Construction and Building Materials 405 (2023) 133364

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Review

3D printing concrete structures: State of the art, challenges,

and opportunities
Dawei Liu a, b, Zhigang Zhang a, b, *, Xiaoyue Zhang a, b, Zhaohui Chen a, b, *
a
School of Civil Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, PR China
b
Key Laboratory of New Technology for Construction of Cities in Mountain Area (Chongqing University), Ministry of Education, Chongqing 400045, PR China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: 3D printing concrete technology is an integration of material preparation, geometric modeling, structural design,
3D printing concrete and construction with the essential advantages of green, low-carbon, and intelligent construction, which had a
Mechanical properties booming development in recent years. Due to the specificity of printing materials and printing technology, 3D
Structural form
printing concrete exhibits unique macroscopic anisotropy, and the research on the constitutive relation of 3D
Optimal design
printing concrete is still insufficient. Although there are numerous engineering cases of 3D printing concrete,
Connection method
mature structural reinforcement enhancement methods as well as quantitative structural bearing capacity
analysis theories and methods are still needed to be studied. To adapt to the specific requirements of materials
and printing processes, and achieve the efficient usage of materials, the optimal design is essential for 3D printing
concrete structures. The field of optimal design of 3D printing concrete is currently in its infancy. Finally, the
printing, connection, and construction methods of the slab, shell, beam, and arch structures provide a multi­
faceted reference for 3D printing concrete structures. In general, the selection of 3D printing concrete materials
and structures as well as the design and construction of structures are problematic. Based on the above-
mentioned, this paper reviews four aspects which include mechanical properties of materials, structural forms,
optimal design, and connection construction methods in the context of engineering examples.

1. Introduction inter-strip anisotropy in printed concrete. The fluidity and construct­

3D printing technology can integrate material preparation, structure
design, and manufacturing, which features technical advantages of no
mold support, efficient printing process, and modular production; it has
attracted extensive attention in the past decade [1]. Compared with
traditional design and manufacturing processes, 3D printing technology
has relatively more modeling freedom, less material consumption, and
environmental pollution, making it eligible for green and smart con­
struction. In contrast to the successful applications of 3D printing
technology in medicine, metal fabrication, and aerospace, this tech­
nology has not yet been widely-applied in civil-structural engineering.
Until now, the 3D printing technology in structures is mainly used for
temporary small-scaled buildings, compressive members (columns and
walls) of low-building structures, non-load-bearing members (decora­
tive facades and corridor columns) of large structures, and garden
landscapes [2]. The reason for the limited application is that, in addition
to the tensile/compression anisotropy of normal concrete, the layer-by-
layer stacking process during printing caused a unique inter-layer and
ability required by the printing technology also require some special
demands on the material components and proportions, and functionality
of printing equipment [3]. Moreover, the characteristics of 3D printing
process also pose a challenge to the implementation of traditional
reinforcing methods in 3D printing concrete (3DPC) structures [4]. From
the historical development of civil engineering, it can be found that,
with the emergence of any new construction materials or technology,
the following questions are needed to be addressed: 1) what are the
mechanical properties of the new materials? 2) what kind of structures is
the new materials suitable for? 3) how to design and build the
structures?
In recent years, it has made great breakthroughs in the printability,
constructability, and mechanical properties of the 3DPC from the scale
of materials. Many 3DPC constitutive models fitted based on experi­
mental material properties have been established, which provided a
basis for structural design [5,6]. Accordingly, the exploration and
application of 3DPC structures have been gradually extended to various
lateral flexural structures from compressive members at initial stages,

