Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127629

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Review

A comprehensive review on fresh state rheological properties of extrusion

mortars designed for 3D printing applications
Vedat Saruhan a, *, Muhammer Keskinateş b, c, Burak Felekoğlu d
a
The Graduate School of Natural and Applied Science, Constr. Materials Program, Buca, Izmir, Turkey
b
Dokuz Eylül University, Institute of Natural and Applied Sciences, Buca, İzmir, Turkey
c
Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey University, Engineering Faculty, Department of Civil Engineering, Karaman, Turkey
d
Dokuz Eylül University, Engineering Faculty, Department of Civil Engineering, Buca, İzmir, Turkey

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Interest in 3D construction method has been increasing rapidly in recent years due to its advantages compared to
3D extrusion technology conventional method of reinforced concrete building. The fresh state rheological properties (viscosity, yield
Rheology stress, thixotropy etc.) of mixtures composed via “layer-by-layer” forming technique gain importance in 3D
Mixture design
construction. The influence of fresh state rheological properties on pumpability, extrudability and buildability
Extrudability and buildability
have been comprehensively evaluated based on recent literature. The role of material ingredients and mixture
proportions on the rheological behavior of extrusion mortar is discussed and finally their influence on 3D
printing performance is classified.

1. Introduction
Concrete is one of the most used building materials in the world.
Conventional concrete has significant disadvantages in terms of econ­
omy with its high energy consumption, low manufacturing speed and
high labor costs. Alternative casting methods gain importance in order
to reduce environmental noise and pollution problems faced with con­
ventional construction methods. Concrete printing (extruding) has
started to become widespread in construction industry with the devel­
oping technology to eliminate such negative situations [1]. 3D printing
method provide features such as more efficient use of raw materials, low
energy consumption and low CO2 emission, which provide sustainable
and environmentally friendly construction. [2].
3D concrete printing is the extrusion of concrete from the nozzle of
the printer in the form of layer-by-layer without the need formwork [3].
Until recently; conductive objects consisting of metal nanoparticles and
organic polymers [4], food production [5], biomedical applications [6],
light material production in the automobile and space industries [7] etc.
have been successfully applied with 3D extrusion method. However, the
use of 3D printers in the construction industry is still in the research and
development phase. Extrusion of concrete with 3D printers was first
proposed by Pegna in 1997. [8]. In 2003, a method called “Contour
Crafting” was developed to extrude cementitious materials [9].
“Contour Crafting” method is the process of smoothing the layers with
the help of the side trowel and top trowel while the mixtures are
extruded from the printer nozzle (Fig. 1-a). Although studies on the 3D
method after 2003 progressed slowly, studies started to gain weight
after 2010. With the studies of private companies, 3D method has had
wide application areas until today. Concrete walls constructed using the
contour crafting method [10]. In 2009, the European Space Agency
started to work a program on the 3D method for the establishment of
new settlements on the Moon, and the most suitable building design that
will protect the building from adverse environmental conditions was
tried to be determined [11]. Lim et al. [12] developed a concrete
printing system that similar to the contour crafting system. The first
bridge constructed by the 3D method of the world (Fig. 1-b) was
designed by the Catalonia Architecture Institute in Spain [13]. In
addition, the bridges using prestressed cables in each layer were con­
structed to serve as bicycle ways in the Netherlands [14]. The world’s
first 3D printed office building (Fig. 1-c) was manufactured in Dubai by
Winsun company in 2014 [15]. In addition, a 6-storey house was built in
2015 with an area of 1100 m2 by Winsun company (Fig. 1-d). According
to the company’s experience, 3D method has significant advantages that
reducing material consumption by 60%, reducing labor costs and by
saving 70% in construction period compared to conventional concrete
[16]. The world’s first 3D printed residential house (Fig. 1-e) was built

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: vedat.saruhan@ogr.deu.edu.tr (V. Saruhan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.127629
Received 28 February 2022; Received in revised form 8 April 2022; Accepted 22 April 2022
Available online 28 April 2022
0950-0618/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
V. Saruhan et al.
Fig. 1. a) Contour Crafting [9], b) First 3D bridge construction [13], c) First office building construction [15], d) Winsun company first multi-storey building
construction [16], e) First residential house [17], f) City furniture constructed by İston [19].
Fig. 2. a) Cold joint formation [29], b-c) Collapse problems [25,28], d) Discontinuity problems [26], e) Properly extruded specimen [30].
by Apis Cor in Russia, and the cost of the building (38 m2) was stated as
only $ 10,134 [17]. Recently, NASA has been designing large-scale
structures for building production on the Mars surface using the 3D
method [18]. Özalp et al. [19] designed and constructed city furniture
by 3D method in Turkey (Fig. 1-f). Some of these applications are shown
in Fig. 1.
Compared with conventional method, concrete printing has impor­
tant advantages that reducing labor costs, eliminating the use of molds,
building architectural structures in geometric shapes that cannot be
casted by conventional concrete, fast manufacturing, completing in a
shorter time than conventional molded concrete, less worker accidents
and less workmanship defects [20–23]. 3D printing enhances the speed
of manufacturing and provides important advantages in terms of cost
since there is no need for molding. However, since the 3D method is still
in the research and development phase, it has some uncertainties or
disadvantages. Mix designs used in conventional concrete are not
Fig. 3. Typical thixotropy measurement system with shear stress-shear rate
graph [38].
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Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127629
suitable for 3D method. Advanced mixture design is necessary to control
the rheology during extrusion [24]. In addition, reinforcements used in
conventional concrete cannot be applied in the 3D method. Therefore,
fiber is required to reinforce concrete for extrusion. In addition, dis­
continuities and collapse problems occur if mixtures designed improp­
erly [25–28]. Non-ideal and ideal examples of concrete after multilayer
extrusion are shown in Fig. 2.
The most important fresh state parameters should be controlled for a
given 3D extruded concrete are pumpability (ease of flow before
arriving to the nozzle head of 3D printer), extrudability (extruding the
concrete from the nozzle head) and buildability (maintaining the shape
of the layers without deformation under its own weight) [31]. Rheology
control of 3D printed concrete is critical since the extrudability and
buildability parameters should be optimized at the same time. These
parameters can be directly linked with rheological properties of fresh
mortar such as viscosity, yield stress and thixotropy.
Although it is still a new technique, studies on the development of
processing methods for 3D printed concrete continue to increase in
number. The design and construction of future structures will be inevi­
table with the 3D method since this method provides economical ad­
vantages and high-speed manufacturing. In this review article, the fresh
state rheological properties of mortars designed and constructed with
3D method are investigated. In addition, application areas of 3D method
are mentioned.
2. Fresh state rheological properties
While the interest in 3D concrete printing is increasing rapidly, some
problems arise with the production of 3D concrete printing since the
production method is different from conventional concrete. In the con­
ventional structures, the desired shape of the structure is provided by
casting concrete in a pre-installed mold. Structure is erected by
extruding layer-by-layer in 3D printing. Since no formwork is required
in 3D concrete printing, fresh state rheological properties becomes
crucially important [32].
While fresh concrete is under the stress, it exhibits cohesive behavior
under a critical shear stress called the yield shear stress or yield stress,
V. Saruhan et al.
Fig. 4. Effect of the mixture designs on the pumping pressure of concrete [53].
acting as a fluid if it is above this critical shear stress value. This behavior
can be characterized with physical models such as the Bingham or
Herschel-Bulkley model [33]. 3D extruded mixtures also act as visco-
plastic Bingham materials. They exhibit flowable structure when sub­
jected to higher stress than yield stress. Another important feature is the
viscosity. The mixtures exhibit viscous behavior after flow and the shear
rate is proportional to the shear stress along a constant called plastic
viscosity [34]. While high yield stress is required for buildability in 3D
concrete printing, low viscosity is required for pumpability and
extrudability [35–37].
A proper concrete design for 3D printing should not start flow after
extrusion process (when no stress is applied). Therefore, the change of
yield stress during extrusion time becomes important. Thixotropy (Pa/
sec) measurement can be related with the variation of yield stress during
time and this parameter is a critical factor for the 3D extrusion. As
another approximation, thixotropy can be measured from the area
(known as hysteresis area, Fig. 3) between the ascending and descending
curves of shear stress-shear rate graph [38,39]. Since there is no form­
work, concrete should exhibit a low slump value to prevent deformation
and sagging after extrusion [40].
Viscosity, yield stress, thixotropy etc., which are the fresh state
properties of concrete are closely related to extrudability, buildability
and pumpability. Therefore, the parameters directly affecting the fresh
state rheological properties of concrete are investigated in the following
chapters.
2.1. Material mix design
Material mixture design consist of optimized aggregate gradation
with the balance of chemical admixtures and mineral additives [41].
Improper mixtures of materials can cause segregation during pumping of
concrete or may clog the printer nozzle [40]. The listed 3D concrete
printing ingredients have been studied within the scope of this literature
review: cement, fly ash, silica fume, blast furnace slag, fine aggregate
(Dmax less than 2 mm), superplasticizer, viscosity modifying agent, fiber
[31,32,42–47]. Coarse aggregate is usually eliminated in mix design in
order to reduce the segregation possibility and blockage problems.
Despite this tendency, coarse aggregate sometimes preferred in few
studies. Jayathilakage et al. [48] and Zareiyan & Khoshnevis [49] used
river sand with Dmax = 4.75 mm, Rushing et al. [50] preferred to use
coarse aggregate with Dmax = 9.5 mm. Consequently, a well-designed
mixture should be selected to ensure optimization in terms of fresh
state rheological properties. Material mixture design and their effects on
3D printing is investigated in detail in Section 2.5.
2.2. Pumpability
Fresh concrete is pushed towards the printer head by applying
pressure with a piston. The collapse problems of the layers under their
own weight can be prevented by applying proper pumping pressure
[42,51]. The pumpability is significantly affected by the fresh state
rheological properties of the mixtures. During the pumping process, the
mixtures are desired to be of fluent consistency (low viscosity) [52]. The
pumpability of the mixtures is also affected by aggregate particle size
distribution and water/cement ratio [40]. The proportion of fine ma­
terial in concrete has a significant effect on pumpability. In Fig. 4, the
effect of coarse aggregate on the pumpability in a pipe has shown. While
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Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127629
Fig. 5. Static and dynamic yield stress [42].
the coarse aggregates move to the center of the pipe, the fine materials
migrate towards the walls of the pipe and form a lubrication layer. This
leads to the accumulation of coarse aggregates in the center and pro­
vides a significant drop in pumping pressure [53]. In low water/cement
ratio, the mixtures have high yield stress and viscosity. Therefore, high
pressure will be required to pump mixtures at low water cement ratio
[37]. In some studies, pumping pressures applied especially for high
viscosity mixtures can vary between 1 and 4 MPa (10–40 bar) [40,54].
Also, pumping pressure of 0.3 MPa (3 bar) is reported in most of the
recent studies [55–57]. In addition, the lubricating layer, which is
critical for pumpability, can be improved by adding silica fume to the
mixtures [25].
A material begins to flow only when the static yield stress (minimum
shear stress required to start flow) is exceeded at constant shear rate.
After this stage, the dynamic yield stress (critical shear stress value
below the shear stress that is insufficient to maintain flow) is the critical
factor that governs the rheology of concrete (Fig. 5). Low dynamic yield
stress is the most ideal in terms of pumpability since the segregation of
the water in the mixture decreases thanks to the lower pump pressure
[42,58].
2.3. Extrudability
Although pumpability and extrudability are perceived as the same,
they are different processes. The extrudability is the process of properly
movement of the mixtures from the 3D printer head to the nozzle due to
pumping. In a properly extruded process, there should be no disconti­
nuity in the layers and no gaps in the extruded mixtures [45]. In addi­
tion, segregation, blockage and water bleeding should be prevented
inside the printer nozzle. Blockage may cause significant problems in
terms of cost and time. One of the most important parameters for
extrudability is the printer’s nozzle size. Zuriguel et al. [59], studied the
effect of aggregate particle size on pumpability. According to that study,
the ratio of Dnozzle/Dmax (nozzle head diameter/maximum aggregate
diameter) should be larger than 4.94 in order to avoid any blockage
during extrusion. However, this is valid for head exhibiting circular
section. This critical value significantly affected by nozzle shape. Also, El
Cheikh et al. [60] stated that this ratio should be larger than 4 to reduce
the risk of blocking. Another important parameter to be considered for
proper extrusion process is the pumping pressure. Pressure should be
reduced where the printer head needs to change direction for the con­
tinuity of proper extrusion. Therefore, a suitable control system is
required for pumping pressure [40].
In addition to the pumping pressure, two other important factors
affecting the extrusion of the mixtures are extrusion speed (mm/sec) and
mortar flow rate (cm3/sec or ml/sec) [61,62]. Extrusion speed is the
V. Saruhan et al. Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127629

