ppi b) (kN/m) 63 (11.0)
Class of break c FTB a FFB FTB
Number of samples in test 30 30 30
Thickness
Range of values (rail)
(mm) 34--43 1
(0.86-1.09)
Median (rail) (mm) 37.2 (0.94)
Mean (mil) (mm) 37.4 (0-95)
Standard deviation 2.0 (0.051)
Test values
Range of values (ppi) 98-117 61-94 65-98
(kN/m) (17.2-20-5) (10.7-16.5) (11.4-17.2)
Median value (ppi) (kN/m) 105 (18.4) 85 (14.9) 85 (14.9)
Mean value (ppi) (kN/m) 105 (18.4) 83 (14.5) 84 (14-7)
Standard deviation (ppi) (kN/m) 4.5 (0.79) 7.1 (1.24) 7-4 (1.30)
Class and locus of break"
(% of specimens) e
Film-tear bond:
SE 100 91 88
BRK 0 0 0
AD-BRK 0 3 3
Nonfilm-tear bond:
AD 0 6 9
Total 100 100 100

aBased on NSF Standard 54. 9

hppi = pounds per inch of width = lbf/in = 0.175 kN/m.
fl'ypes of break are illustrated schematically in Fig. 8.
dVI'B = film-tear bond = break in the parent sheeting.
epercentage of specimens in the test.
 Destructive testing of geomembrane seams 393

number of A D - W L D breaks (see Fig. 8) among specimens of the seams of

the 100 mil (2-5 mm) H D P E geomembrane. Though the strength values
are high, the breaks in the welds may reflect the stress concentration at the
weld generated during testing of the test specimens. It is also to be noted
that strength values in peel increase with thickness of the sheeting that was
seamed and, thus, do not strictly indicate the actual adhesion value
between the two sheetings when the breaks were FTB.
Table 5 presents the results of the testing of dual-wedge-thermal welds
of a 40 mil (1-0 mm) H D P E geomembrane. As with the fillet weld, the
seam strength values obtained in both shear and peel modes are
significantly higher than the minimum strength values often used in
specifications. Again, this indicates that the values for acceptance criteria
could be increased. Several adhesive breaks were encountered among the
specimens tested in the set of samples; however, in the case of only one
specimen was the break in both welds of the dual-wedge seam. The
acceptance or nonacceptance of nonFTB breaks with high peel values
must be set in the specification. An adhesive break at the interface of the
two sheetings can be an indication of inadequate knitting or molecular
mixing of the resin across the bond interface.
The actual bonded seam strength values are substantially higher than
the acceptance criteria which would indicate that higher values can be
specified for seam strength; these values, however, must reflect design and
performance requirements.
A modification of existing test procedures to indicate brittleness of the
weld is being investigated. The modification involves determining and
considering the elongation at yield and at break as important parameters
and acceptance criteria. Even though this modification is still in the trial
stages, elongation values have been stated in specifications, e.g. 10% for
elongation at yield and 50% for elongation at break. Low values for the
elongations may reflect the brittleness quality of the polyethylene. The
method of determining the elongation values, which has not been
standardized, must be resolved before elongation values are used in
acceptance criteria.

DISCUSSION

Destructive tests of geomembrane seams measure the strength of the bond

in shear and adhesive strength in peel of samples taken from actual seams.
The results of these tests give an indication of the strength and condition of
the seam at the time of the sampling. Even though these tests, combined
394 Henry E. Haxo, Jr, Lawrence C. Kamp

with 100% nondestructive testing and inspection, satisfy a necessary

condition for an initially nonleaking seam, they do not satisfy a sufficient
condition for the long-term durability of the seam; neither do these tests
indicate the seam strength at elevated temperatures nor on long-term
exposure in a waste environment.
Both nondestructive and destructive testing should be incorporated in
specifications, and acceptance criteria based on the results of this testing
should be stated clearly. Also, to give further assurance of the long-term
durability of in-service geomembranes, compatibility testing with the
liquid to be contained should be performed on seam prototypes.
The effects of long-term exposure of seams to various environments,
particularly those involving wastes, are not well documented. Also,
acceptance criteria for seam quality and properties of geomembranes are
not well established. Field verification of actual seams after long-term
exposure will eventually supply the information needed as to the
long-term durability of seams in actual service and will supply information
required to set frequencies for sampling of the seams during installation.
Because field seaming is basically a manually controlled process which
varies greatly from g e o m e m b r a n e to g e o m e m b r a n e and among installers,
it must be treated as such in setting specifications and sampling frequency.
Thus, sampling strategies should probably vary with the type of geomem-
brane, type of seaming process, type of equipment used in seaming, and
the location of the facility.

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