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: zhangzg@cqu.edu.cn (Z. Zhang), zhaohuic@cqu.edu.cn (Z. Chen).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.133364
Received 17 December 2022; Received in revised form 6 August 2023; Accepted 14 September 2023
Available online 16 September 2023
0950-0618/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D. Liu et al.
such as bridges, trusses, plate shells [7,8], etc. Meanwhile, various
reinforcement methods for 3DPC structures have been developed, such
as contour forming technology, reinforcement-concrete co-printing
method, deployment of wire mesh, and post-tensioned reinforcement,
et al., The robotic arm, gantry-type printing equipment, and related
software have also been continuously improved to fill the requirements
of diverse shapes, reinforcement, construction, and printing scales
[9,10].
With 3D printing technology, concrete structures can be more effi­
cient in performance and materials usage with the aid of optimization
design methods. So far, the related research on optimizations is mainly
carried out in two ways: 1) the optimization design method of 3DPC
structure combined with topology optimization; 2) the optimization
method for the unique anisotropy and printing process of 3DPC [11].
The performance of 3DPC structures involves many factors, such as
physical and mechanical properties of materials, printing technology,
and its related parameters, overall structural profile and cross-sectional
mesh form, structural reinforcement scheme, etc., hence that the opti­
mization of 3DPC structures becomes concerns of multi-parameter,
multi-objective, and multi-constraint. The optimization design of
structures is closely related to the construction method of structures.
At present, there are two main types of construction methods for
3DPC structures: full-size printing onsite and prefabricated assembly.
Full-size printing onsite is unrealizable due to the limitation of printing
equipment and insufficient structural performance, moreover, the 3DPC
material and structural performance are significantly influenced by the
surrounding environment and printing accuracy, therefore, full-size
printing is only available for low-rise houses with simple functions
and planes. Prefabricated assembly means that the structural segments
were printed indoors and assembled at the construction site, in this way,
the printing materials, environment, and equipment precision can be
strictly controlled. Therefore, this construction mode effectively ad­
dresses the problems of limitation of engineering scale and complex
shape, which is an inevitable trend in the development of 3DPC struc­
tures. The mature technology accumulated in the field of fabricated
structural engineering also lays the foundation for connection measures
during the construction of 3DPC structures [12].
In summary, the engineering application of 3DPC concrete structures
should address the following key problems: quantitative description of
mechanical properties of materials, reinforcement methods, efficient
and reasonable structural optimization design, and feasible connection
construction measures. This paper reviews the current research status of
3DPC concrete structures from four aspects: 1) mechanical properties of
materials and constitutive relation; 2) structural forms and their rein­
forcement methods; 3) optimization design for 3DPC structures; 4)
connections for the printed modules. This paper aims to organize and
analyze the current research of 3DPC, and discusses the existing tech­
nical difficulties as well as the future development trend, to provide
references for the further research of 3DPC structures.
2. Material properties of 3D printing concrete structures
In the current studies [13,14], the constitutive relation of 3DPC
normally follows the plastic damage model that was typically used in
normal concrete, in which the uniaxial compressive and tensile prop­
erties are critical parameters. The researchers have conducted a series of
tests on measuring compressive strength, splitting strength, axial tensile,
and flexural strength of 3DPC [15–18]. The experimental studies
revealed that 3DPC exhibited significant anisotropic mechanical prop­
erties, i.e. its compressive and tensile strength are greatly affected by
loading directions (parallel print path, vertical print path, and print
layer superposition direction). The anisotropic of 3DPC is related to
microstructures between layers/strips and 3D printing technology pa­
rameters. The latter includes interval time between layers-printing,
height, and traveling speed of print head. For this reason, this section
firstly compiles the progress of research on mechanical properties of
2
Construction and Building Materials 405 (2023) 133364
3DPC and mechanism of the influence of printing technology on its
performance, and then the research on the application of various types
of high-performance concrete in 3DPC is reviewed.
2.1. Mechanical properties of 3DPC
Material strength is an important indicator to measure the carrying
capacity of 3DPC structures. The uniaxial compressive/tensile stress–­
strain relationship is the most fundamental intrinsic relationship of the
materials, which can reflect the deformation characteristics and damage
process of material at each loading stage, and is also the main basis for
studying the structural bearing capacity and deformation [19,20]. Fig. 1
shows the loading directions on 3DPC specimens. Table 1 summarizes
the specimen parameters of 3DPC for compressive tests by researchers.
Due to the lack of a unified normative standard for compressive tests on
3DPC, the specimen sizes, interface layers, number of strips, and curing
environments adopted are diverse. As listed in Table 1, the compressive
strength of 3DPC can reach a comparable level with that of cast-in-place
concrete, and up to higher than100 MPa.
Furthermore, Liu [30] et al., tested the dynamic compressive
strength of 3DPC with the help of the separated Hopkinson compression
bar test. The test results show that the dynamic compressive strength
increased with increasing impact pressure. In addition, the tensile
strength and shear strength of 3DPC have also been studied. Wang [31]
et al., researched the tensile properties of 3DPC interlayer and interstrip
via direct tensile tests, and established a tensile constitutive model of
3DPC based on porosity at interfaces. The results indicate that the
average tensile strength at the layer/strip interface is about 80% of
tensile strength of matrix. Rahul [25] et al., tested the shear strength
between interlayers by direct shear test, and disclosed that its value was
decreased by about 20–30 % compared with that of cast-in-place
concrete.
On the other hand, researchers have tried to adjust material
composition and proportions of 3DPC to study its effect on strength. Liu
[32] et al., studied the compressive and flexural strength of 3DPC at
different substitution ratios of recycled coarse aggregates to natural
coarse aggregates, and the strength of 3DPC showed significant aniso­
tropic properties and decreased with increasing substitution rates. Ding
[33] et al., investigated the strength of 3DPC mixed with recycled sand
instead of natural sand, the results revealed that the materials showed
significant anisotropy, of which the compressive and flexural strength of
concrete with recycled sand exhibited slightly lower than those with
natural sand. Xiao [27] et al., studied the effect of different coarse/fine
aggregate mixes on the anisotropic compressive strength, it was found
that the compressive strength was reduced by using exclusively recycled
coarse/fine aggregates under 20 ± 1 ◦ C and relative humidity of 95 ±
1%, however, the trend was opposite for the case under air exposure.
For 3DPC, its most significant characteristic is the anisotropy on
mechanical properties as compared with that of ordinary concrete. The
concept of anisotropy of 3DPC was first proposed by Le [28] et al., in
2012. Furthermore, Feng [34] et al., printed cementitious material
specimens based on powder-based 3D printing technology, and tested
their compressive and flexural strength, the results revealed that the
3DPC exhibited anisotropy in mechanical properties: the compressive
strength in the direction of parallel printing paths was higher than the
other two directions; the flexural strength in direction of stacked layers
was higher than that in direction of parallel printing paths. Wu et al.,
[35] conducted a multiscaled finite element analysis of 3D printed
materials, and confirmed that the effective elastic matrix of 3DPC is
approximately symmetric and exhibits anisotropy. Afterward, extrusion-
based 3D printing technology made great progress in concrete printing,
and has gradually become the main method. Extensive tests [36–42]
(experimental results are summarized in Table 2) have similarly
confirmed the anisotropic mechanical properties of 3DPC.
During the printing process, the interlayer interfaces were produced
due to the accumulation of layer-by-layer. Normally, massive pores can
D. Liu et al. Construction and Building Materials 405 (2023) 133364

Fig. 1. Loading direction of 3DPC [36].