Fig. 6. Extruded layers at different extrusion speed and flow rates a) flow rate: 37.9 ml/s, b) flow rate: 45.2 ml/s, c) flow rate: 48.0 ml/s, d) flow rate: 51.3 ml/s [62].

Fig. 8. Change of structuration rate and re-flocculation rate with time [42].

Fig. 7. Extrudable region determined by slump and slump-flow test

mm). The yield stress value corresponding to this slump value has been
values [26].
reported to be in the range of 150–500 Pa (while the ideal yield stress for
Portland cement mortar was in the range of 150–350 Pa, this range was
ratio of extruded layer length to extrusion time. The flow rate is the
reported as 250–500 Pa for geopolymer mortars.
volume of a layer extruded at any given time. In the case of extrusion, if
the flow rate of the extruded mortars is not correctly synchronized with
the extrusion speed, the extruded layers will not be continuous and
2.4. Buildability
smooth [63]. The optimum extrusion speed and flow rate should be
determined to obtain continuous and uniform extrusion layers. Fig. 6
The deformation resistance of concrete under its own weight and the
shows examples of extruded layers at different extrusion speeds and flow
weight of the overlapping layers after extrusion from the nozzle is called
rates. In cases of high flow rate and low extrusion speed, a wider and
as buildability. The extruded mixture must have sufficient yield stress in
smooth surface layer can be obtained. In the case of low flow rate and
order to fulfill this requirement [69]. Literature studies show that there
high extrusion speed, the extruded mortars broken or discontinuity may
is a huge scatter between the yield stress values suggested for a robust
occur along the layers [62]. In addition, the optimum extrusion speed
buildability. For example, Perrot et al. [70] stated that the yield stress
and flow rate were determined by Tay et al. [26] as 60 mm/sec and 23
required to prevent deformation should be 20000 Pa. However, Nair
ml/sec, respectively. Ma et al. [64] reported the most appropriate
et al. [71] stated that the yield stress values for buildability should be
extrusion speed and flow rate as 75 mm/sec and 90 ml/sec, respectively.
150–400 Pa. The optimum yield stress values stated in the literature for
In general, slump (difference in height that after cone mould
each case study dealing with 3D method are discussed in Section 2.5.
removed), slump-flow (spread-flow) and yield stress values of the mix­
Two of the most frequently applied parameters to determine the
tures used to determine the extrudable regions for 3D method. Tay et al.
buildability of concrete are structuration rate (Athix) and the re-
[26] performed slump and slump-flow tests according to ASTM C230
flocculation rate (Rthix). Athix mainly characterizes the increase in
[65] standard and investigated the extrudability of different mortar
static yield stress due to chemical reactions and Rthix relates with
mixtures. The numerical values obtained from the results of the exper­
physical interatomic and intermolecular forces that rebuild the micro­
iments were located in the slump and slump-flow diagram and the safe
structure. In other words, Rthix is the rise from dynamic yield stress to
region of the specimens that are suitable for both extrudability and
static yield stress in shear stress graph (Fig. 5). While both measure the
buildability were indicated as a result of visual inspection. Ideal slump
variation of thixotropy over time, the scale of time they affect is different
interval value of 4–8 mm was found for extruded mortar specimens,
(Fig. 8). It is characterized by chemical reaction, while the structuration
while ideal slump-flow diameters were measured as 150–190 mm
rate acts over a longer time interval. Re-flocculation finish in a shorter
(Fig. 7).
time (first few hundred seconds). Due to its dominancy over a longer
Optimum spread-low diameters for the mortar mixtures prepared by
period, the structuration rate may significantly affected by environ­
Papachristoforou et al. [66] obtained between 180 and 240 mm and
mental factors, chemical additives, cement hydration etc. Since the re-
acceptable yield stress values for the 3D method were measured in the
flocculation rate is distinctive in a short time, it is only affected by the
range of 500–1800 Pa. Alghamdi et al. [67] studied the mini slump
forces between atoms and molecules. Therefore, the re-flocculation rate
values according to the ASTM C143/C143M [68] to determine the shape
is considered as a more appropriate characterization parameter than the
stability of the geopolymer and Portland cement mortar. The extrudable
structuration rate for buildability [42].
region for both mixtures measured with a minimum slump value (0–20
From Fig. 8 Athix and Rthix are mathematically expressed as:

