buildings

Article
Development of Variable Residential Buildings with
3D-Printed Walls
Rodrigo García-Alvarado 1, *, Ginnia Moroni-Orellana 1,2 and Pablo Banda 1,3

1 Department of Architecture Design and Theory, Universidad del Bío-Bío, Concepción 4051381, Chile
2 Faculty of Engineering, Architectureand Design, Universidad San Sebastián, Concepción 4080871, Chile
3 Faculty of Architecture and Design, Universidad de Las Américas, Santiago 8370040, Chile
* Correspondence: rgarcia@ubiobio.cl; Tel.: +56-9-88285582

Abstract: New 3D-printing technologies allows to make constructive elements, especially walls, faster
and with formal diversity. The 3D-printed elements usually have self-supporting capacities, but they
need to be reinforced or integrated into larger structures, to make buildings of large extension or
height of several floors. This work proposes a residential construction strategy, focused on Chile,
which combines a modular main reinforced concrete structure with partitions made of 3D-printed
walls to obtain different housing organizations. For this, a structural grid and range of volumes are
defined in BIM. In addition, a parametric programming is developed and prototypes of 3D-printed
walls are made. The volumetric development provides a wide repertoire of residential surfaces,
while the main structure provides a great flexibility of occupancy. The programming organizes the
design and execution process, with numeric analysis and visualization capabilities. The executed
prototypes demonstrate a constructive feasibility and architectural appealing. This development
expresses the possibility to integrate 3D-printing in massive and varied dwelling construction, and
suggests new paths for housing construction with the application of new design technologies and
automated manufacturing in construction.

Keywords: 3D-printed construction; additive manufacturing; housing; architectural design; parametric

programming
Citation: García-Alvarado, R.;
Moroni-Orellana, G.; Banda, P.
Development of Variable Residential
Buildings with 3D-Printed Walls. 1. Introduction
Buildings 2022, 12, 1796. https://
3D-printed construction is a new technology that allows to make elements for build-
doi.org/10.3390/buildings12111796
ings by additive manufacturing of material, excluding the use of formworks, with short
Received: 5 September 2022 execution times, less resources, and a variety of shapes [1–6]. The manufacturing of the
Accepted: 7 October 2022 elements is usually executed by depositing a fluid mixture that hardens quickly (mostly
Published: 26 October 2022 cement-based), with a nozzle controlled by robotic arms or automated motors on displace-
ment rails, through a printing path sent from a digital design. 3D-printed construction has
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
emerged in recent years, with different equipment and materials, demonstrating its ability
published maps and institutional affil-
to make some construction components and full little buildings, mostly one-story [7–9]
iations. (Figure 1). This technology suggests important advantages in the reduction of construction
deadlines and costs, decrease of waste, transportation, and work accidents; in addition,
industrialization and specialization of the workforce, design versatility and performance
optimization of buildings [10,11]. However, procedures are not yet consolidated, nor are
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. construction systems massified.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).

Buildings 2022, 12, 1796. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12111796 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

Buildings
Buildings2022,
2022,12,
12, x1796
FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 22 2 of 22

Figure1.1.Example
Figure Exampleofof
oneone story
story 3D-printed
3D-printed construction
construction (Source:
(Source: [12]). [12]).

3D-printed
3D-printedconstruction
constructionexperiences
experienceshave havemade
madeit itpossible
possibletotomakemakemostly
mostlyself-
self-sup-
supporting elements, such as furniture, planters, or one-story walls,
porting elements, such as furniture, planters, or one-story walls, due to the capacity due to the capacity to to
directly execute in one step, monolithic pieces of good strength and
directly execute in one step, monolithic pieces of good strength and size [13,14]. Unlikesize [13,14]. Unlike con-
ventional construction elements that require various accessories and tasks to be executed.
conventional construction elements that require various accessories and tasks to be exe-
Moreover, 3D-printed components usually have durability and stability, but little resistance
cuted. Moreover, 3D-printed components usually have durability and stability, but little
to bending or traction stresses, so they would require additional reinforcements to execute
resistance to bending or traction stresses, so they would require additional reinforcements
load-bearing elements such as beams, lintels, slabs, walls, or columns resistant to lateral
to execute
stresses. load-bearing
Several processeselements
are beingsuch as beams,
researched, but lintels,
withoutslabs, walls, solution
a definitive or columns resistant
[15,16].
to lateral stresses.
However, Severalelements
the 3D-printed processes are being
could researched,
be integrated withbut without
larger a definitive
structures that pro-solution
[15,16].
vide the However,
main resistant the 3D-printed
capabilities elements could be
of the building, andintegrated
to use pieces withprinted
larger for
structures
other that
provide therequirements,
constructive main resistant likecapabilities of the building,
non-load bearing partitions and
and/orto use pieces printed for other
envelope.
The strategy
constructive to combine like
requirements, a main structure
non-load and partitions
bearing partitionsbased
and/oron 3D-printed
envelope. walls
allowsTheto erect
strategyresidential
to combine buildings
a mainof different
structuremagnitudes
and partitionsand diverse
based on housing orga- walls
3D-printed
nizations, defining diverse volumes with regular components, through
allows to erect residential buildings of different magnitudes and diverse housing organi- modular forms,
standardized
zations, defining reinforcement,
diverse volumesand accelerated setting concrete.
with regular components, Combined
through with variableforms,
modular
3D-printed walls suitable for different climatic conditions and functional needs, to have
standardized reinforcement, and accelerated setting concrete. Combined with variable
a recurring management of the main characteristics of the construction, and a specific
3D-printed walls suitable for different climatic conditions and functional needs, to have a
adaptation to the various housing requirements. The design of the housing units can
recurring
be defined management
after the main of the main
structure, and characteristics
taking advantage of the
of construction,
digital control,and evena be
specific
ad- ad-
aptation
justed to the
during various housing
execution, to allow requirements.
interaction withThe design
users and of
getthe housing
different units can be de-
architectural
fined after the main structure, and taking advantage of digital
expressions. Furthermore, this could consider future modifications, facilitated by the control, even be adjusted
in-
during execution,
dependence to allow
of the walls frominteraction
load-bearing with users and and
requirements get the
different
reuse of architectural
materials for expres-
sions. Furthermore,
additive manufacturing. this could consider future modifications, facilitated by the independ-
enceThe structure
of the walls proposed for buildings
from load-bearing that can accommodate
requirements and the reuse 3D-printed wallsfor
of materials mustadditive
have a versatility in the total magnitudes, to allow its application in different circumstances
manufacturing.
(size of thestructure
The site, amount of investment
proposed or localthat
for buildings needs).
can As well as the adequate
accommodate 3D-printed resistant
walls must
capacities with a minimization of vertical elements, which allows
have a versatility in the total magnitudes, to allow its application in different the integration of variable circum-
walls. In Chile, as in other seismic zones of the world, the structural conditions of buildings
stances (size of the site, amount of investment or local needs). As well as the adequate
have been increased to ensure their resistance against earthquakes; as well as the envelopes
resistant capacities with a minimization of vertical elements, which allows the integration
have been regulated for adequate energy performance and interior comfort for different
of variable
climate zones, walls. In Chile,
increasing as in other
construction seismic
costs zones of the
and deadlines, world,
as well the structural
as restricting conditions
designs in
of buildings
the have been
face of growing increased
real estate demand to ensure theirpopulated
in the main resistanceareas
against
[17].earthquakes; as well as
the envelopes
The objective have been
of this regulated
work for adequate
is to develop energy
a repertoire performance
of residential and interior
building structurescomfort
for different climate zones, increasing construction costs and
to accommodate 3D-printed walls, based on conditions for Chile, which presents a relevantdeadlines, as well as restrict-
ing designs in the face of growing real estate demand in the main populated areas [17].
The objective of this work is to develop a repertoire of residential building structures
to accommodate 3D-printed walls, based on conditions for Chile, which presents a rele-
vant climatic variety, real estate production and seismic requirements. Through an
Buildings 2022, 12, 1796 3 of 22

climatic variety, real estate production and seismic requirements. Through an exploratory
methodology, which consists of the formulation of a construction strategy based on the
current conditions, the evaluation of the repertoire of designs according to surface capacities
for the fulfillment of housing demands, the implementation of the parametric modeling
procedure to verify its versatility, and the execution of wall prototypes to check their
constructive feasibility and architectural appearance.