Table 1
Parameters of 3DCP compressive test specimen.
Researchers Specimen Interface Parameters Curing conditions Compressive Strength (28d) /MPa
dimensions /mm
X Y Z
direction direction direction

Panda [21] 40*40*40 Multi-substrate + Room temperature for 28d. 26.5 21.9 24.0
et al., multi-interface
Wolfs [22] et al., 40*40*40 Multi-substrate + Plastic film cover maintenance 24 h, then water maintenance 7d. 29.2 29.2 28.5
multi-interface
Sanjayan [23] 50*25*30 Single interface Temperature of (23 ± 3) ◦ C. 16.8 8.0 13.0
et al.,
Paul [24] et al., 50*50*50 Multi-substrate + Temperature of (21 ± 2) C and relative humidity of (60%±5%).
◦
56.3 47.0 51.9
multi-interface
Rahul [25] 50*50*50 Multi-substrate + Oven-dried at 50 ◦ C for 7d, vacuum dried for 3 h, and immersed 58.0 60.0 63.1
et al., multi-interface in calcium hydroxide solution for 28d.
Zhang [26] 100*100*100 Multi-substrate + Temperature of (20 ± 2) ◦ C and relative humidity of (50%±5%). 43.9 49.3 57.9
et al., multi-interface
Xiao [27] et al., 100*100*100 Multi-substrate + Air curing for 28d. 37.0 30.5 32.0
multi-interface
Le [28] et al., 100*100*100 Multi-substrate + 20 C water conditioning.
◦
93.0 97.0 102.0
multi-interface
Ji [29] et al., 100*100*100 Multi-substrate + Temperature of (20 ± 2) ◦ C and relative humidity of (95%±5%). 30.0 30.0 34.5
multi-interface

Table 2
Summary of mechanical-anisotropic properties of 3DPC at 28d.
Researchers X direction Y direction Z direction X direction Y direction Z direction

Xiao [36] et al., Compressive strength /MPa Flexural strength /MPa

22.0 17.5 26.7 2.1 2.7 3.2
Wang [37] et al., Compressive strength /MPa Flexural strength /MPa
52.0 44.5 40.0 5.4 5.4 7.4
Liu [38] et al., Compressive strength /MPa Flexural strength /MPa
93.3 70.0 60.9 3.8 5.1 6.1
Heras [39] et al., Compressive strength /MPa Elastic modulus /GPa
81.0 83.0 63.0 5.8 5.7 3.9
Yang [40] et al., Compressive strength /MPa Elastic modulus /GPa
54.1 76.9 114.9 15.0 27.8 38.3
Ye [41] et al., Compressive strength /MPa Energy dissipation /kJ⋅m− 3
40.2 40.4 45.8 85.1 64.2 121.9
Ma [42] et al., Flexural strength /MPa Shearing strength /MPa
3.4 5.0 6.5 4.7 6.4 8.5

be found in the interlayer interface. Pore indicators, such as porosity,
pore shape, pore size, and pore direction, affect the elastic modulus and
compressive strength of concrete, which is one of the main reasons for
the anisotropic feature of 3DCP [43]. Liu [44] et al., tried to explain the
unique layer/strip anisotropy of 3DPC from the perspective of pore
structure, and found that the pore shape in 3DPC is more irregular and
prone to cause the concentration of stress compared with that of
conventional concrete, as shown in Fig. 2. The pores of the concrete
casting specimens appear approximately spherical while those in 3DPC
exhibit irregular shapes in 3D space. After 28 days of curing, the total
porosity of conventional concrete and 3DPC was 1.52% and 2.66%,
respectively. The compressive strength of specimens and the stress field
distribution at interface cracks were also analyzed based on Parallel
Pore Connection Model (PPCM). It was found that the cracks are easier