4
V. Saruhan et al.
Fig. 9. a) Extrudability-buildability recovery with thixotropic effect [72], b) The contact surface areas of circular and rectangular printer nozzles [40].
Table 1
Main targets for 3D printing method [73].
τs, i = τd, i + Rthi*t
τs(t) = τs, i + Athix*(t − trf )
τs(t) = Static yield stress of the material at time t (sec) after the start
of mixing (Pa).
τs, i = Initial static yield stress of the material (Pa).
τd, i = Initial dynamic yield stress of the material (Pa).
t – Time since the start of mixing (s).
trf – Time period over which re-flocculation occurs and dominates
shear stress increase (s).
The high thixotropy of the materials have a positive influence on the
buildability properties in a short time [39]. As shown in Fig. 9-a, the
extrudability/buildability recovery of the mixtures have been visualized
over time depending on the applied stress [72]. As stated in Section 2,
materials should exhibit sufficient cohesiveness at low stress or rest for
improved buildability. Also, the buildability varies depending on the
printer nozzle type. Two different nozzle types are shown in Fig. 9-b. The
contact surface area in the circular nozzle is smaller than the rectangular
nozzle. Therefore, the buildability can be improved by the rectangular
nozzle section [40].
Malaeb et al. [73] have introduced some criteria (Table 1) that are
required to determine proper mixtures for 3D printing method. In
addition to extrudability and buildability, maximum compressive
Fig. 10. Buildability test for a) two-layer specimen [45], b) 40-layer specimen [64].
Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127629
strength, shorter concrete setting time and high interlayer bonding
strength are the main targets for the 3D printing method.
Rahul et al. [45] and Ma et al. [64] performed buildability test
(Fig. 10). In Fig. 10-a, nozzle with 30x20 mm size was used within the
scope of the experiment and two layers were extruded. No decrease in
the height of the layers was observed after extrusion. In Fig. 10-b, 40
extruded layers with a size of 8x25 mm nozzle were extruded and the
total height was measured as 230 mm. Since the first layer carry more
load than the upper layers, the buildability of the bottom layers was
(1) found inadequate. To increase the buildability of the bottom layers, the
green strength or strength immediately after extrusion should be
(2) increased. Higher green strength is beneficial to bear more load at the
bottom layers [74,75].
2.5. Effect of material ingredients on rheological properties and printing
ability
2.5.1. Cement
Since cement is the most used binder material for extrusion mortar
mix design, the type of cement, fineness, amount, etc. is gaining
importance. Longer time is needed for ordinary Portland cement bearing
extrusion mortar to become cohesive for buildability after being
extruded. Therefore, in addition to Portland cement, quick setting cal­
cium aluminate cement can be used in the mixture design. In addition,
geopolymer based binders which exhibit both quick setting and high
early strength are suitable candidates for the 3D method [41].
Weng et al. [52] prepared 8 different mortar mixtures using fly ash
(FA), silica fume (S) and magnesium potassium phosphate cement
(MPPC) which set faster than normal Portland cement. They also used
borax as a set retarder. In the mixture design, magnesium oxide (M) was
used as the main component of MPPC and fly ash was added to MPPC
mortars instead of magnesium oxide in four different mixing ratios (0,
40, 50 and 60% by weight of replacement). In addition, silica fume (S)
was added by 5, 10% of the binder, and borax was added by 1, 4, 8% of
the total amount of magnesium oxide and fly ash. The spread-flow
5
V. Saruhan et al.
Fig. 11. a) Spread-flow diameter measurements, b) M40FA60S10-4 specimen [52].
Fig. 12. Buildability tests for a)100% PC, b) 93% PC + 7% CAC [77].
diameters of the prepared mixtures have been measured according to
ASTM C1611M [76] standard with the mini slump test. Results showed
that only the mixture with MPPC (M100FA0S0-1) has a very low spread-
flow diameter (about 100 mm), therefore it is insufficient in terms of
extrudability. With the use of fly ash up to 60% (M40FA60S0-1), the
spread-flow diameter is increased up to 230 mm. This modification
caused a negative impact on buildability. M40FA60S10-4 (40% mag­
nesium oxide, 60% fly ash, 10% silica fume and 4% borax usage)
selected as optimum mixture for both extrudability and buildability. The
spread-flow diameter of this mixture is measured as 109.6 mm. Results
of the study showed that silica fume (by 10% of the binder) increased
buildability and borax (by 4% of the binder) maintained the consistency
of the mixtures (increased extrudability) (Fig. 11).
Khalil et al. [77] prepared mortar mixtures by using Portland cement
(PC), calcium alumina cement (CAC) and sand (ground limestone with a
maximum grain size less than 2 mm). Five different mortars have been
prepared (standard mix (100% PC), mixes with 2%, 5%, 7% and 10%
CAC replacement by PC). The yield stress values measured at 10, 15, 20,
25, 30 and 45 min after the start of mixing. As a result of the preliminary
experiments, the most appropriate mixes for extrudability was reported
as 100% PC and 93% PC + 7% CAC. For 100% PC, the yield stress at 15
Fig. 13. a) WPC (200 mm slump), b) NPC (170 mm slump), c) NPC with accelerator (200 mm slump) [19].
6
Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127629
min measured as 2618 Pa and the yield stress increased to 38217 Pa after
45 min. For 93% PC + 7% CAC, the yield stress at 15 min measured as
47771 Pa and the yield stress reached to 95541 Pa at 45 min. CAC
replacement with PC increased the yield stress, thereby improved the
buildability required for the 3D method. While the 100% PC incorpo­
rating mix was only printed up to 5 layers (Fig. 12-a), mixture with 93%
PC + 7% CAC was successfully printed up to 30 layers (Fig. 12-b).
Jayathilakage et al. [48] prepared mortar mixtures with cement/
aggregate ratios of 0.67 and 0.79 and measured the yield stress values
according to ASTM D3080M [78] standard (direct shear test). Yield
stress values of mixtures prepared with these cement/total aggregate
ratios were measured as 17.1 kPa, 20.2 kPa, respectively. In general, the
yield stress values of the mixtures increased with the increase in the
cement dosage. This can be explained by the decrease in the interaction
between the cement particles due to cement dilution effect. Thus,
mixture with cement/aggregate ratio of 0.79 was found more appro­
priate mixture in terms of buildability. Cement dosage is a crucial factor
that affect the buildability of extrusion concrete.
Özalp et al. [19] investigated the extrudability and buildability of the
mixtures by using normal Portland cement (NPC), white Portland
cement (WPC), silica sand (0–1.5 mm), polypropylene fiber and super­
plasticizer. Mortar mix proportions were given as cement/water/fine
aggregate (0–1.5 mm)/chemical additive = 1/0.30/1.5/0.02. Slump-
flow test is employed to determine the workability (extrudability).
Since WPC has a high early age strength compared to Portland cement,
researchers designed the initial slump-flow values to be higher for white
Portland cement (target slump-flow value is 200 mm for white Portland
cement, while for Normal Portland cement is 170 mm). According to
visual inspection (Fig. 13-a), no problem is reported in terms of both
extrudability and buildability with the use of WPC. However, it is seen
that NPC is inadequate in terms of extrudability and buildability at the
slump value of 170 mm (collapsed under its own weight) (Fig. 13-b). In
order to find a solution, researchers increased the slump-flow value of
NPC up to 200 mm and a set accelerating admixture was also added to
the mixture. Visual examination indicated that the mixture incorpo­
rating NPC in combination with accelerator is suitable for both
V. Saruhan et al.
Fig. 14. a) Yield stress measurements, b) Viscosity recovery of geopolymer specimens [72] (F: fly ash ratio, G: blast furnace slag ratio, S: silica fume ratio).
extrudability and buildability (Fig. 13-c). Accordingly, a direct rela­
tionship between the spread-flow diameter and buildability of NPC
incorporating mortars was reported within certain limits. Results
showed that WPC can be used in the extrusion mortar applications. In
addition, the slump-flow value of mixtures incorporating NPC can be
adjusted with the use of an accelerator for proper extrudability and
buildability.
Putten et al. [79] investigated the extrudability and buildability of
the mixtures by using Portland cement, calcium aluminate cement (10,
15, 20% replacement by weight of Portland cement), sand (Dmax = 2
mm), polycarboxylate-based superplasticizer (0.11% by weight of
binder). The following rule is defined for extrudable mixtures: a single
layer must be continuously extruded along the 30 cm path and at least 4
layers should be superimposed without collapsing. The initial setting
times of the control mixture (reference mixture without calcium
alumina cement addition), and mixtures containing 0, 10, 15, 20%
calcium alumina cement measured as 210, 39, 39, 80 min, respectively.
The final setting time were also measured as 380, 99, 94, 145 min,
respectively. Considering that all specimens are extrudable, mixtures
prepared by using calcium aluminate cement exhibited better build­
ability due to their rapid setting ability. Mixtures prepared with 10%
and 15% calcium aluminate cement with the minimum setting time has
been accepted as the most ideal mixture in terms of extrudability.
Panda et al. [72] determined the yield stress and viscosity values
(determined by rheometer equipped with 4-blade vane geometry) of the
geopolymer-based extrusion mortars by using fly ash (F), granulated
blast furnace slag (G) and silica fume (S) (Fig. 14). In Fig. 14-a, the initial
yield stress value of the control mixture (F100) was measured as
approximately 330 Pa. An increase in yield stress was reported
compared to control mortar by adding 5% blast furnace slag and 5%
silica fume (F90G5S5), respectively. Fineness of silica fume is reported
as the main reason contributing to yield stress increase. In addition, the
initial yield stress values of the mixtures obtained by adding 10% blast
furnace slag (F90G10) and 10% silica fume (F90S10) increased
approximately twice as compared to the control mixture. In Fig. 14-b,
viscosity recovery of i) mixtures before pumping ii) during pumping/
extrusion and iii) after extrusion are presented. The viscosity recovery
ability of the mixtures increased by the addition of silica fume and fly
ash. Thus, while mixtures initially exhibiting low viscosity are better
extruded, a sudden increase in viscosity after extrusion positively
affected the buildability. In conclusion, it has been stated that both
extrudable and buildable geopolymer mixtures can be successfully
designed with proper combinations of fly ash, blast furnace slag and
silica fume.
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Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127629
Fig. 15. a) Static yield stress and viscosity value variation with mineral addi­
tives, b) Static yield stress variation over time [82] (F: fly ash ratio, C: cement
ratio, S: silica fume ratio).
2.5.2. Mineral additives
The most frequently preferred mineral additives for extrudable
concrete design are fly ash, blast furnace slag and silica fume. Although
not limited to these, many other industrial waste materials or volcanic
ash deposits can be used as mineral additives. These minerals may
sometimes significantly affect the rheology of concrete depending on
their replacement ratio with cement. Literature review revealed that fly
ash and blast furnace slag decreases the yield stress and viscosity while
the opposite behavior is valid for silica fume [58,80,81]. Therefore,
determination of optimum mineral additive content is the main target of
extrudable and buildable concrete design.
Panda & Tan [82] investigated the extrudability and buildability of
mixtures prepared by combining fly ash (F), silica fume (S) and cement
(C) (Fig. 15,16). 30 mm (width) x15 mm (length) nozzle head used
within the scope of that study. Effect of mineral additives viscosity and
static yield stress of the mixtures are presented in Fig. 15a. Time
dependent variation in static yield stress is also plotted in Fig. 15b. A
decrease in both viscosity and static yield stress observed with fly ash
addition. Due to the spherical shape of the fly ash particles, the friction
force between the cement particles decreased and as a result the yield
stress decreased. An increase was observed in both viscosity and static
yield stress with the addition of silica fume. Due to high specific surface
area of silica fume, the number of contact points and friction between
particles increased, thereby yield stress and viscosity increased at the
same time [80]. In addition, the static yield stress increased over time
which is attributed to the formation of primary C-S-H. In Fig. 16-a,
viscosity recovery capabilities of the mixtures are examined. The in­
crease in recovery ability was not very significant with the increment in
cement dosage. However, a significant increase was observed in recov­
ery ability by addition of silica fume up to 5%. In Fig. 16-b, mixtures
V. Saruhan et al. Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127629

Fig. 16. Effect of silica fume on a) Viscosity, b) Buildability [82] (F: fly ash ratio, C: cement ratio, S: silica fume ratio).