2. Background
Experiences with 3D-printed construction carried out during the last years have
showed the execution of diverse components and experimental buildings, revealing several
technological challenges [12,14,18]. The initial works with this technology has allowed to
define deposition processes and material mixtures, tested with varied elements and specific
building designs, in addition to discuss overall projections [8], with little formulation
of construction systems or building processes. A few initiatives have suggested varied
housing like a house made by pieces with the D-Shape printing technique [19] and the
development of a high-rise residential building with printed envelopes [20]. Another
work proposed a mobile printing system, called “ConPrint3D”, with programming and
execution phases [21]. The Army Corps of Engineers of the United States has also proposed
a strategy for designing and printing military barracks, with executed examples [22].
Besides, the formulation of serial 3D-printed walls has established a design, evaluation, and
execution process [23]. Likewise, the assessment of individual dwellings with 3D-printed
construction has helped to define some general conditions [24,25].
A recent work proposes a shape-grammar that relates architectural designs to the
3D-printing execution, decomposing the elements of a building model for manufacturing
considering its material deformation [26]. Other initiatives have proposed a workflow
between the design and management of the 3D-printing, regulating the conditions of
the shapes elaborated [27], and also the integration of BIM with the 3D-printing con-
trol, through the transfer of the digital model [28]. The BIM modeling and execution
of the printing of a particular building have also been shown [29], the programming of
various 3D-printed elements that can be analyzed in a BIM platform [30], and the compar-
ison of printing strategies on-site or off-site by moving and assembling the construction
elements [31]. In addition, workflows between the design, programming, and printing of
components have been proposed [32,33]. A compilation of 3D-printed constructions reveals
the diversity of designs and construction strategies, with some similar conditions [34].
However, architectural systems with 3D-printed elements have not been formulated.
Regarding structural reinforcements in 3D-printed construction today, it is possible to
recognize 5 approaches: (a) material mixtures with fibers, cables or small pieces of steel,
(b) printing of perimeters of elements with horizontal steel bars connecting sides, (c) print-
ing of perimeters of elements with continuous vertical steel bars inside or (d) concentrated
vertical bars, in both last cases with fillings of concrete, and (e) mixed structures of printed
elements with steel profiles, wooden beams or conventional reinforced concrete for roofs,
mezzanines or frames [35]. Most of the cases executed to date have one floor, mainly
subjected to gravitational loads, and only some have two or three floors, combined with
traditional structures [34]. This scarce development of reinforced 3D-printed elements for
construction makes its integration in seismic countries, such as Chile, a major challenge,
especially for high-rise buildings necessary for urban density and larger real estate com-
plexes. Until now, there is a couple of declared cases of buildings built with 3D-printing in
seismic zones, but there are no details of the elements used and seismic design of this type
of structures.
The development of residential complexes with the combination of supporting struc-
tures and variable interior partitions has been proposed previously [36,37], suggesting to
differentiate users and location. In last decades, housing design strategies to this aim has
been proposed through digital systems with shape grammar approach [38], parametric
analysis of decisions on BIM platforms [39] or through Web platforms with digital manu-
Buildings 2022, 12, 1796 4 of 22

facturing of components [40], demonstrating the possibility of defining dwelling layout

processes and managing construction, but without a constructive system defined.
On the other hand, Latin America has the highest rate of urbanization in the world
and growing housing demand, addressed through various public programs and private
developments [41]. In the case of Chile, the execution of housing settlements must con-
sider a rising demographic and cultural diversity of its population, due migration, and
socioeconomic transition [42], in addition to a wide climatic variety due to the longitude
of its territory. This considers hot weathers in the north, seasonal conditions, and humid
areas in the center, and cold zones in the south, requiring different thermal characteristics
of the envelopes for their adequate environmental performance [43]. Furthermore, the
frequent earthquakes in the country demand high-resistant structures [44], like many parts
of Latin-America. All these aspects show the variety of requirements the housing market
must face with high-demand and affordable costs.
Real estate construction in Chile and in most countries of Latin-America conduct a
sustained production of huge dwellings complexes, mostly with identical houses or apart-
ment blocks, to ensure low cost and speed construction [17]. The housing construction in
Chile is currently concentrated in reinforced concrete high-rise and medium-rise buildings,
with 75% of the residential supply [45], due to the high density of city centers and the need
of resistant and durable constructions. These buildings are composed of large orthogonal
blocks with central corridors and housing units on both sides [46,47]; arranged in isolation
or composing two or three adjacent blocks, to minimize seismic efforts [48]. The blocks
have regular widths between 14 to 18 m. to accommodate the interior circulation and a
double housing bay with lighting and ventilation from the sides. Most of them with heights
from 4 to 25 stories for an adequate real estate business in urban lots. There are also blocks
of 3 or fewer floors, although in smaller numbers and with a more diverse organization,
from single houses or terraced dwellings.
The multi-family buildings usually have a length of 30 to 80 m, and a height of up
to 60 m, and width and length ratios between 1.5 to 2 and height and width between 1.5
to 2.5 are recommended, for an adequate size of elements resistant to seismic forces [46].
Since Chile has a high seismicity, usually several structural axes are defined, composed by
walls, which are between 20 and 25 cm thick, every 5 to 6 m or less, with vertical continuity
between floors. Residential buildings are usually configured with two parallel walls in the
longitudinal center of the volume, defining the circulation between dwellings, and shorter
transverse walls, which generate the division between units or sections, and partial walls
or walls with windows on the perimeters (Figure 2) [47–49]. Therefore, load-bearing walls
usually reach between 2.5% and 3% of the building’s surface in each orthogonal direction
(x; y), that is, 5 to 6% of the total, with high-quality concrete and nourished reinforcement,
especially on the lower floors [50]. This consumes a significant part of the construction cost
and its execution time, as well as the environmental footprint, transportation, and safety
labor risks.
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 22
Buildings 2022, 12, 1796 5 of 22

Figure
Figure2.2.On
Onthe
theleft,
left,typical
typicalstructural
structuralplans
plansofofresidential
residential buildings
buildings in
in Chile,
Chile, a) with two
a) with two vertical
vertical
circulations, b) and c) with one vertical circulation and a central horizontal circulation (adapted
circulations, b) and c) with one vertical circulation and a central horizontal circulation (adapted from
[44,51,52]), on the right, picture of buildings in downtown Santiago (adapted from [53]).
from [44,51,52]), on the right, picture of buildings in downtown Santiago (adapted from [53]).