3
D. Liu et al.
Fig. 2. X-ray CT scan of the pore structure [44].
to propagate within the large-sized pores, resulting in a decreasing trend
of compressive strength. The stress in the two-dimensional stress field
increases with the expansion of crack, and infinal the specimen is
damaged when the loads reach yield stress of concrete.
In summary, there is a lack of unified test methods and standards for
the research of mechanical properties of 3DPC. Although the anisotropy
of 3DPC is confirmed, the degree of anisotropy varies for 3DPC with
different raw materials, and this effect mainly comes from the particle
gradation of the material and the pores between layers/strips. There­
fore, the selection and proportioning of materials should be the first
element in the development of 3DPC technology standards, and there is
an urgent need to establish universally accepted standardized test
methods. In addition, how to reduce and minimize the defects between
interfaces are still needed for further research.
2.2. Control parameters of printing technology
From the previous studies, it was found that, even for the same
material, different printing process parameters may greatly affect the
mechanical properties of 3DPC [45]. Printing process parameters mainly
include printing layer interval time, surface moisture level, traveling
speed of printing head, height of printing head, geometry and rotational
speed of the spiral blades, extrusion shape and size. Among them, the
interval time of printing layer, the traveling speed of print head, and the
degree of surface dehydration have a mutual influence.
The print interval time is the most obvious factor in 3DPC during
printing process. Longer print intervals normally lead to excessive
evaporation of moisture from the surface of 3DPC [46]. Napolitano [47]
et al., studied tensile strength of interlayer under dynamic loading by
using a modified Hopkinson rod device, and found that it decreases with
increasing printed layer interval time or decreasing loading strain rate.
Similarly, Liu [48] et al., examined interlayer tensile strength and shear
strength of 3D printed cement paste with the use of crossover method,
the results showed that the bond strength between layers before the final
setting decreased significantly with increasing print layer interval time,
while the interlayer tensile strength after final setting does not change
with the variation of print layer interval time, additionally, the inter­
layer shear strength increased with the increasing print layer interval
time.
Severe moisture loss on surface will reduce the interfacial humidity
of the specimen, thus reducing the degree of hydration and further
causing an increase in porosity of sample. Related studies have reached
similar conclusions. Ma [49] et al., mainly researched the effect of
curing conditions on mechanical properties of 3DPC, and concluded that
the dry (RH = 60% ± 5%) and wind-blown (3 m/s) environments
against the compressive and flexural strength, however, their effect on
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Construction and Building Materials 405 (2023) 133364
splitting tensile strength was not that evident. Nevertheless, Sanjayan
[23] et al., claimed that an appropriate amount of moisture loss on
surface could improve mechanical properties of 3DPC. To ensure
printability of concrete, the water-binder ratio of 3DPC is slightly higher
than that of ordinary concrete. As the upper 3DPC layer was extruded,
the water inside printed layer is likely released to outer surface.
Therefore, appropriate moisture loss on surface can achieve a suitable
range of water content for the 3DPC.
The traveling speed and height of print head not only affects the
bond strength, but also sample surface quality. Zhi [50] et al., showed
that the surface tension of the liquid bridge and the 3D printing speed
are important factors that affecting the extrudability and buildability of
3DPC. Shi [51] et al., investigated the effect of travel speed and height of
print-head on the mechanical properties of 3DPC and found that the
compressive and splitting tensile strength decreased with the increase of
travel speed and height. Similarly, Panda [52] et al., found that the in­
crease in traveling speed and height of print head would reduce the
tensile bond strength of 3DPC. Furthermore, Yu [53] et al., studied the
characteristics of printed interfaces based on pore structure of 3DPC
using mercury-pressure method and X-ray CT scans. The results
demonstrated that the slow movement of print head, the absence of
vibrations, and rapid moisture loss can cause higher macroscopic
porosity and larger-sized pores in 3DPC as well as more irregular and
elongated pore morphology. The total porosity increases from 22.8% for
mold-cast concrete to 32.6% for 3DPC. It is noteworthy that the pore
morphology is more pronounced between layers compared with that
between strips.
In addition, the shape, size, and rotational speed of the helical blades
inside the print head also affect the rheological and extrudability of
3DPC. The Zhi’s research [54] showed that when the blade radius was
varied in the range of 100 ~ 125 mm, the number of blade layers was
varied in the range of 1.0 ~ 2.5, and the rotational speed of blades was
varied in the range of 10 ~ 50 rad/s, the variations of average extrudate
velocity at the nozzle were 24%, 6%, and 12%, respectively. On the
other hand, the different shapes and sizes of 3DPC extrusion filament
can affect the degree of extrusion between strips, and thus resulted in
different degrees of defects. The presence of defects significantly
reduced the strength of 3DPC [55]. Sun [56] et al., studied the effects of
different extrusion shapes and sizes on mechanical properties of 3DPC
(example shown in Fig. 3), and found that triangular molding had fewer
interlayer defects, as a consequence, the best mechanical properties
were achieved as compared with that of square and round; on the other
hand, with increasing extrusion size for the same shape molding, the
defects between layers decreased whereas the mechanical properties of
3DPC increased.
Overall, the mechanical properties of 3DPC are usually affected by a
D. Liu et al.
Fig. 3. Specimen sections of printing strip [56].
combination of multiple printing technologies. Extrudability and
buildability are generally contradictory for 3DPC. Higher water content