Fig. 17. a) Buildability determination by means of height of layers, b) time dependent flow values [83] (CM: control mix, CS: silica fume modified mix, CC: nanoclay
modified mix, CCR: nanoclay and set retarding admixture modified mix, CCS: silica fume and nanoclay modified mix.).

without silica fume (F50C50S0 and F80C20S0) exhibited more sagging

on the sides of layers (65.1 mm and 55.2 mm, respectively, on the 10th
layer), while the mixture containing silica fume (F77.5C20S2.5 (fly ash,
cement, silica fumes with a weight ratio of 77.5, 20, 2.5, respectively))
exhibited less deformation on the sides (45.4 mm). Considering that 30
mm wide nozzle head is used within the scope of the study, lateral
deformation and sagging was observed despite the use of silica fume.
Authors conclude that, despite the increased the static yield stress value
and hence buildability silica fume addition was not found sufficient to
limit the deformation after extrusion [82].
Zhang et al. [83] compared the extrudability and buildability of the
mixtures by using Portland cement, fine aggregate (Dmax = 1 mm and
fineness modulus = 2.84), polycarboxylate-based superplasticizer, silica
fume, nanoclay and set retarding admixture (Fig. 17). In Fig. 17-a, first
mix (CM) is the control mix. This mixture could be extruded up to a
maximum height of 72 mm. The second mixture (CS) designed by adding
silica fume to the control mixture and the maximum extrudable layer
height increased up to 156 mm height. The third mixture (CC) was
prepared by adding only nanoclay to the control mixture and the layer Fig. 18. Yield stress values obtained from mortars prepared with different mix
height was 180 mm. In the 4th mixture (CCR), nanoclay and set proportions [71] (OPC: ordinary Portland cement, F: fly ash ratio, K: meta­
retarding admixture were combined and the layer height decreased to kaolin ratio, M: silica fume ratio, L: limestone ratio, s: superplasticizer incor­
163 mm. The 5th mixture (CCS) was prepared by adding silica fume and poration and water reduction).
nanoclay to the control mixture and the layer height measured as 260
mm. In terms of buildability, the most appropriate mixture is reported as mixture still maintained after 1 h. The initial yield stress, viscosity and
the 5th mixture. Fig. 17-b shows the slump-flow test results of the thixotropy values of the CCS mixture have been measured as approxi­
mixtures according to ASTM C230 [65] standard. The initial flow values mately 200 Pa, 4 Pa.s, 8000 Pa/s, respectively.
did not vary much with silica fume, nanoclay and set retarding admix­ Liu et al. [25] designed extrudable mixtures by using cement, fly ash,
ture addition. Although the 5th mixture (CCS) exhibited the minimum sand, water and silica fume with proportions by 12–16%, 25–30%,
flow value, the spread-flow diameter of 190 mm was measured even 21–26%, 33–35% and 2–4%, respectively. Buildability measurements
after 1 h, and it was stated that pumpability and extrudability of this showed that 2% to 4% silica fume addition caused an increment in the

8
V. Saruhan et al.
Fig. 19. Maximum layer height measurements depending on amount and type
of mineral additives [84] (NS: nanosilica, MK: metakaolin, NC: nanoclay, MS:
microsilica).
static yield stress from approximately 500 Pa to 5950 Pa, thereby
affecting the buildability of the mixtures positively. Results showed that,
variations in fly ash, sand and cement ratios did not cause a significant
influence on static yield stress. Therefore, it has been concluded that
silica fume has a distinctive positive influence on buildability.
Nair et al. [71] measured yield stress values of extrudable concretes
which designed by replacing ordinary Portland cement (OPC) with
different amounts of metakaolin (K), fly ash (F), limestone (L), and silica
fume (M). The yield stress value of the mixture prepared with OPC has
been measured approximately 50 Pa. Yield stress values of mixtures
increased from 50 Pa to 400 Pa by replacing OPC with 30% mineral
additive (15% limestone and 15% silica fume with superplasticizer
incorporation and water reduction, Fig. 18). In another study, Alghamdi,
Nair, Neithalath [67] concluded that required yield stress values of
150–400 Pa for the 3D method can be provided by proper selection of
mineral admixture type and dosage which is consistent with the previ­
ous studies.
Mendoza et al. [84] investigated the buildability (with yield stress
measurement) of the mixtures incorporating cement, nanosilica (NS),
metakaolin (MK), nanoclay (NC), microsilica (MS). 13 different mixtures
prepared by using different dosages of mineral additives. Extrusion was
performed with a nozzle of 0.1 cm diameter and maximum layer height
without any significant deformation (hmax) is measured from eq. (3)
(Fig. 19). hmax is measured as 0.2 cm for reference paste. 1% NS addi­
tion, increased the maximum layer height to 2.7 cm, while it was
measured as 4.7 cm for mixtures incorporating 6.1% MS. Maximum
layer height measured as 1.4 cm in the case of 1% MK and NC addition.
In conclusion, NS may be accepted to be the most effective mineral
additive within the tested ones since it provides high buildability even at
low dosages. Mendoza et al. [84] proposed a maximum stable layer
height from the formula (3) varies according to the static yield stress and
density. For all mixtures, densities were very close to each other. Due to
this reason, buildability was found dependent on the static yield stress of
the mixtures.
√̅̅̅
hmax = (τs(t) 3)/(ρg) (3)
τs (t): Static yield stress at the time t of the mixture (Pa).
ρ: Density (g/cm3).
g: Gravity (m/s2).
2.5.3. Fine aggregates
Fine aggregate has a crucial influence on pumpability of extrusion
concrete as stated in Section 2.2. Coarse aggregate tends to collect at the
9
Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127629
Fig. 20. Effect clay content on the surface roughness after extrusion [61] (0,
0.15, 0.3 and 3% clay incorporation labelled as; W0.25, W0.25C0.15,
W0.25C0.3, W0.25C3, respectively).
center of the pipe and fine aggregate is pushed towards the walls to form
a lubricating layer. If only fine aggregate is used, homogeneous mixture
is formed and pumping pressure does not decrease. In addition, bleeding
problems are prevented in the pump distribution system [62]. For this
reason, only fine aggregates were used in most of the extrusion mortar
studies [32,85–87]. River sand with a maximum particle size of less than
2 mm is widely preferred as fine aggregate [35,88]. Fine aggregates
depending on their size distribution, shape and surface texture proper­
ties may significantly affect the fresh state rheological properties (yield
stress, viscosity etc.) [25,27,88]. Extrudability and buildability proper­
ties can be optimized with proper selection of fine aggregate for the 3D
method.
Kuder & Shah [61] studied the role of clay substitution rate (0, 0.15,
0.3 and 3% clay incorporation labelled as; W0.25, W0.25C0.15,
W0.25C0.3, W0.25C3, respectively) on extrudability of cement pastes
prepared at constant W/C ratio (0.25). Specimens were extruded at a
rate of 1 mm/second. The surface defects are almost negligible for
cement pastes incorporating 0.3% clay. In addition, surface defects and
cracks were observed in all mixtures with clay content below 0.15% and
above 3% (W0.25, W0.25C0.15 and W0.25C3 mixtures), (Fig. 20).
Kuder & Shah [61] concluded that there is an optimum clay dosage for
robust extrudability of cement pastes.
Zhang et al. [88] examined the effect of different sand/cement ratios
(0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.5) on the rheological properties of fresh mortars
designed for extrusion. River sand with a fineness module of 2.84 and a
maximum grain size (Dmax) of 1 mm was used in the study. The effect of
sand/cement ratios on viscosity, yield stress and thixotropy values have
been illustrated in Fig. 21. The optimum spread-flow diameter for the
extrudability was determined in the range of 192.5–269 mm. Specimens
with sand/cement ratio below 1 deformed easily as they exhibited
flowable consistency. On the other hand, specimens with sand/cement
ratio over 1.2 could not be extruded from the nozzle deo to their higher
cohesion. Therefore, sand/cement ratio between 1 and 1.2 is accepted as
the most appropriate interval for buildability, pumpability and extrud­
ability. Viscosity, yield stress, and thixotropy values have been
measured as 3.8–4.5 Pa.s, 178.5–359.8 Pa and 6284.5 Pa/s, respectively
for optimum mixtures with sand/cement ratio 1–1.2.
Ting et al. [87] used recycled glass (3 different sizes between 0.15
and 0.71 mm, 0.5–1 mm and 1–1.7 mm) and river sand (Dmax less than 2
mm) as fine aggregates. River sand has been replaced with recycled glass
by 24.4%, 1.0% and 74.6%, respectively. The mixture prepared with
recycled glass exhibited lower dynamic yield stress and viscosity values
compared to the mixtures incorporating river sand. Authors stated that
the extrudability of mixtures prepared with recycled glass was better
than that of river sand. However, since the static yield stress of mortar
including recycled glass was lower, buildability of mortars incorporating
recycled glass was weaker than that of river sand-based mortars
(Fig. 22).
Panda & Tan [89] investigated the extrudability properties of geo­
polymer mixtures with varying sand/binder ratios (1.1, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 1.9
labelled as G1, G2, G3, G4, G5, respectively). Other ingredients can be
listed as fly ash, blast furnace slag, silica fume and river sand (maximum
grain size 2 mm). G4 and G5 mixtures could not be extruded due to high
static yield stress values (Fig. 23-a). G1 mixture was not suitable for
buildability due to its flowable consistency. G2 and G3 mixtures chosen
V. Saruhan et al. Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127629