Residential
Residentialbuildings
buildingshave havedifferent
differenttotal
totalamounts
amounts of of apartments
apartments according
according to to their
their
individual surfaces and general volume, with housing
individual surfaces and general volume, with housing units from units from 30 to 80 m
m 22, and some
some
upuptoto140 m2mor
140 2 or
more.
more. They are arranged
They are arrangedon the
on continuous
the continuous sidessides
in sections of 6 toof206 m,
in sections to
totaling 12 to 18 12
20 m, totaling unitsto per floor,per
18 units andfloor,
up toand
300 up
to 500 apartments
to 300 in total [54].inThe
to 500 apartments totalrooms
[54].
are
Thedivided
rooms with load-bearing
are divided walls or light-weight
with load-bearing partitions, partitions,
walls or light-weight approximately 50% each
approximately
50%
one dueeach one duerequirements,
to seismic to seismic requirements,
with a similarwith a similar organization
organization in shapes and in dimensions.
shapes and
dimensions.
This generatesThis generates
a relevant a relevant
rigidity in therigidity
housing in distribution,
the housing distribution,
as well as inasitswell as in
lifetime,
its lifetime,
which must be which must
planned be planned
well in advance well
of in
theadvance
execution of and
the execution
can hardlyand can hardly
be modified be
dur-
modified
ing during its or
its development development
occupation.orInoccupation.
addition itInprovides
additionrepetitive
it providesdesigns
repetitive designs
withexten-
withextensive
sive and monotonous and monotonous interior circulations.
interior circulations. Most of the Most
timeofthethe units
time thehaveunits
only have
threeonlyor
three or four variations in size or distribution, with similar bedrooms
four variations in size or distribution, with similar bedrooms and bathrooms, and occa- and bathrooms, and
occasionally
sionally some some balconies
balconies or terraces.
or terraces. Furthermore,
Furthermore, this this creates
creates a regular
a regular andand anodyne
anodyne fa-
facade composition, which generates a precarious living and
cade composition, which generates a precarious living and social alienation [55]. social alienation [55].
OnOnthe
theother
otherhand,
hand,housing
housingin inChile
Chilemust
mustadapt
adaptto to different
different climatic
climatic zones
zones [43],
[43], with
with
regulation about different sizes of openings and material conditions for floors, roofs, and
regulation about different sizes of openings and material conditions for floors, roofs, and
walls, with maximum total thermal transmittances from 0.35 W/(m2 ·K) in the cold southern
2⋅K) in the cold south-
walls, with maximum total thermal transmittances from 0.35 W/(m
end up to 4 W/(m2 ·K) in the hot north desert, besides the regulations for acoustic and
ern end up to 4 W/(m2⋅K) in the hot north desert, besides the regulations for acoustic and
fireproof insulation, and structural behavior. The dimensions of the living spaces are
fireproof insulation, and structural behavior. The dimensions of the living spaces are var-
variable (with minimum measures for state-subsidized housing) but regularized by real
iable (with minimum measures for state-subsidized housing) but regularized by real es-
estate production. This is accompanied with a strong demographic transformation, due to a
tate production.
rapid reductionThisin theisbirth
accompanied with a strong
rate, population demographic
aging, change in family transformation, due to a
organization, decrease
rapid
in inhabitants per dwelling, growth in external migration and cultural diversity [42].de-
reduction in the birth rate, population aging, change in family organization, A
crease in inhabitants per dwelling, growth
similar context as several Latin American countries. in external migration and cultural diversity
[42]. A similar context as several Latin American countries.
3. Materials and Methods
3.3.1.
Materials and Methods
Design Conditions of Buildings Volumes
3.1. Design Conditions
To define of Buildings
residential Volumes
buildings that combine a resistant structure and 3D-printed
walls,
To with
definea diverse capacity
residential and adequate
buildings to the areal
that combine estate requirements
resistant structure andin3D-printed
Chile and
other similar countries, first design conditions are established,
walls, with a diverse capacity and adequate to the real estate requirements in Chile and its modeling, variety,
and
other similar countries, first design conditions are established, and its modeling, variety,
Buildings 2022, 12, 1796 6 of 22

programming, and applicability are reviewed. The construction strategy composed of

a main structure of reinforced concrete slabs in each floor with columns and some load-
bearing walls to ensure its seismic behavior, and 3D-printed walls for partitions and outdoor
envelope that allow different housing distributions, climatic adaptations, and architectural
appearances. With a variation in the size of buildings, which allows covering the diversity
of the residential production.
The structural grid is defined by a three-dimensional fabric, with distances between
axis according to the resistance of regular elements and usual size of the housing spaces
(Table 1). In the horizontal plane with axes every 6 m in the main direction along of the
volume and 3 m in the longitudinal direction (composing modules of 3 × 6 mts with a
surface of 18 m2 each one), plus a one-meter projection on the outdoor sides, to expand the
occupational capacity and formal variation, and 2.75 m of height between floors. Thus, the
main structure is composed by reinforced concrete elements of regular sizes; 20 cm. height
slabs in each horizontal level (perforated in vertical circulation places), 30 × 50 cm. beams
in each axe, 30 × 60 cm. columns where the axes meet, and walls of 30 cm. width in some
sections, both continued vertically.

Table 1. Design Conditions of the Building Volumes.

Number Description Characteristics

Transversal distance: 6 mts.
Longitudinal distance: 3 mts
1 Structural Grid
Height between floors: 2.75 mts
Floor perimeter: more 1 mt
2 Total Length 1 to 24 modules of 3 mts
3 Total Height 1 to 25 floors
1 module until 3 floors,
4 Total Width
2 modules more central circulation from 4 floors
20 cm. Slabs, 30 × 50 cm. columns
5 Structure
and 20 cm. width walls
Inside housing units until 3 floors
Vertical
6 A double core from 4 modules length and 4 floors
Circulation
Two double cores from 18 modules length
Load bearing Perimeter of vertical circulations
7
Walls Skipped sections on side of central circulation
Partitions and
8 3D-printed walls
outdoor envelope

For volumetric variation, a longitudinal progression of the structure is defined from

one module to twenty-four (equivalent to 5 to 74 m long, with balconies in the perimeter),
and in height from one to twenty-five floors. These magnitudes consider controlling
structural sections, since larger dimensions can have seismic oscillation magnitudes that
could require bigger elements or more complex arrangements. Specific conditions are
contemplated for the indoor functionality in the different extensions. In buildings with one
to three floors height, a single module along with projections in both sides is considered
(8 m in total width), to form housing units by relating the levels with staircase inside each
unit or outside the buildings. From 4 to 24 modules with a middle module open in the
center for vertical circulation. From the four stories high, two transverse modules are
contemplated, with a central circulation module of 2 m to axis, considering therefore a total
width of 16 m of the volume. In turn, in lengths greater than 6 modules (18 m), a central
core for stairs and another in front for elevators are considered, with load-bearing walls
on the perimeter (with access openings). From 18 longitudinal modules (56 m) two cores
are arranged, at equidistant distances from the ends. Also considering longitudinal load-
bearing walls in the sides of circulation in skipped sections. On the other hand, volumes
that have a side with a width less than half the height are excluded, since the slenderness
can produce excessive seismic oscillations and little functional utility.
Buildings 2022, 12, 1796 7 of 22

Several models in BIM software (Autodesk Revit 2021, San Francisco, CA, USA) are
done with the application of different design conditions, in order to review its elaboration
with regular building elements, and to perform quantifications and some examples of
housing units’ design. Including straight and curved walls to define 3D-printed partitions
and envelopes, with different insulation, finishing and openings.

3.2. Evaluation of Residential Capacities

To evaluate the living area capacity of the designs defined by the construction strategy
and volumetric variation, the following indicators are considered, which are usual in the
housing planning.
(a) Total Built area: horizontal area of each floor from the outer edge of the slabs (including
circulations and all interior elements)
(b) Total Livable area: horizontal area of each floor for private residential use, with half
of the perimeter slab projections (considering the rest as balconies) and excluding the
common circulations (corridors and stair/elevator cores)
From these values and considering the structural framework, the potential number of
housing units and different types of dwellings are determined. These values are compared
with the regular real estate production.
Also, the wall horizontal section area of the load-bearing elements is quantified,
to compare them with usual values of the residential buildings in the country, which
reveal amounts of material used in that construction part. And the horizontal surface of
load-bearing and non-load bearing walls (partitions or envelope) per story according to
some layouts proposed, to compare their proportions with regular residential building, to
review the possibility of different organization and changes in time. The number of similar
structural elements (with the same geometric dimensions) is accounted for some building
models, since those involves formwork installation, concrete pouring in different locations
and construction planning, and coordination. To review the relationship of construction
regularity and housing layout diversity achieved by this strategy and design conditions.
Besides, some buildings models were completed with architectural details and furniture,
to generate outdoor and indoor views, and interactive virtual walkthroughs to review possi-
ble occupancy and architectural appearance, compared with current residential buildings.