has better extrudability but increases the instability of printing; lower
water content can significantly lead to extrusion difficulties or even
printing interruptions. Therefore, it is urgent to establish the regulation
mechanism of material gradation and printing technology, in addition to
constructing a reliable evaluation system to judge whether 3D printing
materials have appropriate rheological properties and printability.
2.3. 3D printed high-performance concrete
Due to the characteristic of printing technology, placing reinforce­
ment in 3DPC structures usually requires additional operations or
specially designed 3D printers [57], which likely reduce the efficiency of
construction process. The development of high-performance concrete
without reinforcement is one of the approaches to address this problem.
Along with the development of concrete material technology, some
kinds of concrete with significantly improved performance, such as
Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (FRC), Ultra-High Performance Concrete
(UHPC), and Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC), et al have
been developed [58–60]. Adding fibers into concrete can significantly
improve the crack resistance of concrete, and ensure the continuity of 3D
printing, due to which FRC is widely used in 3D printing. It is worth
noting that the direction of fiber distribution in FRC can affect the ef­
ficiency of stress transfer in matrix. Le [28] et al., investigated the
anisotropy of 3D printed FRC via testing compressive and flexural
strength as well as the interfacial bond between interlayers, it was found
that the compressive and flexural strength of 3D printed FRC in the
vertical printing direction decreased compared with that of conven­
tional concrete. Meanwhile, the interlaminar tensile strength decreased
with prolonged intervals between printed layers, however, the flexural
strength along the printing direction increased. Alchaar and Al-Tamimi
[61] compared the performance of 3D printed FRC in terms of
compressive, flexural, and interlayer shear strength at 25-45℃. It was
found that exposure to higher temperatures can accelerate water evap­
oration and moisture loss on surface, and thereby decrease the
compressive and interlayer shear strengths, however, the flexural
strength was increased which can attribute to the relatively better
orientation distribution of fibers upon higher flowability and lower
viscosity of the paste that was induced by high-temperature exposures.
Steel fiber can effectively inhibit the cracking of concrete, and is
5
Construction and Building Materials 405 (2023) 133364
expected to enhance the performance of 3DPC. Singh [62] et al., found
that the compressive strength of 3DPC containing steel fibers was
increased as the loading angles increase from 0◦ to 90◦ compared with
that of normal concrete, and the most significant increment in
compressive strength was observed at a loading angle of 90◦ . The studies
by Panda [21] and Pham [63] et al., showed that adding steel fibers with
proper length can effectively improve the flexural properties of 3DPC as
compared with that of short glass fiber usage.
UHPC features high strength in terms of compressive and tensile
strength, which is expected to be an innovative material for some
complex 3D printing structures. However, the high flow properties of
UHPC are hostile to the constructability of 3D printing. Therefore, the
difficulty of 3D printing UHPC is adjusting the rheological of UHPC to
meet the requirements of printing process and maintain excellent me­
chanical properties. Subsequently, Khayat [64] et al., summarized the
rheological properties of UHPC to adjust its application for 3D printing.
The results show that UHPC for 3D printing applications should be
developed with relatively low initial yield stress to improve pumpability
and extrudability. Gosselin [65] et al., found that 3DPC suitable for
pumping should have characteristics of fine particle-size, low critical
shear stress, and slow hardening rate. In addition, Arunothayan [66]
et al., quantitatively tested the directional distribution of fibers in 3D
printed UHPC, and confirmed that the 3D printing technology can
enhance the distribution rate of fibers along the printing direction,
which enhances the fracture resistance of 3D printed FRC. In addition,
Yang [67] et al., investigated the impact resistance of 3D printed UHPC,
and showed that the strain sensitivity of 3D printed UHPC was similar to
that of cast-in-place UHPC in Z-direction. The 3D printed UHPC exhibits
anisotropic characteristics, and its energy absorption capacity in the X
and Y directions is significantly higher than that in the Z direction.
Compared with normal FRC, ECC has an ultimate tensile strain ca­
pacity of over 3%, making it one of the most suitable materials for 3D
printing with overcoming the brittleness of 3DPC. Li [68] et al., sys­
tematically reviewed the development of 3D printed ECC, and pointed
out future research directions, which include proportional design,
rheological control, microstructure, interface weakening, and long-term
reliability. Zhu [69] et al., compared the uniaxial tensile and compres­
sive behaviors of cast-in-place and 3D printed ECC, the results showed
that the difference between the tensile strength of 3D printed ECC and
cast ECC was negligible when the thickness of ECC was 15 mm, on the
other hand, in the Z-direction, the compressive strength of 3D printed
D. Liu et al.
ECC was 4% higher than that of cast ECC. Zhou [70] et al., found that the
tensile strength and strain capacity of 3D-printed ECC decreased by 10%
and 26%, respectively, compared with that of cast ECC. This decrement
in strength can attribute to the uneven distribution of fiber within the
printer nozzle, which is similar to the effect of fiber distribution in 3D
printed FRC. Additionally, the slow printing speed reduces the build­
ability of 3D printed ECC. Yu [71] et al., used a corrugated extrusion
nozzle for printing to suppress the delamination failure of 3D printed
ECC. The corrugated extrusion nozzle can extrude grooves on the surface
of the specimen, which forms mechanical interlocks between layers. The
grooves on the surface are shown in Fig. 4. The fracture toughness of the
grooved specimen was improved by 20% compared with that of smooth
surface specimen.
Currently, 3D printed high-performance concrete is usually blended