Fig. 21. Effect of extrusion time interval (waiting time intervals between printing layers) on a) viscosity, b) yield stress, c) thixotropy of mortars with varying sand/
cement ratios [88].

Fig. 22. Rheological properties of recycled glass and river sand mixtures [87]. Fig. 24. Buildability tests for a) sample 7, b) sample 10 [90].

as the most suitable mix for extrudability. For buildability, the shape
retention factor (cross-sectional areas of the mixtures before extrusion/
cross-sectional areas after extrusion) has been measured. Since the
mixture (G3) with a sand/binder ratio of 1.5 gives the highest value form
the viewpoint of shape retention factor (approximately 0.85–0.9), G3
mixture has been selected as the most appropriate mix. Based on
experimental finding, optimum yield stress is also reported as 600–1000
Pa (0.6–1.0 kPa) (Fig. 23-b).
Çerçevik et al. [90] prepared 11 mixtures and reported the positive
influence of marble powder and ceramic waste on the extrudability and
buildability of mortars by visual examination (Fig. 24). Three stable
layers of printing can only be extruded in the case of mortars incorpo­
rating ceramic wastes (sample 7). Although sagging was observed after
the third layer, a slightly positive influence on buildability is reported by
ceramic waste addition. On the other hand, authors reported that seven
layers were successfully extruded with the combined use of marble
powder and ceramic wastes (sample 10). Authors reported the optimum Fig. 25. Effect of aggregate type on time dependent workability [66] (The term
aggregate/cement/marble powder/ceramic wastes/water ratio as 8/ of expansion is used instead of slump-flow at the original source).

Fig. 23. a) Static yield stress values, b) Relationship between static yield stress and shape retention factor [89].

10
V. Saruhan et al.
Fig. 26. Buildability tests of mixtures prepared in different copper waste fine
aggregate ratios [64].
Fig. 27. Yield stress of mortars as a function of cellulosic fiber content [92].
6.5/3/0.25/3.3 for a proper extrusion mortar application.
Papachristoforou et al. [66] prepared mortar mixtures by using
cement, fly ash, silica fume, superplasticizer, different proportions of
river sand and limestone powder aggregates. Three mixtures were pre­
pared with different aggregate phase composition (Mix-1: 100% lime­
stone powder, Mix-2: 100% river sand, Mix-3: 50% limestone powder,
50% river sand). The time dependent slump-flow values were deter­
mined according to BS EN 1015–3 [91]. Results showed that mix 2 and
mix 3 are more suitable from the view point of extrudability. Since
limestone powder is finer than river sand, it absorbed higher amounts of
water and superplasticizer. Therefore, it has been found more appro­
priate to use river sand for extrudability rather limestone powder
(Fig. 25).
11
Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127629
Ma et al. [64] examined the extrudability and buildability of the
mixtures prepared with different copper waste tailings ratios as fine
aggregate (Fig. 26). Specimens are extruded by using an 8x25 mm
nozzle. In all specimens, layers of 250 mm length have been printed. All
specimens have been accepted as extrudable by visual inspection (no
defects observed on the layer surfaces). Layer heights of the mixtures R0,
R10, R20, R30, R40, R50 (values indicates copper waste replacement %
by river sand) were measured as 138, 140, 120, 117, 83, 72 mm,
respectively, and the layer widths were measured as 30, 31, 33, 33, 65,
63 mm, respectively. The buildability of the specimens decreased with
the replacement of river sand by copper waste. Copper waste addition
increase the lateral deformations and sagging tendency as seen in
Fig. 27.
Literature studies focusing on the role of fine aggregate on perfor­
mance of 3D printing mortars showed that fine aggregate has a signifi­
cant influence on the extrudability and buildability properties. In most
cases, proper mixes for the 3D printing method can be designed if the
sand/binder ratio is in the approximate range of 1–1.5. Mixtures pre­
pared below this range cannot exhibit sufficient buildability (more
prone to sagging and collapse), and on the other hand, mixtures above
this interval may cause blockages throughout the pipe and nozzle.
2.5.4. Fiber
Fibers are often used to improve the structural integrity of concrete
by limiting the crack widths. Number of studies dealing with the effects
of fibers on the fresh state rheological properties of the mixtures is
limited possibly due to the complexity of fiber reinforced matrix
rheology measurement methods. It is an expected situation since most
rotational rheometers are designed basically for flowable materials [92].
While fiber usage creates a positive influence on buildability (with
increased yield stress) of fresh mortar, high dosages of fiber addition
usually decrease the extrudability (possible blockage risk in the nozzle
head). This problem can be prevented by optimizing the fiber aspect
ratio (fiber length/fiber diameter), fiber ratio and fiber dosage [45,93].
Restrained shrinkage based cracking problems of extruded mortars may
also be minimized by fiber reinforcement. Such cracking susceptibility is
more significant for printed mortars since high water evaporation rate is
expectable on the surface of the layers in the absence of the side cover by
any mold [94,95].
Kaci et al. [92] investigated the optimum dosage of cellulosic fiber by
using different ratios (0.13, 0.27, 0.55, 0.68% by total volume). The
aspect ratio of the fibers is 100 (the length of the fibers is 1 mm, and the
diameter is 0.01 mm). Fibers slightly increased the yield stress up to a
certain dosage (0.55%), and after this dosage, fiber addition signifi­
cantly increased the yield stress by excessive fiber agglomeration
(Fig. 27). It can be considered that maximum possible fiber dosage is %
0.55 for proper extrusion without any fiber agglomeration related
interlocking in nozzle.
Chaves Figueiredo et al. [96] studied the extrusion properties of
engineered cementitious composites (ECC) using 1%, 1.5%, 2% by
volume of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fiber. They prepared two matrix se­
ries for this purpose. Mortars labeled as X series (ingredients: cement,
blast furnace slag, limestone powder, polyvinyl alcohol fiber, viscosity
modifying agent and superplasticizer) and Y series (ingredients: cement,
fly ash, sand, limestone powder, polyvinyl alcohol fiber, viscosity
modifying agent and superplasticizer). The viscosity modifying agent
and the superplasticizer dosages were kept constant at 0.3%, 2% by
weight of total powder, respectively. Authors proposed two reological
parameters in order to discuss their experimental results: First param­
eter is “shear yield stress” which measures “the frictional resistance of
mixtures during pumping”, while the second parameter is called as “bulk
yield stress” that reflects “the intrinsic properties” of mixtures. Ac­
cording to authors, these parameters provide information about the
extrudability/buildability properties required for the 3D method. The
shear yield stress and bulk yield stress have been mathematically
expressed by considering the printer (Fig. 28-a) properties (pump
V. Saruhan et al.
Fig. 28. a) Instron hydraulic printer setup b) Extrusion of fiber reinforced mortars, c) Effect of fiber dosage on yield stress [96].
Fig. 29. Effect of fiber dosage on a) initial slump flow and estimated yield stress values, b) time dependent slump flow values of mortars [97] (PP: poly­
propylene fibers).
pressure etc.):
P = 2ln(D/d)x(σ 0 + αV) + 4(L/d)x(σ0 + βV)
P = Total pressure drop [kPa].
σ 0 = Bulk yield stress [kPa].
τ0 = Shear yield stress [kPa].
α = Parameter characterizing speed in the die entry [kPa.s/mm].
β = Parameter characterizing speed in the die land [kPa.s/mm].
V = Extrusion speed in the die land [mm/s].
D = Barrel diameter [mm].
d = Die diameter [mm].
L = Die length [mm].
Visual examination results showed that buildability is positively
affected by the incorporation of 2% PVA fiber (XVA3PVA20 and
YVA3PVA20) (Fig. 28-b). Fig. 28-c showed that the proposed bulk yield
stress parameter increased due to fiber addition in both X and Y mortars,
thus the buildability is positively affected. The proposed parameter of
shear yield stress was failed to reflect the buildability tendency in the
case of Y mortars incorporating fly ash.
Rubio et al. [97] investigated the extrudability and buildability
properties of mixtures prepared by using cement, 24% fly ash and 8%
silica fume by weight to cement, superplasticizer (0.28–0.5% of binder
weight), viscosity modifying agent (0.05–0.1% of binder weight),
polypropylene fibers (0.2, 0.4, 0.6% (labelled as PP, 2 PP, 3 PP,
respectively) by total volume). The yield stress of mortars, estimated
from slump flow values, has been linked with buildability and build­
ability is improved with fiber addition. However, the extrudability of the
Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127629
mortars was negatively affected by fiber dosage increment. Mortars
became unable to be extruded at 0.6% fiber dosage (10 min after the first
(4)
contact of water with binder). If fiber dosage was decreased to 0.4%, the
extrudability of these mortars became acceptable for printing (Fig. 29-
b). At much lower dosages (0.2%) mortars have not been exhibit suffi­
cient buildability since the measured yield stress values were quite low
(Fig. 29-a). The optimum fiber content is reported as 0.4% (2 PP) for
balancing the buildability and extrudability at the same time.
Le et al. [31] prepared mortar mixtures by using polypropylene fi­
bers (12 mm length and 0.18 mm diameter) at different dosages (0.4, 1.2
and 1.6 kg/m3). The aspect ratio of the fibers is kept constant as 67. The
maximum polypropylene fiber dosage without causing any fiber
agglomeration in terms of extrudability was reported as 1.2 kg/m3 after
visual inspection.
Arunothayan et al. [98] designed 2 different mixtures as non-
reinforced ultra high-performance concrete (UHPC-matrix) and rein­
forced by 2% steel fiber (0.2 mm diameter and 13 mm length) which was
called as ultra high-performance concrete (UHPC-composite). The ma­
trix phase ingredients are cement, silica fume, silica sand as aggregate (3
different size distribution with Dmax = 0.176, 0.5 and 0.84 mm), poly­
carboxylate based superplasticizer, viscosity modifying agent. The
extrudability and buildability properties of matrix and composite mix­
tures have been investigated. The spread-flow diameters were measured
according to ASTM C1437 [99] and linked with extrudability. The
spread-flow diameter of the UHPC-matrix and UHPC-composite were
measured as 151 mm and 144 mm, respectively. Authors reported that
this flowability loss in the presence of fiber is due to weak adhesive
forces between the fiber and the mixture. Spread-flow diameter of
mixtures was found proper for extrusion as determined by Tay et al.
12
V. Saruhan et al. Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127629