3.3. Programming of Design Generation

The volumetric repertoire, the distribution of residential units and definition of tool-
path of the 3D-printed walls are implemented in a parametric programming to elaborate
an integrated design process, which links the housing planning with the architectural
development and the control of the building execution. The process regards a chained
sequence from the general definition of the building volume, advancing in the detailing
of elements and spaces, which integrates the different design conditions, up to the defi-
nition of constructive procedures. The initial stages are determined by the site and local
regulations, as well as the magnitude of the real estate investment or housing planning.
The intermediate stages of defining the housing units and rooms are determined by the
dwelling program and habitability conditions, but also could be by specific requirements
of the occupants, including the local climate and adequate energy performance. The more
detailed stages are determined by the constructive capabilities of products, materials,
machinery, and processes.
The parametric programming of design generation is implemented in Rhinoceros
software, with the Grasshopper graphic language, through different components, links,
and numerical controllers, in six main steps (Figure 3). Including the generation of 3D-
printing code with Kuka-PRC and integration into BIM platforms through Rhino.Inside
(Seattle, WA, US). Revit to transfer geometric information in the general development of
architectural design and specialties. The evaluation of the parametric programming is
carried out with the generation of examples with different values, reviewing the geometric
consistency and detailing according to the design conditions, based on the numerical
 (Seattle, WA, US). Revit to transfer geometric information in the general development of
architectural design and specialties. The evaluation of the parametric programming is car-
Buildings 2022, 12, 1796 ried out with the generation of examples with different values, reviewing the geometric 8 of 22
consistency and detailing according to the design conditions, based on the numerical re-
sults and graphic views. As well as the export of data to test in different software and 3D-
printed
resultsexecution.
and graphic views. As well as the export of data to test in different software and
3D-printed execution.

Figure 3. Overall flowchart of the parametric programming.

Figure 3. Overall flowchart of the parametric programming.
3.4. 3D-Printing of Wall Prototypes
3.4. 3D-Printing of Wall Prototypes
The building considers a combination of a conventional resistant structure and 3D-
The building
printed walls. The considers a combination
main structure is defined ofwith
a conventional
slabs, beams, resistant
columns. structure
and walls andin3D-
printed walls. The main structure is defined with slabs, beams, columns.
reinforced concrete type C25, according to the established grid. This corresponds to a usual and walls in re-
inforced concrete
construction type C25,
procedure according
in Chile and manyto the established
countries, withgrid. This
similar corresponds
elements in shapeto and
a usual
dimension, procedure
construction which should make it
in Chile easier
and many to execute.
countries,Onwith
the other hand,
similar 3D-printed
elements wallsand
in shape
constitute which
dimension, a new technological
should makecapacity
it easier that
to has been experimented
execute. On the other withhand, in 3D-printed
different parts
walls
of the world [7–9], but must be verified locally to check
constitute a new technological capacity that has been experimented with inthe capacity of the materials
differentand
parts
processes. For this reason, wall prototypes were executed with a Kuka R120 2500 robotic
of the world [7–9], but must be verified locally to check the capacity of the materials and
arm (Augsburg, Germany) and a 120-L, 45-mph PFT Multimix Concrete Pump (Iphofen,
processes. For this reason, wall prototypes were executed with a Kuka R120 2500 robotic
Germany) at the Construction Technology Research Center (CITEC) of the Universidad
armdel(Augsburg, Germany) and
Bío-Bío, in Concepción, Chile.a 120-L, 45-mph
In addition, PFT Multimix
3D-printed Concrete
scale models were Pump
made in(Iphofen,
PLA
Germany)
plastic, toatreview
the Construction
some shape Technology Researchsequence
conditions, execution Center (CITEC) of the Universidad
and integration with the
delmain
Bío-Bío, in Concepción, Chile. In addition, 3D-printed scale models were made in PLA
structure.
plastic,Totomake
review thesome shape wall
3D-printed conditions, execution
prototypes, sequence
different segments andofintegration with the
building designs
main
werestructure.
chosen to establish a similar execution process and review different conditions. The
constructive
To make the features of the wall
3D-printed wallsprototypes,
were baseddifferent
on the 3D-printing
segments ofprocedure
building as well as
designs were
material
chosen requirements
to establish for housing
a similar execution in process
the mostand populated
review areas of Chile
different (for thermal,
conditions. The con-
acousticfeatures
structive and fire-proofing insulation).
of the walls were based Alsoon considering the free-form
the 3D-printing procedurecapabilities
as wellto ascreate
material
novel but functional environments to live, and different surface finishes
requirements for housing in the most populated areas of Chile (for thermal, acoustic and as well integration
of regular building elements (like windows, doors, services, sealing). A workflow for
fire-proofing insulation). Also considering the free-form capabilities to create novel but
toolpath programming and printing sessions were developed, defining people, conditions
functional environments to live, and different surface finishes as well integration of regu-
and resources involved. First, three partial pieces were made to test the procedure, and
larintegrate
buildinginterior
elements (like windows,
supports and coating doors, services,Then,
possibilities. sealing).
threeAwalls
workflow
of fullfor toolpath
housing
programming and printing
height and reduced extensionsessions were developed,
were fabricated, consideringdefining people, details
transportation conditions and re-
and joint
sources involved. First, three partial pieces were made to test the procedure,
actions. A printing mix was defined, a Portland-type cementitious-based compound, fine and integrate
interior supports
aggregates, and aand coatingadditive.
plasticizer possibilities. Then,
Finally, three walls
the material of full
results of thehousing
executionheight
wereand
reduced
verifiedextension were fabricated,
by measurements and visual considering
verificationtransportation
in different parts details and joint
and periods actions.
of time, in A
addition
printing mixto carry
was out queries
defined, a and interviews with
Portland-type people not related
cementitious-based to the construction
compound, fine aggre-
sector
gates, to acollect
and an appreciation
plasticizer additive. of architectural
Finally, attributes.
the material results of the execution were verified
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 22

by measurements and visual verification in different parts and periods of time, in addition
Buildings 2022, 12, 1796 to carry out queries and interviews with people not related to the construction sector9 ofto22
collect an appreciation of architectural attributes.

4. Results
4. Results
4.1. Modeling of Design Conditions
4.1. Modeling of Design Conditions
The design conditions established allowed to elaborate in BIM software different al-
The design conditions established allowed to elaborate in BIM software different alter-
ternatives of buildings models with the main structure defined and overall sizes according
natives of buildings models with the main structure defined and overall sizes according to
to the number of modules and floors, generating volumes of increasing magnitude (Figure
the number of modules and floors, generating volumes of increasing magnitude (Figure 4).
4). The grid allowed to locate structural elements, related to the grid and levels, and de-
The grid allowed to locate structural elements, related to the grid and levels, and develop
velop different structural layouts based in the ranges set. The models generated are con-
different structural layouts based in the ranges set. The models generated are consistent in
sistent in the geometry and constructive description, which allows to schedule dimen-
the geometry and constructive description, which allows to schedule dimensions, surfaces,
sions, surfaces, and number of elements; as well as to incorporate other building elements
and number of elements; as well as to incorporate other building elements (walls, windows,
(walls, windows, staircase, finishing, services, etc.,) and to generate plans and perspective
staircase, finishing, services, etc.,) and to generate plans and perspective images from
images from different point-of-view and rendering.
different point-of-view and rendering.

Figure 4. Examples of the proposed structural layout and its variations in plan and volume.
Figure 4. Examples of the proposed structural layout and its variations in plan and volume.

The
The buildings
buildingsmodeled
modeledwith
withthe
themain
mainstructure
structuregenerate
generatelarge
largeopen
openspaces that
spaces allow
that allow
to elaborate different private rooms, private or common circulations and a variable
to elaborate different private rooms, private or common circulations and a variable occupa-
tion border. The smaller models have main spaces with all sides connected to the outside
and the possibility of being integrated or separated, on the same floor or different levels,
considering exterior staircases or interior with regular perforations in the slabs. The build-
ings of intermediate and larger sizes, provide a vertical and horizontal circulation space
that can differentiate the occupation of the extensive sides. Including separated private
 occupation border. The smaller models have main spaces with all sides connected to the
outside and the possibility of being integrated or separated, on the same floor or different
levels, considering exterior staircases or interior with regular perforations in the slabs. The
Buildings 2022, 12, 1796 buildings of intermediate and larger sizes, provide a vertical and horizontal circulation 10 of 22

