1.

Theory of machines:
The Theory of machines is the branch of Engineering-science, which deals with the study of
relative motion between the various parts of a machine, and forces which act on them. In this
branch of engineering-science, we will deal with the kinematics and the dynamics. 

1.1 The machine:

A machine is a combination of components which can transmit power in a controlled manner and
which is capable of performing useful work. A machine consists of a number of kinematically
related links.
A machine is a combination of resistant bodies (links or elements) with successfully constrained
relative motions, which is used for transmitting other forms of energy into mechanical energy or
transmitting and modifying available energy to do some particular kind of work

1.2 Sub- divisions of theory of Machines:

They Theory of Machines may be sub- divided into the following four branches

1- Kinematics:
Kinematics is that branch of theory of machines in which we study about the motion of bodies /
machine parts without reference to the forces which are responsible for this motion.
2- Kinetics:
Kinematics is that branch of theory of machines in which we study about the forces acting on
the bodies / machine parts.
3- Dynamics:
Dynamics is that branch of theory of machines in which we study about the forces and their
effects acting on the machine parts when machine parts are in motion.
4- Statics:
Statics is that branch of theory of machines in which we study about the forces and their effects
acting on the machine parts when machine parts are not in motion
2.Link and elements:

2.1Rigid link:
In this type of link there is no deformation while transmitting the motion.
Motion between the piston and piston rings can be considered as a rigid link.
Rigid links are further classified as:
a. Binary link:
Link which is connected to other links at two points.
 Fig 2.a.1 binary link

b. Ternary link:
Link which is connected to other links at three points.

Fig 2.b.2 Ternary link

c. Quaternary link:
Link which is connected to other links at four points.

Fig 2.a.1 Quaternary link

2.2Flexible link:
In this type of link there is partial deformation while transmitting the motion. Belt drive is an
example of flexible link.

2.3Fluid link:
In this type of link the motion is transmitted with the help of fluid pressure.
Hydraulic brake is an example of fluid link

3.kinematics pair:
When the relative motion between these two links is completely or partially constrained, then
the pair is called kinematic pair.
3.1 Types of kinematics pair:
i. According to nature of contact between links
a. Lower pair:
If the two pairing elements have surface contact, the pair is called as lower pair. For example pin
joint, shaft rotating in the bush, slider in slider crank mechanism. The shaft rotating in the bush
as shown in figure 1 is depicting a lower pair.

Fig 3.a.1 Lower pair

b. Higher Pair:
If the contact between the pairing elements takes place at a point or along a line, such as in ball
bearing or between two gear teeth in contact, it is known as a higher pair. The ball bearing
having point contact between the inner race, outer race and balls as shown in figure 2 is depicting
a higher pair.

Fig 3.b.2 Higher pair

ii. According to the nature of relative motion between links

a. Sliding Pair:
Siding pair sliding pair is constituted by two elements so connected that one is constrained to
have a sliding motion relative to the other. DOF = 1. Let us suppose element 2 is fixed and
element 1 having rectangular cross section slides in the hole having rectangular cross section
provided in element 2
 Fig 3.3 sliding pair

b. Turning pair:
If two pairing elements are connected in such a way that only a rotary motion of one element
with respect to other is possible, the pair is called turning pair as shown in figure 4. The element
2 (Bush) remains fixed. The two collars prevent the axial movement of the element 1 (shaft), the
shaft can rotate only. The figure 4 depicts a turning pair.

Fig 3.4 Turning pair

iii. Screw or helical pair:

When one element turns about the other element by means of threads, they form a screw pair.
The motion in this case is a combination of sliding and turning.
Example the lead screw of a lathe with a nut, a bolt with a nut, Screw and nut of screw jack are
some examples of screw pairs. The element 1 (Bolt) can rotate having sliding movement in the
directions as shown in figure 5. The element 2 (Nut) is fixed with respect to the element 1

Fig 3.5 screw and helical pair

iv. Cylindrical pair:
If the relative motion between the pairing elements is the combination of turning and sliding
then it is called as cylindrical pair, degree of freedom (DOF) = 2. The element 1 has combination
of turning and sliding motion

Fig 3.6 cylindrical pair

v. Spherical Pair:
When the two elements of a pair are connected in such a way that one element (with spherical
shape) turns or swivels about the other fixed element, the pair formed is called a spherical pair.
The ball and socket joint, attachment of a car mirror, pen stand etc., are the examples of a
spherical pair.

Fig 3.7 spherical pair

4. kinematic chain:
kinematic chain is an assembly of rigid bodies connected by joints to provide constrained (or
desired) motion that is the mathematical model for a mechanical system. As in the familiar use of
the word chain, the rigid bodies, or links, are constrained by their connections to other links

4.1 Different Types of Kinematic Chains:.

The kinematic chains with four lower pairings are the most essential. When the pair is sliding or
turning, it is referred to as a lower pair. A lower pair is an ideal joint that restricts contact
between a moving body surface and a corresponding fixed body surface. Following are the types
of Kinematic Chains.