Fig. 30. Extruded specimen photographs prepared with a) 0.09% SP dosage, b) 0.10% SP dosage [45].

[26]. In addition, layers with 250 mm length have been printed with
both matrix and composite mixtures. No blockage, collapse, interrup­
tion, etc. was observed in both mixtures. Even a reduction in the
workability is detected by fiber addition, no problem was reported in
terms of extrudability. 7 layers have been printed in order to investigate
the buildability and again no problem was reported for both mixtures in
terms of buildability (no collapse, surface defects etc. were observed
within layers). Authors concluded that even at 2% steel fiber addition
mixtures exhibited sufficient extrusion ability and buildability.
Shakor et al. [100] prepared different mixtures by using cement,
sand (Dmax = 0.3 mm) as fine aggregate, superplasticizer and 6 mm
polypropylene fiber (1%). Slump and slump-flow tests were carried out Fig. 31. a) Vane shear test configuration and measurement method of yield
in accordance with ASTM C1437 [99] by preparing mortars w and w/o stress, b) Variation of measured yield stress with SP dosage [45] (D: diameter,
fiber reinforcement. The spread-flow diameter was measured as 188 mm H: height).
in the absence of fiber. Fiber addition reduced this value to 152 mm due
to stability improvement role of fibers by bridging fresh mortar mass.

2.5.5. Superplasticizer (SA)

Superplasticizer has the ability to disperse agglomerated cement
particles in an aqueous media via electrostatic repulsion and steric
hindrance (physical) mechanism. Thus, the mixing water trapped due to
the agglomeration of the cement particles is released. Superplasticizers
enhance the workability of fresh concrete due to the improved homo­
geneity and free mixing water increment [101]. The chemical origin of
superplasticizer plays an important role on the rheological behavior of
fresh mortars. SMF (sulfonated melamine formaldehyde) and SNF (sul­
fonated naphthalene formaldehyde) based admixtures mainly disperse
the cement particles with electrostatic repulsion, while PCE (poly­
carboxylate) based admixtures exhibit both electrostatic and strong
steric (physical) repulsion. Therefore, PCE based admixtures are more
effective in terms of both plasticizing and water reducing performance
compared to SMF and SNF based ones [102]. In the context of literature
review, it can be concluded that PCE based admixtures are widely
preferred in 3D printing mortar design thanks to their effectivity in
improving rheological parameters even at low dosages
[42,45,63,71,103]. Superplasticizer dosage optimization may provide
enhanced initial workability (can be linked with extrudability) and
improved thixotropic properties (can be linked with buildability) [42].
Rahul et al. [45] investigated the effects of PCE based super­
plasticizer (SP) on the extrudability of mortars. The effect of 0.02, 0.04,
0.06, 0.08, 0.09, 0.10% SP dosage (total amount of binder material
(cement + fly ash)) on extrudability has been studied for this purpose.
Extrusion performed with a 30x20 mm rectangular printer nozzle. Vi­
sual inspection revealed that, blockage occurred in the nozzle up to
0.09% SP addition. No blockage observed when SP dosage increased to
0.10%. Mortar mixtures extruded with 0.09% and 0.10% SP addition are
shown in Fig. 30. While discontinuities observed on the specimens with
0.09% SP addition (Fig. 30-a), specimens with 0.10% SP extruded at the
same size with nozzle (30 mm width) and exhibited smooth surface
(Fig. 30-b). The shape stability is maintained at that critical SP dosage.
The effect of 0.11% SP dosage on the buildability of the mixtures was
also investigated. 2 mm deformation occurred in the layers with a small
increment in SP dosage after critical point. The optimum value deter­
mined as 0.10% due to the negative effect of 0.11% addition of SP on
buildability. Rahul et al. [45] reported the optimum yield stress value
for buildability as 1600 Pa (1.6 kPa) from the vane shear test of mortar
Fig. 32. Time dependent shear strength values depending on spa (super­
plasticizer) dosage [31].
incorporating 0.10% SP dosage (Fig. 31). In summary, an optimum
dosage for a printable mixture is reported. SP dosages lower than the
optimum dosage is insufficient for extrudability while SP dosages higher
than optimum dosage caused buildability problems for proper printing.
Le et al. [31] investigated the effects of PCE based superplasticizer
(spa) on the extrudability of mortars. Five mixtures have been prepared
at constant water/binder ratio (0.44) with varying superplasticizer/
binder ratio of 0%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, and 2%. The shear strength of
mixtures have been measured with a shear vane apparatus. Mixtures
prepared with 1–1.5% spa addition exhibited no blocking and accepted
as the optimum mixture from the viewpoint of extrudability. The shear
strength value ranges corresponding to these mixtures (1–1.5% spa
addition) were measured as 0.3–0.9 kPa. It was also noted that, lower
shear strength values have been measured when the mixtures were
agitated (shaking the container 10 times) compared that of non-agitated
mixes, thus improving their extrudability (workability) properties
(Fig. 32). This can be linked to the decrement in the shear stress with the
application of external force during pumping, thereby spa addition also
increases the pumpability/extrudability efficiency.
Kruger et al. [42] prepared mortar mixtures by using cement, silica
fume, viscosity modifying agent, fly ash and PCE superplasticizer 1.48%
by weight of binder (SP). Yield stress, the structuration rate (Athix) and
re-flocculation rate (Rthix) of 3 different mortar mixtures (reference mix

13
V. Saruhan et al. Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127629

Table 2 collapsed under its own weight. Finally, 3rd mixture was properly
Re-flocculation rate (Rthix) and structuration rate (Athix) of mortars depending on extruded without any problems in terms of buildability (Fig. 34). Results
SP dosage [42]. showed that a balance between water/cement ratio and superplasticizer
Mix Initial static Final static Athix Initial shear Rthix dosage is mandatory to guarantee the extrudability and buildability at
shear stress shear stress (Pa/s) stress (Pa) (Pa/s) the same time.
(Pa) (Pa)

Standard 2730 6594 1.08 1146 6.88 2.5.6. Viscosity modifying agent (VMA)
− 15 % 4727 6854 0.62 2646 1.36 Cellulose ether (e.g. diutan and velan gum) and inorganic based (e.g.
SP
nanoclay, bentonite) VMAs are widely used to modify the rheology of
− 15 % 2108 6500 1.17 752 5.75
SP cement based materials [41]. As stated in Section 2.4, mixtures designed

Fig. 33. Final appearance of extruded mortars: a) 2.5% SP addition, b) 1% SP

addition [66].