space that can differentiate the occupation of the extensive sides. Including separated pri-
vate spaces and relationship to different outdoor edges, but also transverse and longitu-
spaces
dinal and relationship
integration, as welltoasdifferent
vertical.outdoor edges, conventional
This allows but also transverse and longitudinal
distributions of housing
integration,
units as more
(flats), or well as vertical.
unique This allowswith
distributions, conventional distributions
large apartments at theofends
housing units to
or related
(flats), or more unique distributions, with large apartments at the ends
two sides- It also includes units with various heights and an indoor staircase (duplex or related to two or
sides- It also includes units with various heights and an indoor staircase (duplex
triplex). All of these combined with small apartments, or shared indoor areas for services, or triplex).
All of these combined with small apartments, or shared indoor areas for services, collective
collective work, or recreation, in addition to private or shared terraces or open spaces.
work, or recreation, in addition to private or shared terraces or open spaces.
The models allow to incorporate partitions and outdoor envelope with elements of
The models allow to incorporate partitions and outdoor envelope with elements
walls to define diverse housing units and rooms. Furthermore, it includes openings, win-
of walls to define diverse housing units and rooms. Furthermore, it includes openings,
dows, doors,
windows, shelves,
doors, among
shelves, other,other,
among to schedule the spaces
to schedule and elements
the spaces included
and elements to check
included
functionality and requirements (Figure 5). In addition, to establish different
to check functionality and requirements (Figure 5). In addition, to establish different construction
materials
constructionin the elements
materials intothe
schedule
elements quantities
to scheduleand quantities
planning tasks. It’s possible
and planning tasks.to define
It’s
diverse
possiblelayout of walls,
to define in layout
diverse orthogonal, diagonal
of walls, or curves,
in orthogonal, although
diagonal or some
curves,ofalthough
the related
components must be
some of the related modified. The
components mustmodels show The
be modified. versatility
modelsto include
show elements,
versatility but sev-
to include
eral adjustments and checks must be done in the process to ensure
elements, but several adjustments and checks must be done in the process to ensure integrity and achieve-
integrity
ments. Forand achievements.
instance, connection Forbetween
instance,walls,
connection
locationbetween walls,room
of services, location of services,
layout to accom-
room layout
modate to accommodate
furniture and activities.furniture and activities.

Figure
Figure5.5. Example
Example ofofa abuilding
building model
model withwith indoor
indoor partitions
partitions and outdoor
and outdoor envelopeenvelope with 3D-
with 3D-printed
printed walls (Source:
walls (Source: authors).authors).

4.2.Evaluation
4.2. Evaluationofof Residential
Residential Capacities
Capacities
Thebuilding
The buildingdesigns
designsare arediverse,
diverse,according
according toto
thethe horizontal
horizontal length
length (number
(number of
of mod-
modules) and height (number of floors), maintaining a rectangular
ules) and height (number of floors), maintaining a rectangular shape. The designs vary shape. The designs
vary1from
from to 241 modules
to 24 modules in length
in length (5 to (5
74tom)74and
m) 1and 1 tostories
to 25 25 stories
highhigh
(3 to(375tom).
75 m).
DueDue
to the
to the conditions of functionality and structure, five main ranges of designs
conditions of functionality and structure, five main ranges of designs are produced (Table are produced
(Table 2). The volumetric variation allows generating an initial repertoire of 600 building
2). The volumetric variation allows generating an initial repertoire of 600 building shapes
shapes of progressive length and height according to the defined conditions. 106 volumes
of progressive length and height according to the defined conditions. 106 volumes that
that have excessive slenderness (width to height ratio on one side) are discarded, leaving
have excessive slenderness (width to height ratio on one side) are discarded, leaving 494
494 valid building designs. These have a total surface that varies from 40 m2 to 29,600 m2 ;
valid building designs.
and corresponds These
to a living havefrom
surface a total
40 surface that varies
m2 to 23,000 m2 . Thisfrom 40 m tothe
represents
2 29,600
usualmsize
2; and

corresponds
of a small hometo awith
livingonesurface
or twofrom 40 m to
bedrooms,
2 toa23,000 m .block
dwelling
2 This with
represents
up to 400 theapartments
usual size of
aofsmall
60 m . These correspond to a large part of real estate buildings in Chile [17].apartments
home
2 with one or two bedrooms, to a dwelling block with up to 400 Larger
ofsettlements
60 m2. These
can becorrespond
composed to witha large
severalpart of real
blocks estate buildings
or combining differentin Chile [17].
building Larger
volumes,
including dwelling types.
 settlements can be composed with several blocks or combining different building vol-
umes, including dwelling types.

Table 2. Design Conditions of the Building Volumes.

Buildings 2022, 12, 1796 11 of 22
Ranges Variations Characteristics Total Surfaces
40 to 192 m2 built
1 to 3 modules One module width, with private circulation
1 2. Design Conditions of the Building Volumes.
Table and 1 to 3 floors or external
29 to 180 m2 living
Ranges Variations Characteristics TotaltoSurfaces
224 1,272 m2 built
4 to 17 modules One module width and one vertical circula-
2 One module width, with 40 to 192 m2 built
1 and 21 to
to 33modules
floors tion
private circulation or external
and 1 to 3 floors 188
29 to 1,218
to 180 m2 living
m2 living
224896 to 1,776
to 1,272 m2 built
m2 built
18 to424to 17 modules One moduleOne
modules module
width andwidth
two and
vertical circula-
3 2
and and
2 to23tofloors
3 floors one vertical circulation
tions 188 to 1,218 m2 living
824 to 1,668 m2 living
18 to 24 modules One module width and 896 to 1,776 m2 built
3 512 to 21,200 m2 built
2 to and 2 to 3 floors Two modules
17 modules twowidth,
vertical public
circulations
central circula- 824 to 1,668 m2 living
4
and 4 to 25 floors tion and one vertical circulation 512 to 21,200 m2 built
2 to 17 modules Two modules width, public central 304 to 17,650 m2 living
4
and 4 to 25 floors circulation and one vertical circulation 304 to 17,650 m2 living
3584 to 29,600 m2 built
18 to 24 modules Two modules width, public central circula- 3584 to 29,600 m2 built
5
5 and 18
4 toto 24 modules
25 floors Two modules width, public central
tion and two vertical circulations
and 4 to 25 floors circulation and two vertical circulations 2848
2848 m2 living
to 24,100
to 24,100 m2 living

The
Thetotal builtand
total built andliving
living area
area of each
of each building
building modelmodel has a stepped
has a stepped progression,
progression, based
based
on the combination of number of modules in length and height in floors (Scheme 1).(Scheme
on the combination of number of modules in length and height in floors Then,
1).a particular
Then, a particular
surface can surface can be developed
be developed with several with several
building building
designs, designs,lengths
in different in different
or
lengths
heightsor heights
to be to be accommodate
accommodate to local
to diverse sites, diverse sites, local
regulations regulations
or conditions. or conditions.
There are more
alternatives
There are more in little surfaces,inwhich
alternatives correspond
little surfaces, to more
which frequent and
correspond diverse
to more residential
frequent and di-
buildings. The variety is reduced in bigger surfaces, by the exclusion of
verse residential buildings. The variety is reduced in bigger surfaces, by the exclusion ofslender volumes,
but in any case, there is aany
relevant 2 there are building 2
slender volumes, but in case, diversity
there is a(for example,
relevant for 20,000
diversity (for mexample, for 20,000 m
designs of eight lengths possible).
there are building designs of eight lengths possible).

Scheme
Scheme1.1.Total
Totalbuilt
built area
area of buildingmodels
of building modelsbetween
between1515toto2525 floors
floors (Source:
(Source: authors).
authors).

The
Thegenerated designshave
generated designs havea ratio
a ratio of total
of total living
living area area (excluding
(excluding circulations
circulations and partand
part of the borders) to build surface around of 85%, lower in bigger buildings similar
of the borders) to build surface around of 85%, lower in bigger buildings sizes but sizes but
to the current
similar ones (Scheme
to the current 2). Each structural
ones (Scheme 2). Each module
structuralhasmodule
betweenhas18 to 29 m2 (according
between 18 to 29 m2
to borders)towith
(according at least
borders) oneatside
with leasttoone
outdoor
side toand one side
outdoor andtoone
circulation or close ground
side to circulation or close
level and can accommodate a little dwelling like a studio or one
ground level and can accommodate a little dwelling like a studio or one bedroom bedroom flat. Then, theflat.
number of potential housing units per building can be the number of
Then, the number of potential housing units per building can be the number of modules modules for little
dwelling, and the volumetric variety covers from 1 to 1,200 total units per building. As
for little dwelling, and the volumetric variety covers from 1 to 1,200 total units per build-
well as, for regular two-bedroom flat of around 60 m2 such be developed in three modules,
ing. As well as, for regular two-bedroom flat of around 60 m2 such be developed in three
the volumetric variety can be 1 to 400, and larger flats can be in more modules and shorter
modules, the volumetric variety can be 1 to 400, and larger flats can be in more modules
ranges. However, this proposes a relevant variety and high possibilities of combination,
larger than usual real-estate buildings.
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 22

Buildings 2022, 12, 1796 12 of 22

and shorter ranges. However, this proposes a relevant variety and high possibilities of
combination, larger than usual real-estate buildings.