4.2 Four Bar Chain:

The Quadric Cycle chain is another name for the Four Bar chain. The four-bar chain will consist
of four links, each of which will make one turning pair. These four links might have varying
lengths. The sum of the shortest and longest link lengths should be bigger than the sum of the
other two links, according to Grashof's law for a Four bar mechanism. One of the most critical
aspects of any mechanism is that one of the connections completes one full revolution.

Fig 4.1 Four bar chain

4.3 Single Slider Crank Chain:

The redesigned Four Bar mechanism is used in the Single Slider Crank Chain system. Unlike the
four-bar mechanism, which has four turning pairs, the Single slider crank chain mechanism has
three turning pairs and one sliding pair.As you can see, there is a crank and a connecting link,
fixed link as the fixed base. The four links represent the location moving in the crosshead. The
piston and crosshead form the sliding pair, while the rest form the rotating pairs. This mechanism
will be used by all reciprocating engines. This mechanism will convert reciprocating motion into
rotary motion and vice versa.

Fig 4.2 single slider crank chain

4.4 Double Slider Crank Chain:

The name implies that the double slider crank chain mechanism will have two sliding and two
rotating pairs. As illustrated in the preceding image, the Double slider crank chain system. We
have four elements in that (two sliding elements, one lever, slotted one base). The lever element
connects the two sliding elements. With the two sliding pieces, this liver will form two rotating
pairs. The slotted base will create two sliding pairs with the sliding parts.

Fig 4.3 Double Slider Crank Chain

5. Inversion of Mechanisms:

A mechanism is a kinematic chain in which one of the links is fixed. Fixing different links of the
same kinematic chain can provide different mechanisms. These are known as inversions of the
mechanism. The number of mechanisms obtained by modifying the fixed link is equal to the
number of linkages.

5.1 Inversions of Four Bar Chain mechanisms :

The four-bar linkage is one of the most useful and frequent systems. The crank is the link in this
mechanism that can complete a full revolution (link 2). The oscillating link is known as a rocker
or lever (link 4). The coupler is the connector that connects these two (link 3). The frame is
represented by Link 1.

5.2 Inversions of Single Slider Crank Chain:

This is a kinematic chain having four links. It has one sliding pair and three turning pairs. Link 2
has rotary motion and is called a crank. Link 3 has got combined rotary and reciprocating motion
and is called connecting rod. Link 4 has reciprocating motion and is called a slider. Link 1 is a
frame (fixed). This mechanism is used to convert rotary motion to reciprocating and vice versa
 Fig 5.2 Inversions of Single Slider Crank Chain

6. MECHANISMS:

According to the definition, both forces and motions are transmitted and modified in a
machine. The way in which the parts of a machine are interconnected and guided to produce a
required output motion from a given input motion is known as the mechanism of the machine.

6.1 Double Slider Crank Chain mechanisms:

The double crank mechanism, which comprises four links, is used to connect the coupling rod of
a locomotive. The equal-length linkages AD and BC operate as cranks in this system and are
attached to their respective wheels. The link CD serves as a coupling rod, while the link AB is
fixed to maintain a constant distance between them. The purpose of this device is to transfer
rotary motion from one wheel to the other.

Fig 6.2 Double Slider Crank Chain mechanisms

6.2 Crank and Lever Mechanism:

The figure shows the beam engine mechanism, also known as the crank and lever mechanism,
which consists of four links. When the crank spins around the fixed center A in this mechanism,
The lever rotates around a fixed point D. The piston rod reciprocates due to the rotation of the
crank, and the end E of the lever CDE is attached to it. In other words, the mechanism's aim is to
convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion

Fig 6.2 Crank and Lever Mechanism

6.3 Watt’s Indicator Mechanism:

Figure shows a Watt's indication mechanism, commonly known as a Double lever mechanism,
which has four links. Fixed link 1, link AC with link CE, and link BFD are the four links. It
should be noted that BF and FD form a single connection because they have no relative motion.
CE and BFD's link acts as a lever. The link BFD's displacement vector is proportional to the
pressure of gas acting on the indicator plunger. The tracing point of E at the end of link CE traces
out an essentially straight line with any tiny displacement of the mechanism. Full lines depict the
mechanism's initial position, whereas dotted lines depict the mechanism's position when the gas
acts on the indication plunger.
 Fig 6.3 Watt’s Indicator Mechanism

7. THE MACHINE:
A machine is a combination of components which can transmit power in a controlled manner and
which is capable of performing useful work. A machine consists of a number of kinematically
related links. A machine is a combination of resistant bodies (links or elements) with
successfully constrained relative motions, which is used for transmitting other forms of energy
into mechanical energy or transmitting and modifying available energy to do some particular
kind of work

Table 7.1 Machine arrangment

Examples of machines:
Heat engine- Receives heat energy and transformers it into mechanical energy.
Electric motor- Changes electric energy into mechanical energy.
A pump- Input electric power and output hydraulic power.
The majority of machines receives mechanical energy, and modifies it so that the energy can be
used for doing some specific task, for which it is designed, common examples of such machines
being hoist, lathe, screw jack, etc.