with a certain volume fraction of fibers, and the number and distribution
direction of fibers affects the constructability and mechanical properties
of 3DPC. The types of fibers are mainly flexible fibers and rigid fibers.
For 3DPC, rigid fibers (i.e. steel fiber) are easier to distribute direc­
tionally. The problem faced by 3D printed high-performance concrete is
the blending of material printability. Taking ECC and UHPC as exam­
ples, the high viscosity of ECC and the high fluidity of UHPC are chal­
lenges for 3D printing technology. Therefore, improving the printability
of high-performance concrete and ensuring the excellent mechanical
properties of printing materials is the focus of subsequent research on 3D
printed high-performance concrete.
3. Structural forms and reinforcement methods
The pore structure and weak interlayer/strip interface formed during
3D printing process likely reduce the strength and stability of 3DPC
structures. In addition to improvement of printing technology or mate­
rial properties, reinforcement or prestressing technique is an effective
way to improve the load-carrying capacity of 3DPC structures. However,
there is an inherent contradiction between the traditional installation of
reinforcement process and 3D printing technology. Therefore, the inte­
gration of the mechanical properties of 3DPC, printing construction ef­
ficiency, and structural performance is critical to 3DPC structures.
Currently, researchers proposed various reinforcement methods
including contour crafting technology, reinforcement-concrete co-
printing method, deployment of wire mesh, and post-tensioning method
for different forms and functions of 3DPC structures. In this section, a
review of the current status of 3DPC structural forms and their rein­
forcement methods is presented to explore the solutions for ensuring
load-carrying capacity of 3DPC structures.
Fig. 4. Grooves on the surface of the specimen [71].
6
Construction and Building Materials 405 (2023) 133364
3.1. Wall and column structures
3.1.1. Construction by contour crafting
Walls and columns are currently the most common forms of 3DPC
structures, after all, the 3DPC material can easily meet the requirements
in terms of axial compressive performance under unreinforced condi­
tions. As the earliest and currently most widely used additive con­
struction technology, contour crafting also started with the 3D printing
of structures that withstand compressive loadings. The contour crafting
was proposed by Prof. Khosnevis at the University of Southern California
(USC) in 2004 (contour crafting technology is depicted in Fig. 5(a)) [72],
which uses 3DPC permanent formwork with embedding reinforcement
cage, and in final, the fresh concrete was poured into the formwork. In
this way, the traditional demountable formwork can be replaced by
3DPC formwork, especially for those special-shaped structures. The
contour crafting was initially proposed for producing small and
medium-sized structural segments, however, with the improvement of
material properties and printing technology, the full-size wall was built
firstly at USC in 2006 (Fig. 5(b)) [73].
In 2016, a two-story building with an area of approximately 232 m2
was printed with the collaboration of Khosnevis and NASA, which
verified the reliability of contour technology, and thus inspired the
exploration and application of 3DPC technology in building structures
[74]. For example, in 2015, Yingchuang Construction Technology
Company successfully built the world’s tallest 3D printed apartment
with five-story by using contour crafting in Suzhou Industrial Park, in
which the reinforced shear walls were printed. In 2021, a double-story
house was printed in Germany, which consists of cavity walls of three
layers of material filled with insulating compounds [75]. At the initial
stage, the research on 3DPC in China mainly used contour crafting to
print load-bearing walls and non-structural columns. To ensure the
stability and self-support of 3DPC structure and improve the structural
performance, corrugated hollow walls have been developed based on
contour crafting [2], as illustrated in Fig. 6.
Contour crafting technology can also be used in the field of 3DPC
columns [76]. In addition to regular section concrete columns, the po­
tential of 3D printing technology with spatial freedom in structural ge­
ometry has been explored. In 2015, an irregular spatial truss-shaped
column (Fig. 7(a)) was designed and built by Xtree, France, which
demonstrates the design-build potential of 3DPC technology [77]. For
this column, it was consisted by four individual segments; the outer
cavity was printed by using contouring crafting, while the inside was
reinforced by rebars and filled by UHPC. This holistic design, segmental
modular design, and prefabricated printed assembly approach for space
truss columns provide a new model for the construction of 3DPC
structures. Similarly, the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich
(ETH) has collaborated with Origen Festival, and built several concrete
columns (Fig. 7(b)) in various forms using contour printing technology
[78]. The structure was stable with no collapse or buckling during the
printing process. The appearance of the columns differs from that of
conventional structural, which exhibited a richness of geometric.
The successful attempts of contour crafting on 3DPC walls and col­
umns have demonstrated that 3DPC structures can meet the re­
quirements of structural forming and vertical load-bearing. Compared
with conventional cast-in-place concrete structures, 3D printing contour
crafting can produce the required complex cavity forms, facilitating the
filling of acoustic, and thermal insulation materials and pipe placement.
However, the limitations of contour crafting are also evident; this
method likely causes bonding problems between the printed concrete
cavity and internal concrete, which creates a potential problem for
structural safety. The 3DPC in the above-mentioned projects only plays
the role of replacing traditional formwork, and partially participating in
bearing structural loading; most of the current 3DPC buildings did not
carry out accurate calculations for the material mechanical properties of
3DPC, which only use the design calculation method of traditional cast-
in-place reinforced concrete. The 3DPC in the above projects is a
D. Liu et al. Construction and Building Materials 405 (2023) 133364