(1.48% SP), − 15% (reduced SP dosage by 15%), and + 15% (increased

SP dosage by 15%) have been measured (Table 2). + 15% SP dosage
Fig. 35. Effect of VMA on time dependent workability of mortars [97] (VMA 1:
increment reduced the yield stress value of reference mix. While the
diutan gum and VMA 2: nanoclay).
structuration rate (Athix) was higher at + 15% SP compared to the
reference mixture, the re-flocculation rate (Rthix) of + 15% was lower
than the reference mixture. Visual inspection revealed that reference
mixture exhibited better buildability than other mixtures. Based on both
visual examination and experimental findings, the re-flocculation rate
(Rthix) determined as a more convenient parameter than the structura­
tion rate (Athix) in terms of buildability performance comparison. Au­
thors concluded that thixotropic behavior of mortars can be improved
by using the optimum SP dosage.
Papachristoforou et al. [66] investigated the buildability properties
of the mixtures by using cement, river sand, silica fume, limestone,
superplasticizer (SP) (1% and 2.5% by weight of binder) (Fig. 33). It is
reported that mortars prepared with 2.5% SP collapsed under the weight
of subsequently extruded layers (Fig. 33-a). However, buildability of
layers maintained if 1% SP is added to the same mixture (Fig. 33-b). This
finding again indicated the importance of proper determination of SP
dosage in order to maintain buildability.
Özalp et al. [19] prepared three different mixtures with water/
cement and superplasticizer (SP)/cement ratios as 0.3–0.01 (1st
mixture), 0.4–0.01 (2nd mixture), 0.3–0.02 (3rd mixture), respectively.
They investigated the combined effect of water and SP content on the
buildability of mortars. 1st mixture was not extrudable, and the 2nd
mixture (increase in water/cement ratio) was extrudable, but it
Fig. 36. Effect of nanoclay on static yield stress of mortars [35].

Fig. 34. Buildability tests for different SP dosages and water/cement ratios [19].

14
V. Saruhan et al.
Fig. 37. Buildability tests on a) CM, b) NM [104].
for 3D printing should exhibit high thixotropic properties with improved
buildability. However, in the literature, limited studies have been con­
ducted on the effect of VMA addition on thixotropy of extrusion mortars
[45]. VMAs are recommended for high yield stress mortar design and
thus providing robust buildability properties at the same time [39].
Rubio et al. [97] investigated the effect of VMA on extrudability of
mortars. Specimens were prepared with conventional mortar mixture
and two different VMA (VMA 1: diutan gum and VMA 2: nanoclay).
VMA 1 and VMA 2 dosages were 0.05% and 0.1% (by weight of binder),
respectively. Mortars with VMA 1 was quite cohesive, due to this reason
extrudability was negatively affected. VMA 2 decreased the extrud­
ability compared to the conventional mortar without any VMA addition
(NO VMA). However, it was observed that the extrudability was better
from VMA 2 (according to slump-flow test results) (Fig. 35). Authors
concluded that VMA 2 incorporation was found more effective in
balancing the extrudability for 3D printing application at the studied
dosages.
The effect of nanoclay on buildability has been investigated by Panda
et al. [35,104]. Cement mortars prepared by addition of 0.5% nanoclay
(5NC) of the binder weight. Nanoclay significantly increased the thix­
otropy of mortars exhibiting higher static yield stress compared to
control mixtures (no NC) (Fig. 36). In addition, the viscosity values of
the control mixture (CM) and 5NC mixture which can be linked with
extrudability have been measured as 9.5, 13.0 Pa.s, respectively. The
Fig. 38. a) Effect of VMA on visual buildability, b) Effect of VMA on yield stress of mortars [96].
15
Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127629
structuration rates of the CM and 5NC mixture were also measured as
0.63, 1.74 Pa/s, respectively. High structuration rates are beneficial in
terms of maintaining initial buildability. The buildability of the control
mixture (CM) and the nanoclay mixtures (NM-0.5% nanoclay) were
visually compared in Fig. 37. In Fig. 37-a, it is seen that the control
mixture can be extruded maximum 11 layers and significant deforma­
tion and sagging have been reported at the bottom layers. However, 18
layers can be extruded in mixtures containing nanoclays without any
loss of shape integrity (Fig. 37-b). This is attributed to the improved
static yield stress, viscosity and structuration rate of the mixtures
incorporating nanoclay. A network formation due to the colloidal forces
provided by nano clay addition seems responsible with the observed
stable behavior.
Chaves Figueiredo et al. [96] prepared two different mortar series (X
and Y) (details are previously given in Section 2.5.4). In both series,
buildability variation as a function of VMA (methylcellulose) dosage
(0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4% by weight) has been investigated. Mortars incor­
porating 0.1% VMA exhibited highly flowable consistency and build­
ability is insufficient according to visual inspection for both X and Y
mortar series. The buildability of mortars and yield stress values
significantly increased above 0.2% VMA addition (Fig. 38-a, 38-b). Ac­
cording to Fig. 38, XVA4 and YVA4 mixtures (0.4% VMA) are the most
ideal mixtures due to the advanced buildability provided by the
improved yield stress values.
V. Saruhan et al.
Fig. 39. Effect of VMA dosage on: a) Visual buildability of mortars, b) Extrusion pressures [105].
Fig. 40. Extrusion pressure variation of mixtures incorporating HPMC a) 0–4% HPMC ratios, b) 4–12% HPMC ratios [93].
Lee et al. [54] aimed to design and prepare mixtures by using
different dosage of viscosity modifying agent (VMA) (selected dosages:
0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1% by the weight of binder). Researchers measured
the spread-low diameters of the mixtures in accordance with ASTM C
1437 [99] and investigated the extrudability properties of the mortars.
The spread-flow diameters of the mortars decreased with increasing
VMA dosage (0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1% VMA corresponds to 218, 180,
165, 158, 143, 133 mm, respectively). The optimum spread-flow
diameter is reported between 160 and 170 mm based on extrudability
based visual inspection. The optimum VMA content was found to be
0.4%. The yield stress and viscosity of this mortar were measured as 670
Pa and 141 Pa.s, respectively.
Chen et al. [105] prepared mixtures by using cement, calcined clay,
limestone, sand (Dmax = 2 mm), PCE-based superplasticizer (2% by
weight of binder) and three different dosages of hydroxy-propyl-methyl-
cellulose-based VMA (0.48% (Mix-1), 0.24% (Mix-2), 0.14% (Mix-3) by
weight of binder). The time dependent extrusion pressure increment and
buildability properties of three mixes as a function of VMA dosage up to
2 h have been studied (Fig. 39). Due to the high VMA content, Mix-1 was
more cohesive compared to all other mortars at all testing times. No
rupture was observed on extruded filaments. Buildability was provided
after the 25 and 60 min for Mix-2 and Mix-3, respectively. Until these
minutes, the mortar filaments were breaking and could not maintain
their shape integrity. As a result, Mix-1 (0.48% VMA) was found more
efficient than Mix-2 and Mix-3 in terms of buildability (Fig. 39-a).
Extrusion pressure of three mixtures is shown in Fig. 39-b. The extrusion
pressure of the Mix-1 was approximately 2 times higher than Mix-2 and
Mix-3. Therefore, the extrusion of Mix-1 needs more energy. Optimum
VMA dosage was reported as 0.24% in terms of satisfying extrudability
16
Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127629
and buildability at the same time.
Srinivasan et al. [93] measured the extrusion pressures of five mix­
tures prepared with cement, polyvinyl alcohol fiber, glass fiber and
hydroxy propyl methyl cellulose (HPMC) based VMA (0, 2, 4, 8, 12% by
weight) (Fig. 40). Extrusion pressure decreased with the increase of
HPMC dosage from 0% to 4%. (Fig. 40-a). However, at high dosages
above 4%, extrusion pressure significantly increased with HPMC dosage
increment (Fig. 40-b). Authors concluded that the optimum dosage
should be limited to 4% in terms of extrusion efficiency.
Polamaplly et al. [106] investigated rheological properties (yield
stress and complex modulus) via the oscillatory stress sweep test. Three
biodegradable cellulose derivatives (one type of methylcellulose (MC),
two type of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) with different de­
gree of substitution (8, 10, 12%) have been studied. Complex shear
modulus and yield stress have been measured as the expressions of ri­
gidity and shape stability (buildability), respectively [107]. Mortars
incorporating 12% MC exhibited higher complex shear modulus
(24235.26 Pa) and yield stress (95.7 Pa) compared to other mixes. Shape
Retention Factor (SRF) measured in accordance with method explained
by Panda & Tan [89]. SRF factor of MC, type 1 HPMC, and type 2 HPMC
measured as 1.1, 1.22 and 1.39, respectively. Researchers concluded
that, 12% MC incorporation can be accepted as the most appropriate
solution within the tested mixtures for printability when yield stress,
complex modulus and SRF factor results evaluated together.
2.5.7. Set regulating admixtures
Thanks to their dual nature, set regulating admixtures can be ad­
vantageous for target-oriented rheological modification of extrusion
mortars. While set retarders improve extrudability, set accelerators
V. Saruhan et al. Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127629

Table 3 Table 3 (continued )