Scheme
Scheme2.2.Total
Totalliving
living area
area of each building
of each building model
modelaccording
accordingtotonumber
numberof of floors
floors andand modules
modules
(Source: authors).
(Source: authors).

The
Thewall
wallhorizontal sectionarea
horizontal section arearesults
results different
different forfor each
each building
building modelmodel according
according to
tosizes
sizesand
andrange
rangeofofdesign
designconditions
conditions (Scheme
(Scheme 3),3), but,
but, onon average,
average, represents
represents 1.5%1.5% to 4%
to 4%
ofofthe
thetotal
totalfloor
floorarea,
area, which
which is significantly
significantlylowerlowerthan
thanconventional
conventionalbuildings
buildings in in
Chile,
Chile,
whichcan
which cangogofrom
from 55 to 6.5% [46].
[46]. This
This implies
impliesaareduction
reductionofofabout half
about of of
half thethe
material
material
andstructural
and structural execution,
execution, which
which results
results inin relevant
relevantcostcostsavings
savingsandandshorter
shorter execution
execution
times. Besides, since the design is modular and uses mostly the same
times. Besides, since the design is modular and uses mostly the same types of structural types of structural
elements,considering
elements, considering walls
walls and
and beam
beam sections,
sections,and andslabs
slabsthickness.
thickness.While
While conventional
conventional
buildings usually have several walls with different lengths and/or thickness. This regularity
buildings usually have several walls with different lengths and/or thickness. This regu-
means the formwork, steel bars, concrete pouring and foundations can be prepared and
larity means the formwork, steel bars, concrete pouring and foundations can be prepared
executed with more celerity and cost reduction, and in some cases re-use of formwork
and executed with more celerity and cost reduction, and in some cases re-use of formwork
can be coordinated with other buildings at the same time, increasing their productivity. It
can be coordinated
could also be easierwith other buildings
to develop at theinsame
this structure time, increasing
prefabricated their
concrete. productivity.
In addition, the It
could
smaller ratio between wall horizontal section area and livable area in the building modelsthe
also be easier to develop this structure in prefabricated concrete. In addition,
smaller
allows ratio
biggerbetween wallinhorizontal
flexibility the units’ section
layout. area
Theand livable area
possibility innon-load-bearings
to use the building models
allows bigger flexibility in the units’ layout. The possibility to use
partitions and develop different housing layouts that could be customized according to non-load-bearings par-
titions
the users’ needs and even consider future modifications. Furthermore, this adds diversitythe
and develop different housing layouts that could be customized according to
users’
for theneeds and even
dwelling types,consider future modifications.
shapes, thermal envelopes, andFurthermore,
architectural this adds diversity
appearance, to givefor
more
the local adaptation
dwelling and identity
types, shapes, thermal (Figure
envelopes,6). This
andcombination
architecturalofappearance,
regularity intothe main
give more
structure and diversity of housing layout can support the execution and
local adaptation and identity (Figure 6). This combination of regularity in the main struc- applicability of
this construction strategy.
ture and diversity of housing layout can support the execution and applicability of this
construction strategy.
 Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13
Buildings 2022,12,
Buildings2022, 12,1796
x FOR PEER REVIEW 1313ofof22
22

Scheme3.3.Comparison
Scheme Comparison ofof the
the ratio
ratio between
between wall
wall horizontal
horizontal section
section area
area and
and floor area
floorarea in
inbuildings
areaandbuildings
Scheme 3. Comparison of the ratio between wall horizontal section floor area in buil
with the proposed
with the proposed structure vs. conventional structure (source: Authors).
with thestructure
proposed vs.structure
conventional structure (source:
vs. conventional Authors).
structure (source: Authors).

Figure 6. Rendered view of outdoor and indoor spaces with main structure of reinforced concrete
slabs and columns, and 3D-printed walls (Source: authors).
Figure 6. view
Figure 6. Rendered Rendered view and
of outdoor of outdoor and indoor
indoor spaces spaces
with main with main
structure structureconcrete
of reinforced of reinforced con
4.3. Implementation
slabs and of Design
columns, Generation
and Programming
3D-printed walls (Source:
slabs and columns, and 3D-printed walls (Source: authors). authors).
The programming of design generation was carried out in Rhinoceros® software (Se-
4.3.
attle, WA, Implementation
US) of Design® Generation
through Grasshopper Programming
(GH) algorithmic programming platform. Several
sub-tasks wereThe
defined.
programming of design generation was carried out in Rhinoceros® software
attle, WA, US) through Grasshopper® (GH) algorithmic programming platform. Se
sub-tasks were defined.
 Buildings 2022, 12, 1796 14 of 22

Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 22

4.3. Implementation of Design Generation Programming
The programming of design generation was carried out in Rhinoceros® software
(Seattle, WA, US) through Grasshopper® (GH) algorithmic programming platform. Several
4.3.1. Generation of Global Volumes
sub-tasks were defined.
It establishes the global volume of the building as an orthogonal prism or parallele-
4.3.1. Generation
piped, of yGlobal
with Volx, Vol as theVolumes
horizontal lengths and Volz as the vertical length. These main
dimensions are the result
It establishes of simple
the global volume equations regarding
of the building asthe
annumber of structural
orthogonal prism or modules
paral-
lelepiped, with Vol
U, V and W, the lengths x , Vol as the horizontal lengths and Vol as the vertical length.
yof the module Modx, Mody, Modzzin every Cartesian dimension, These
main
plus thedimensions are the result
Terrace Extension or Tex,ofthe
simple equations
Corridor Widthregarding
Ap and Upperthe number of structural
Floor Height Ufh. Then,
modules
the U, V andisW,
global volume the lengths
defined with theof the Modx , Mody , Modz in every Cartesian
moduleequations:
following
dimension, plus the Terrace Extension or Tex , the Corridor Width Ap and Upper Floor
Height Ufh. Then, the global volume Volx = 2is(UMod x +with
defined Tex) +the
Apfollowing equations: (1)

VolVol
x =y 2
= (UMod
VModyx++2T
Texex) + Ap (1)(2)

Volz y= =WMod
Vol VModz y++U2T
fh
ex (2)(3)

This step is then executed with Volthe

z = GH
WMod z + UBOX
native fh component (Xdom,Ydom,Zdom),(3) with
dimension controllers that ensure its size and subsequent decomposition.
This step is then executed with the GH native BOX component (Xdom ,Ydom ,Zdom ), with
dimension controllers that ensure its size and subsequent decomposition.
4.3.2. Generation of Modules and Specification
4.3.2.
InGeneration
this step theof Modules
dimensionsandand
Specification
volume quantities described above are applied for
the subdivision
In this stepofthethe global volume,
dimensions whichquantities
and volume is executed with GH
described native
above component
are applied for theDo-
subdivision
main Box. This of the global volume,
is produced which issequence,
in a division executed with GHwith
starting native component
the Y directionDomain
division
Box. This is produced in a division sequence, starting with the Y direction
in seven portions or thick layers of the global volume for the primary definition division in seven
of the
portions or thick
programmatic uselayers of the global
(see Figure 7). volume for the primary definition of the programmatic
use (see Figure 7).

Firstsubdivision
Figure7.7.First
Figure subdivision across
across Y direction
direction(Source:
(Source:authors).
authors).