Fig. 5. Contour crafting of 3DPC: (a) contour crafting technology [72]; (b) full-size wall [73].

Fig. 6. Corrugated hollow wall and connection details [2].

formwork, only partially bore structural loading, and most 3DPC pro­
jects still use the traditional reinforced concrete design calculation
method, so the technical advantages of 3D printing are still needed to be
investigated.
3.1.2. Reinforcement technology
Currently, the printing of concrete with coarse aggregate, easy
cracking of printed materials, and fragile interfaces between layers/
strips are still challenging for 3DPC. To improve the mechanical prop­
erties of 3DPC structures, reinforcement methods that are printed
simultaneously with concrete have been explored. Representative ones
such as the fork-shaped nozzle printing system invented by China’s
Huashang Tengda in 2016 (Fig. 8), where the reinforcement mesh is pre-
positioned and dual nozzles clamp the mesh and print concrete on both
sides [79]. Pre-reinforcement technology can significantly improve the
efficiency of 3DPC construction, however, it requires special printing
equipment. The bonding performance between the reinforcement and
printed concrete needs to be verified [80], and it is only suitable for
vertical members and has limitations for printing variables curvature
members, such as arches and beams. Fig. 9 shows the synchronous
printing of reinforcement mesh and concrete that was proposed by
Classen [81]. The synchronous printing method involves extruding
concrete meanwhile welding the reinforcement segments that were
placed in the printed concrete, of which the drawback of this method is
that the local high temperature generated by the welding may affect the
performance of 3DPC, moreover, the bond between reinforcement and

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D. Liu et al.
Fig. 7. Contour crafting of 3DPC column: (a) irregular spatial truss-shaped column [77]; (b) variable-section column [78].
Fig. 8. 3D printing pre-assembled reinforcement technology [79].
printed concrete is still a concern due to the existence of voids (see in
Fig. 9).
The vertical synchronous reinforcement method puts forward higher
requirements for printing process and equipment, and it still has certain
limitations or defects in this technology. Thus, some researchers have
proposed to manually place a layer of horizontal wire mesh at a certain
print layer or height during the printing process of wall, aiming to
enhance the interface properties and can be integrated with the other
cast-in-place load-bearing structural elements. For example, Bos [2] and
Ji [82] et al., adopted this wire mesh interlayer reinforcement method in
the past 3 years, and found that horizontal steel mesh can enhance the
integrity of the overall structure. Compared with vertical reinforcement
technology, horizontal reinforcement technology has lower re­
quirements for 3D printing equipment, which is conducive to the wide
promotion of 3DPC technology.
The horizontal placement of reinforcement mesh can enhance the
interlayer interfacial performance, however, its positive impact on
8
Construction and Building Materials 405 (2023) 133364
structural load-carrying capacity is limited. The method of printing
reinforcement and concrete simultaneously can improve construction
efficiency, nonetheless, the special requirement for printing equipment
and the bond strength between reinforcement and concrete is still
needed to be clarified. The researchers at ETH displayed a 3DPC column
using post-tensioned reinforcement technology [83]. The form of the
column cross-section was obtained by topological optimization. The
continuous printings of column cross-sections greatly improve the
overall printing efficiency, and breakthrough the limitations of con­
ventional prefabricated components in terms of shape and
manufacturing process, thus achieving unprecedented geometric rich­
ness of structures.
In summary, the lack of suitable reinforcement technology is the
main factor that limits the wide application of 3DPC. Although the
above-mentioned synchronous reinforcement method and reinforce­
ment mesh technology can achieve reinforced effect for the structures, it
will reduce the time and labor efficiency of 3DPC. In addition, although
D. Liu et al. Construction and Building Materials 405 (2023) 133364

Fig. 9. 3DPC synchronous reinforcement technology [81].

the post-tensioned rebar technology can improve printing efficiency and
realize reinforcement, the structural applicability of this method is
insufficient. Therefore, designing high-performance composite struc­
tures without reinforcement through structural and material design may
be one of the solutions to the current difficulties of 3DPC reinforcement
technology.
3.2. Arch structure
The arch is a transverse span structure, which mainly bears
compressive loads. Due to the simple mechanism of force transmission,
the arch bridge is probably the highest practicable structural form in the
current stage of engineering research on 3DPC structures. Normally,
3DPC arch bridges are prefabricated and printed in segments, and then
conduct the assembly work on-site.
There are two main structural forms of arch bridges: reinforced
concrete arch rib bridges with contour crafting and extruded arch
bridges formed by 3DPC hollow blocks. The world’s first 3DPC pedes­
trian arch bridge was built in 2016 in Alcovendas [84], Spain, which is a
3D-printed reinforced concrete arch rib bridge, as shown in Fig. 10(a).
The entire bridge was divided into eight sections, in which the rein­
forced concrete segments were printed using the D-Shape contour
crafting and reinforced with polypropylene thermoplastic. In 2019, Ma
et al., designed and constructed the world’s longest single-span 3DPC
arch bridge, in which the arch ribs were printed through contour
crafting [85]. Seven reinforced arch ribs were composed of twenty-one
3DPC segments with mortise and tenon joints between the arch
segments.
The extruded arch bridge is the traditional way of force transmission
in masonry arch structures, it mainly relies on the self-weight of struc­
ture and its upper load to produce mutual extrusion and friction between
the unit interfaces. Xu [86] et al., built the largest 3D printed concrete
pedestrian bridge in the world in 2019. A bifurcated pedestrian bridge
“Striatus” (Fig. 10(b)) was designed in 2021 by the Algorithmic Design
Research Group of Zaha Hadid Architects, ETH, and Incremental 3D
[87]. The “Striatus” is a purely compressive structure based solely on its
weight, without any adhesives, mortar, or reinforcement. This bridge
was designed through a topology optimization method, and consists of

Fig. 10. 3DPC arch bridge: (a) reinforced concrete arch bridge [84]; (b) extruded arch bridge [87].