Effects of ingredient material on main fresh state rheological properties designed Material Pumpability / Buildability General
for 3D printing. Ingredients Extrudability Evaluation and
Material Pumpability / Buildability General Remarks
Ingredients Extrudability Evaluation and In general, the Buildability is Fiber
Remarks extrudability positively affected reinforcement has
Cement Selection of rapid Selection of rapid Rapid setting decrease with fiber by fiber addition a paramount
setting type cement setting type cement should be content. As the since fibers influence on
or increase in the cement or carefully used in fibers start to increase the yield mortar rheology
amount of cement increase in the order to balance entangle above a stress of mortars. and hence affects
per unit volume amount of cement the extrudability certain dosage, Maximum the general
negatively affect per unit volume and buildability blockage allowable fiber printability. In
extrudability. improve requirements of frequently occurs dosage without addition to
Depending on the buildability by 3D printing in the nozzle head. disturbing the dosage, fiber
speed of setting, increasing the mortar. Extrudability can extrudability parameters such as
geopolymers may yield value. If Alternatively, be maintained up should be length, diameter,
cause extrusion geopolymers geopolymers, to 0.55% cellulosic experimentally shape and
problems. provide rapid calcium aluminate fiber addition with determined by for chemical affinity
setting, or white Portland an aspect ratio of any given fiber should be
buildability can be cement with 100. The maximum type. considered to find
positively optimized setting permitted dosage out the proper
affected. time can be of PP (6 mm) and fiber for a given
employed for 3D steel fibers (aspect 3D printing mortar
printing mortar ratio of 65) for an application.
design method. adequate
extrudability were
reported as 2%,
While fly ash and Silica fume, nano There is an 0.4% and 2%,
Mineral blast furnace slag silica, metakaolin, optimum respectively.
additives frequently improve diatomite and replacement ratio Superplasticizer Depending on the The buildability of Superplasticizer
the pumpability/ other natural for most of the chemical structure extruded mortars dosage
extrudability pozzolans such as mineral additives superplasticizers prepared with optimization
properties of volcanic ash that provide a usually improves higher than 1.5% should be targeted
extrusion mortar, improve the static balance between the extrudability at of superplasticizer in order to provide
silica fume and yield stress values extrudability and different negatively the required
metakaolin cause of mortar and buildability. magnitudes. In affected. Note that extrudability and
extrudability hence buildability recent years this critical dosage buildability
problems due to is positively polycarboxylate is limited to the properties at the
their extraordinary affected even at based literature same time. Water/
high specific low dosages. superplasticizers reviewed in this cement ratio is the
surface area. are frequently study. The most significant
Aggregate preferred and the buildability of any mix proportion
Fine aggregate is Buildability of In general, river optimum dosages given mixture parameter that
preferred in most mixtures with sand with an are reported in the should be verified affect the required
extrusion sand/binder ratio optimum sand/ range of 1–1.5% by optimizing the dosage of
applications, since above 1.5 is better binder is preferred (by weight of superplasticizer superplasticizer
there is a blockage than low sand/ for both binder) to satisfy dosage depending for a given
risk at the printer binder ratios. extrudable and both extrudability on the ingredient printing mortar
head in the Recycled glass buildable mortar and buildability. properties and design.
presence of coarse aggregate and design. mix proportions.
aggregate. The copper waste Viscosity Since diutan gum VMAs increase the
optimum sand/ negatively modifying affect the yield stress values VMA
binder ratio was affected the agent (VMA) cohesivity of and extruded incorporation
found to be 1–1.5 buildability. mortar stronger mortars exhibit positively
by weight for a Marble powder than nanoclay, higher thixotropy influence the
proper and ceramic extrudability may with the buildability of
extrudability wastes improved negatively be increment in VMA extruded mortars.
performance. the buildability. affected by gum dosage. Literature However,
Mixtures with Although coarse addition. It should study revealed extrudability is
sand/binder ratio aggregate is less be aimed to use the that nanoclay negatively
below 1 exhibit preferred in 3D highest possible even at very low affected at the
better extrudability printing mortar dosage of VMA that dosages (0.5%) same time.
with insufficient design, does not cause may double the Selection of
buildability. buildability is extrusion yield stress, maximum possible
Addition of positively affected problems. Since the thereby VMA dosage is
recycled glass by coarse addition of VMA buildability can be critical for the
aggregate, copper aggregate since it cause an increment improved by design of proper
wastes or nano- provides better in extrusion nanoclay printing mortar
clay improve the shape stability. pressure in the modification. without losing
extrudability. nozzle head, high thixotropy.
Extrudability was extrudability High thixotropy
negatively affected should be provides stable
by the addition of maintained by buildability
limestone powder. limiting the without the risk of
maximum VMA mortar sagging.
dosage.
Fiber Set regulating Set retarders like Set accelerators Combined use of
admixtures boric acid and improve the set regulators
(continued on next page)

17
V. Saruhan et al.
Table 3 (continued )
Material Pumpability / Buildability General
Ingredients Extrudability Evaluation and
Remarks
sodium gluconate buildability by exhibiting both
improve the increasing yield accelerating and
pumpability and value and plastic retarding effects
extrudability of viscosity of may be an
extrusion mortars. extrusion mortars. alternative
solution for
balancing
extrudability and
buildability of an
extrusion mortar
mixture.
promote the buildability by shortening setting time. With the combi­
nation of set accelerating and retarding admixtures, it is possible to
provide the extrudability and buildability balance required for 3D
printing mortars [108]. Addition of a set accelerator at the printing
nozzle head is the most commonly applied method to instantaneously
increase the buildability of flowable mortar. The buildability of mortars
after extrusion stage is instantaneously assured just after exit from
printing nozzle head by providing flash set (similar to the concept of
shotcrete applications). Bentz et al. [109] used combination of retarder
and accelerator to optimize rheological properties of sustainable
cementitious binders for 3-D additive construction. Malaeb et al. [73]
used combined of set retarding and accelerating admixtures to provide
an appropriate balance between extrudability and buildability of 3D
printed wall application. Similarly, Tarhan & Şahin [110] employed a
set retarder to improve the flowability together with a set accelerator for
cement hydration control in air entrained 3D printable mortars. Weng
et al. [52] have used borax as set retarder admixture to improve
extrudability properties of magnesium potassium phosphate cement
designed for the purpose of 3D printed mortar. Chen et al. [57] inves­
tigated the effect of two set retarders (boric acid (BA) and sodium glu­
conate (SG)) on fresh state rheological properties of mortars. Both
retarders decreased the yield stress and viscosity at the same time. Au­
thors concluded that despite the positive influence of set retarders on
pumpability/extrudability, the buildability of mortars were adversely
affected.
2.5.8. General Evaluation on extrudability and buildability properties of
mortars designed for 3D printing
The main parameters for fresh state 3D printing mortars and the role
of material ingredients on these parameters are summarized in Table 3
based on the comprehensive experimental data studied at the previous
section.
Consequently, mortar mixtures which will be subjected to extrusion
should satisfy both extrudability and buildability conditions for any
given 3D printing application. Ingredient optimization of extrusion
mortars by proper tuning of the rheological properties (yield stress,
viscosity, thixotropy etc.) is the keystone of successful 3D printing
mortar design. Each ingredient (cement, fly ash, silica fume, viscosity
modifying agent, fiber, etc.) play a critical role in the optimization stage
of fresh state rheological properties of mortars. Therefore, determina­
tion of the most suitable mixture design plays a critical role in the
production efficiency of mortar for any given 3D printing application.
Literature analysis revealed that there are some values suggested by the
researchers in terms of extrudability and buildability based on different
experimental test methods. However, a standard test method that can be
used in the selection of appropriate mortar for extrusion is not yet
available [26,40]. Furthermore, the current design strategies for 3D
printing mortars are not beyond the trial and error-based design meth­
odology. Researchers usually changing amount any ingredient and then
following and/or linking the variation of experimental results with the
varied parameters. Therefore, a standard set of tests and/or clearly
18
Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127629
defined design methodologies are needed in order to compare the per­
formance of designed mortars in a more global and objective way.
3. Concluding remarks and recommendations
Since the potential of 3D printing method to provide advantages in
terms of rapid manufacturing and workmanship without the need to use
molds in construction is realized, its usage in the building industry is
rapidly increasing. However, to provide mass production with the 3D
method, some of the challenging issues linking the mortar rheology to
mix ingredient characteristics should be examined in a more coherent
and detailed way. Conclusions derived from this literature review can be
summarized as:
As it is different from conventionally (traditional) casting method,
fresh state rheological properties gain importance for extruded con­
crete/mortar. There has been a huge number of mortar mix design
studies aiming the optimization of rheological properties to guarantee
the proper printability. The mixtures prepared by using rapid setting
calcium aluminate cement mostly improve the buildability, wihle
reducing the extrudability. Geopolymers are promising alternatives for
technically, environmentally and economical extrusion mortar design
for 3D printing applications. Most of the mineral additives with a few
exclusions improve yield stress and therefore buildability of mortar
enhanced by additive modification. However, when mineral additives
such as silica fume and metakaolin are used, blockages may occur in the
nozzle due to insufficient extrudability. Therefore, combined extrudable
and buildable mixtures can only be designed with optimized selection of
mineral additives. Within the scope of the current literature, optimum
mixtures have been succesfully prepared by replacing mineral additives
up to 30% by weight with Portland cement. In terms of aggregate, coarse
aggregate content is limited as it causes clogging of the nozzle head. Fine
aggregate is generally preferred in 3D printing applications. Optimum
mix design ratio of fine aggregate/cement is in the range of 1–1.5 in
terms of both extrudability and buildability. The buildability of the
mortar increases with fiber reinforcement. However, extrudability de­
creases at the same time. It is possible to balance both properties with
optimum fiber dosage. Thixotropy of an extrusion mortar can be
improved by combined addition of superplasticizer and viscosity
modifying agent. Thus, when a highly extrudable soft mortar mixture
exit from the nozzle head, it can gain buildability suddenly after the
mortar leave the nozzle. Superplasticizer and set regulator dosages
should also be fine turned to reach the target oriented extrusion per­
formance. Combined use of set accelerators and retarders can be an
alternative solution strategy for balancing extrudability and buildability
of printing mortars.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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