Afterthis
After thisprocedure,
procedure, the
the seven
seven portions
portions are
aredivided
dividedthrough
throughXXand andZZdirections ac-ac-
directions
cording to the previous dimensioning, obtaining whole building modulation and resulting
cording to the previous dimensioning, obtaining whole building modulation and result-
in individual volumes for residential modules, corridors, and terrace spaces. Once this is
ing in individual volumes for residential modules, corridors, and terrace spaces. Once this
defined, specific and vertically aligned Inner Residential parts are taken as nuclei of vertical
iscirculation
defined, specific and vertically
and elevators, alignedaccording
in a modulation Inner Residential
to buildingparts are taken
apartment as nuclei
quantity and of
vertical circulation and
length in the X direction.elevators, in a modulation according to building apartment quan-
tity and length in the X direction.
4.3.3. Development of the Main Structure
4.3.3. Development of the Main
This stage establishes Structure structure by defining slabs, walls, and columns,
the load-bearing
from the stage
This modulation carried
establishes theout by the previous
load-bearing stageby
structure anddefining
the measurements defined.
slabs, walls, and col-
Everyfrom
umns, modulethe was conceived
modulation to incorporate
carried out by thethese series of
previous volumes,
stage and theso measurements
main shape willde-
not beEvery
fined. altered. Main was
module structure consists
conceived to in several parts:
incorporate Walls,
these columns,
series and slabs.
of volumes, so main shape
will not be altered. Main structure consists in several parts: Walls, columns, and slabs.
• Walls from each module adjacent to the corridor are taken alternately as structural in
the X dimension. Every face around the vertical connector is taken also as structural
Wall. This pattern repeats through the entire building height.
• Columns are located on each vertical edge of the Outer Residential modules. This
pattern repeats through the entire building height.
 Buildings 2022, 12, 1796 15 of 22

Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW

• 15 in
Walls from each module adjacent to the corridor are taken alternately as structural of 22
the X dimension. Every face around the vertical connector is taken also as structural
Wall. This pattern repeats through the entire building height.
• • Slabs
Columns are located
are defined on each
by giving vertical edge
a thickness of the
to each Outer
lower Residential
horizontal facemodules. This
of each module
pattern repeats through the entire building height.
to the inside.
• Slabs are defined by giving a thickness to each lower horizontal face of each module
This process
to the inside. generates a new sequence of shapes, which correspond to the main
structural pieces, ordered by level and position. Which are dependent on the general vol-
This process generates a new sequence of shapes, which correspond to the main
ume and can
structural be controlled
pieces, ordered for their specific
by level dimensions.
and position. Which are dependent on the general
volume and can be controlled for their specific dimensions.
4.3.4. Distribution of Residential Units.
4.3.4. Distribution
This of dynamically
step settles Residential Units
the location and composition of departments or hous-
ing units, resulting in a disparate set location
This step settles dynamically the and composition
of residential modules in of adepartments or housing
settled range across the
units, resulting in a disparate set of
different modules and floors of the building. residential modules in a settled range across the
different modules and
This dynamic floors ofbased
algorithm, the building.
on Kangaroo 2® plug-in (Seattle, WA, US), will vary
This dynamic algorithm, based
out housing constraints modules occupying on Kangaroomain2® plug-in
volume(Seattle, WA, US), will
and displacing the vary out al-
others,
housing constraints modules occupying main volume and displacing the others, allowing
lowing also manual yet dynamic modification. The general restrictions of the procedure
also manual yet dynamic modification. The general restrictions of the procedure that leads
that leads to preserve the architectural program are:
to preserve the architectural program are:
• Each group of modules has at least 1 spatial unit adjacent to the corridor (this unit
• Each group of modules has at least 1 spatial unit adjacent to the corridor (this unit will
will correspond
correspond to access
to the the access
area area or plus
or hall, hall, kitchen
plus kitchen and bathroom.
and bathroom.
• • Nearly half of the modules will be adjacent to the exterior
Nearly half of the modules will be adjacent to the exterior façade. façade.
• • TheThemost
mostaligned
aligned module with the
module with theaccess
accesslevel
levelwill
willbebeassigned
assignedasas a common
a common area.
area.
• • Each
Eachgroup
groupofof modules
modules maymay not
not exceed
exceed33floors
floorsininheight.
height.
This
Thisprocedure
procedure generates differentorders
generates different ordersthat
thatcan
can
bebe established
established randomly
randomly andand eval-
evalu-
uated later, or either accept some weights for existence (i.e., 20% 6 module housing units,
ated later, or either accept some weights for existence (i.e., 20% 6 module housing units,
40%4 4module
40% modulehousing
housing units
units and so on)
on) that
thatcan
canbe beeasily
easilyrepresent
representdiverse functional
diverse functional
demands(Figure
demands (Figure8;8; Scheme
Scheme 4).
4). At
At this
this stage,
stage,indicators
indicatorsareareavailable
availableforfor
individual, total
individual, total
and programmatic quantification of resulting surfaces.
and programmatic quantification of resulting surfaces.

Scheme
Scheme4.4.Total
Totalhousing
housingunits
units included in each
included in eachalternative
alternativeby
bynumber
numberofof modules
modules (Source:
(Source: authors).
authors).

4.3.5. Elaboration of Partition

By evaluating the geometric situations of the modular sets of each department and
their component faces, a Shape Grammar-type algorithm is established that propagates
3D printed components, forming the dividing walls with different horizontal curvatures,
based mainly on current robotic manipulator kinematics. Some of these recognized situa-
tions are:
 The programming executed can generate different alternatives of building models,
according to the number of modules and floors defined, and diverse housing units’ lay-
outs, as well as structural elements and toolpath of 3D-printed walls. Additionally, this
will allow to schedule quantities and export the geometric files to BIM software and robot
to 3D-printing process. The files are coherent and detailed, although they must be com-
Buildings 2022, 12, 1796 pleted with more constructive and architectural information, as well specific control 16 of
to22
3D-printing, according to material mixture and equipment used.

Figure 8. Programming
Figure Programmingresults
resultsshowing
showing alternatives of modules
alternatives distributions
of modules of housing
distributions units,units,
of housing in-
cluding open
including openspaces (Source:
spaces authors).
(Source: authors).

4.3.5. Elaboration of Partition

By evaluating the geometric situations of the modular sets of each department and
their component faces, a Shape Grammar-type algorithm is established that propagates 3D
printed components, forming the dividing walls with different horizontal curvatures, based
mainly on current robotic manipulator kinematics. Some of these recognized situations are:
• Outer shells of the departments.
• Adjacencies to perimeter or corridor.
• Interior faces according to program.
• Faces adjacent to other departments or unused interior spaces.
These situations will be crossed with different generation relationships considering
encounters between two surfaces, between three or more surfaces, etc.

4.3.6. Toolpath Generation and Print Files

For the execution of each 3D-printed element, the corresponding wall is first subdi-
vided, according to the estimated geometric scope of the deposition equipment, considering
the three Cartesian axis, with controllable variables. Then, through Kuka PRC, the printing
trajectories with a horizontal slice of a height of 3 cm are generated, equivalent to the height
of the bead of deposited material and a linear movement (LIN) along the perimeter of
the upper ascending spiral element of planes to orient the tool with points every 5 cm,
increased in the corners to smooth the turn. In case of considering openings or modifica-
tions of the bead, nozzle, surface texture or internal reticulation, they are integrated in the
programming of the tool path and definition. These paths are generated as control files for
the printing equipment with the work quadrant, start level and tool distance.
The programming executed can generate different alternatives of building models,
according to the number of modules and floors defined, and diverse housing units’ layouts,
Buildings 2022, 12, 1796 17 of 22

as well as structural elements and toolpath of 3D-printed walls. Additionally, this will
allow to schedule quantities and export the geometric files to BIM software and robot to
3D-printing process. The files are coherent and detailed, although they must be completed
with more constructive and architectural information, as well specific control to 3D-printing,
according to material mixture and equipment used.

4.4. Elaboration of 3D-Printed Walls Prototypes

The prototyping of 3D-printed walls for this building strategy has allowed defining a
design process and working conditions, as well as making some demonstrative pieces. The
elaboration of the prototypes contemplated a phase of digital programming and another of
material execution, with several activities each one (Table 3). For the programming, three
digital volumes were first elaborated based on wall segments of the BIM model of one the
building developed, making the definition of toolpath for printing trajectories. The three
wall prototypes were established with a residential height (2.2 m), with a length within
the reach of the stationary robotic arm with base platform and considering a slight curved
shape, and thickness with double hollow cord and separations with 8 mm diameter iron
bars. placed every 15 cm. (horizontally and vertically). These features were based on
thermal and structural requirements usual for housing in the most populated areas of Chile,
and free-form capabilities of printing process, but appropriate for living conditions. The
first prototype with a basic radial shape and smooth finish; the second with a radial shape
and a smaller recess for a window and a regular texture, the third radial with a larger recess
and an irregular texture; to test increasing printing capabilities for construction elements.
The programming was based on shapes in Rhinoceros, with a slicing and a linear spiral
movement of planes for tool orientation with segments every 5 cm, increased at the corners
to smooth the rotation. The work quadrant, start level and tool distance (nozzle) were
also defined.

Table 3. Tasks developed for 3D-printed walls.

Activity Resources Result

BIM element BIM software and BIM model of building IFC file
Rhino shape NURBS 3D-modeling software SHP file
Slicing NURBS 3D-modeling software SHP file
NURBS 3D-modeling software
Toolpath PRC File
and robot programming software
Robot setting Control robot software G-code or proprietary file
Prepared mix or cement, Proper number of materials
Material supplies
aggregates and additives for the element
Control of humidity, slump and
Control of Humidity Checklist of properties
extrudability to set open time
Mixer and pump, with water feed, hose
Mix preparation Proper mix provided
and nozzle fixed to end effector of robot

The prototyping of 3D-printed walls involved several steps (Table 3). Two partial test
pieces in low and mid-height were initially executed, and later the three complete elements
(Table 4), through a dozen of sessions (since some of them were collapsed or interrupted).
Four people participated in the execution; a designer-programmer who prepares the digital
files in advance, make simulation of the process, estimates materials and work time; a robot
operator to control the 3D-printing; and an operator in charge of mixing and pumping, with
an assistant to place the iron bars. Considering the previous day of an initial preparation of
the aggregates (separation and humidity verification), and at the beginning of each session
a pouring and mixing in approximately one hour, while the working platform is installed,
they verify the levels and programming with the robot. Each impression takes from 20
to 80 min, including the placement of irons with lateral markings, and is then kept in the
same position for one day to ensure hardening, whose final rigidity is obtained after three
or four days, according to compression tests. The mixtures used for the prototypes was a
Buildings 2022, 12, 1796 18 of 22

micro-concrete with approx. 700 kg.cem. /m3, fine aggregates and fluidizing additive. The
deposition was made with a 25 mm diameter nozzle, resulting in a cord of approximately
20 mm high and 40 mm wide (with a slight settlement in the first cords). With a density of
approx. 2200 kg/m3, the executed elements have weights of 200 to 500 kg each, equivalent
to 20 MPa [56] (construction procedures were verified with specialists on each subject).

Table 4. 3D-printed wall pieces executed.

Height Length Curve Width

N◦ Properties
(cm) (cm) (degrees) (cm)
1 19 109 40◦ 19 Coating
2 84 110 40◦ 21 Bars and Insulation
3 218 100 40◦ 21 Vertical stability and regular finishing
4 218 140 55◦ 26 Texture and minor opening
5 220 150 60◦ 26 Texture and major opening

The executed elements have presented adequate stability and durability, with a pro-
gressive discoloration due to natural drying (Figure 9). With a regular rough finish, and
local anomalies. Items with surface textures have shaded variations. In the partial pieces of
lower height, coatings (cork-based paints with different colors), thermal insulation fillers
(injected polyurethane), drilling for installations and lifting transfers were tested. The
sections of the walls have been tested for moving with forklifts, assemblies with sealants
and placement of windows, roofs, accessories and fixing to the base. During a visit to
the prototypes with a non-specialized public, the visual appreciation of the attributes
of novelty, resistance, durability, roughness, maintenance, functionality, acceptance, and
attractiveness was consulted, as well as open comments. The results of the consultation
taken from 11 visitors were mostly positive, especially in novelty, durability, functionality,
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
and attractiveness, somewhat lower in maintenance and reception, without differences 19 of 22
between gender or age, and they commented on changing color or finishes (Scheme 5).

Scheme5.5.Average
Scheme Average socres
socres forfor perception
perception of 3D-printed
of 3D-printed wallwall attributes;
attributes; 5 is very
5 is very high high
and 1and
very1 low
very low
(Source: authors).
(Source: authors).

5. Conclusions
3D-printed construction or additive manufacturing presents promising possibilities
in construction, but little progress has been made in its mass use due to the multiple de-
velopment and implementation challenges. This work proposes a building strategy com-
bining regular structures with 3D-printed walls, to take advantage of the most evident
capabilities of this technology and integrate it into massive construction assuming some
main requirements with traditional elements. The strategy is based on the separation of
 elty, resistance, durability, roughness, maintenance, functionality, acceptance, and attrac-
tiveness was consulted, as well as open comments. The results of the consultation taken
from 11 visitors were mostly positive, especially in novelty, durability, functionality, and
attractiveness, somewhat lower in maintenance and reception, without differences be-
tween gender or age, and they commented on changing color or finishes (Scheme 5).
Buildings 2022, 12, 1796 19 of 22

Figure9.9.3D-printed
Figure 3D-printedwall
wallprototype
prototypeexecuted
executed(left)
(left) and
and previous
previous simulation
simulation of the
of the process
process (right)
(right)
(Source:authors).
(Source: authors).

5. Conclusions
3D-printed construction or additive manufacturing presents promising possibilities
in construction, but little progress has been made in its mass use due to the multiple
development and implementation challenges. This work proposes a building strategy
combining regular structures with 3D-printed walls, to take advantage of the most evident
capabilities of this technology and integrate it into massive construction assuming some
main requirements with traditional elements. The strategy is based on the separation
of the resistant components from the partitions that do not support loads to elaborate
them with additive procedures, which allows formal versatility. A progressive grid is
proposed to distribute structural pieces and generate buildings with different sizes, which
can accommodate very diverse housing distributions. The design procedure is programmed
and modeled with different compositions, showing its spatial variability and architectural
appeal. Various pieces of 3D-printed walls are executed to test construction capabilities
and properties, verifying the feasibility of the construction strategy.
This similar approach has been previously proposed for residential buildings during
the 20th century and has been implemented especially for offices and industrial buildings
as “open plan” with light partitions, but scarcely in residential constructions that have
higher habitability and resistance requirements, particularly in seismic countries. This
proposal minimizes and regularizes the supporting elements (in slabs and a grid of columns
and few walls of similar measurements), which facilitates their execution and subsequent
integration, as well as implements them in a digital design system, which allows to program
their variation. The programming can easily generate different alternatives for the general
volumes, as well as for the interior and perimeter walls executed by 3D-printing.
This strategy also makes it possible to separate the management and execution of
different magnitudes of building structure and partitions, facilitating the diversity and
participation of the occupants. It also allows control of the construction, through the digital
flow of information to the handling of manufacturing robots. In this sense, it suggests
two differentiated scopes of development of the general volumes and the housing units,
allowing to combine global productivity and local adaptation to individual interests and/or
climatic conditions. Furthermore, providing an attractive flexibility and novel appearance.
The modeling and programming of the digital design demonstrate the ability to implement
and integrate the process, and the 3D-printed wall prototypes allow the material verification
of the strategy to begin. The proposal must make substantial progress in its development
and construction and operational testing, but it suggests new paths for housing construction
and the effective application of new design technologies and automated manufacturing
in construction.
Buildings 2022, 12, 1796 20 of 22

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology, writing and funding acquisition, R.G.-A.;

formal analysis, resources, writing and visualization, G.M.-O. and P.B. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by ANID-Chile, grant number FONDECYT 1221730, FONDE-
QUIP EQM210225 and Project INES I+D 22-26 of Universidad del Bío-Bío, Chile.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors thank the collaboration of Claudia Muñoz, Eric Forcael, Alexander
Opazo, Javier Sepúlveda, Patricio Carrasco, Fernando Pedreros, Aracely Rocha and Juan Guillermo
Sandoval, as well as the use of equipment in CITEC (Centre for Research in Construction Technologies)
of Universidad del Bío-Bío, Chile, and 3D-printed prototypes used mix design according to Intellectual
Property N◦ 2020-A-4080 of Universidad del Bío-Bío.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or
in the decision to publish the results.

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