9
D. Liu et al.
fifty-three 3DPC printed units that form a thin shell structure supported
at three points in space. The thickness of the cross-section and print path
of units at different locations were optimized with consideration of print
range of robot arm, constructability and stability of each concrete
printed unit, and the ease of transport and installation.
3DPC arch bridges with contour crafting can possess high load-
bearing capacity and reliability, however, its disadvantages lie in high
self-weight and low printing and assembly efficiency. Extruded 3DPC
arch bridges are characterized by light weight and high efficiency, but
require high printing and installation accuracy as well as low structural
redundancy. Arch structure gives full play to the advantages of 3DPC,
and weakens the problem of difficult of 3DPC reinforcement. At present,
the arch structure is mainly used in bridges. Utilizing the advantages of
the force of arch structure to broaden its application range is the focus of
the next research. In addition, the arch structure has a high self-weight,
which also requires refined structural design and topology optimization.
Overall, the effective attempts in 3DPC arch bridges have greatly
inspired confidence and interest in the engineering applications of 3DPC
structures, and also promoted the standardization and assembly con­
struction of 3DPC structures.
3.3. Beam and slab structures
Beams and slabs are transverse span structures along with arches and
shells, therefore, the key to 3DPC beam and slab structure construction
is how to meet the bending/shear strength requirements meanwhile
ensuring the printing construction efficiency. Compared with the 3DPC
wall, column, and arch structures, there are relatively fewer achieve­
ments of 3DPC beam and slab structures, because the requirements of
bending and shear performance are more difficult to be satisfied, and its
bearing capacity and reinforcement need to be accurately calculated
rather than just relying on the empirical estimation for the case of
traditional reinforced concrete walls and columns.
Currently, there are two kinds of design schemes for 3DPC beams: 1)
use the method of post-tensioning prestressed reinforcement similar to
arch bridge; 2) change the structural system and design the 3DPC beam
into a truss structure form. The linear arrangement of post-tensioned
prestressed steel bars is flexible, which is suitable for large-span 3DPC
structures. In 2017, the first 3DPC single-span simple girder bridge
(Fig. 11(a)) in the world was jointly built by Ballistic Architecture Ma­
chine (BAM) and the Technical University of Eindhoven (TU/e) in the
village of Germat, Netherlands. The bridge has a span of 6.5 m and a
width of 3.5 m, it was printed in six units along the span direction, which
were connected by post-tensioned prestressing tendons and epoxy
Fig. 11. Post-tensioned prestressed 3DPC bridge: (a) beam bridge [88]; (b) truss bridge [89].
10
Construction and Building Materials 405 (2023) 133364
adhesives [88]. The self-supporting and geometric stability of the bridge
was ensured by using toughened fiber-reinforced printing concrete. The
cross-section of the bridge, print path, and prestressing was rigorously
designed and model tests were performed.
The truss structure is a kind of lightweight and high-strength system.
The truss beam is widely used in bridges and buildings due to its
excellent bending resistance and strong deformation coordination abil­
ity. The rod in truss structures mainly bears uniaxial tensile and
compressive loads, hence that the truss structure can be used in the
3DPC beam owing to its simple loading feature. A 3DPC truss beam
(Fig. 11(b)) was completed in 2019 in collaboration with Vertico
Netherlands and Ghent University, Belgium. This beam was specially
designed based on topological optimization considering constant load
action and symmetry. The structure was divided into eighteen printed
units which are connected by post-tensioned reinforcement and grout.
The shape and pre-tension of the tensioning bars were optimized to fit
the curved form of truss. Compared with conventional T-section beams
with the same span, truss beams can save about 20% of material usage
under the condition of satisfying requirements of load capacity and
stiffness under self-weight and live loads [89].
In multi-story buildings, floor slabs typically take up 85% of the
weight and cost of concrete structures, hence that designing a suitable
floor structure to maximize material utilization is important for sus­
tainability of building structures. In 2017, ETH designed a lightweight
ribbed slab [90] (Fig. 12(a)) with the grid cells of the slab filled with 3D-
printed mineral foam. In addition, ETH developed a concrete dense
ribbed floor slab that is called “Smart Slab” (Fig. 12(b)) [91], which
consists of 11 elements with post-tensioned steel reinforcement between
the elements. The slab is placed on an S-shaped wall, and the elements
are connected to the wall by utilizing pins. Moreover, contour crafting
can also be used in floor slab structures. Hansemann [92] et al., placed
the printed hollow bottom mold on the ground upside-down, in which
the reinforcement was arranged, in finally, the concrete was poured to
form a lightweight floor slab (Fig. 12(c)) which can save about 30–40 %
of concrete compared with normal floor slab.
For large-span structures such as beams and slabs, the amount of
3DPC material used should be minimized under the condition of satis­
fying the structural load-carrying capacity and safety t. Again, due to
reinforcement difficulties, beam and slab structures still rely on arches,
trusses, and post-tensioned rebars. This will cause this type of structure
cannot reference the traditional reinforced concrete structures for the
checking calculation of flexural and shear properties, which reduces the
efficiency of structural design. Therefore, the establishment of calcula­
tion methods for multiple types of structures and the development of
D. Liu et al.
Fig. 12. 3DPC lightweight slab structure: (a) ribbed slab [90]; (b) “smart slab” [91]; (c) floor slab [92].
prediction software for 3DPC structural performance are effective ways
to solve this problem.
4. Optimization design of 3DPC structure
Less material, better performance, variety of functions, and free form
are the design goals for optimization of 3DPC structure. Structural
optimization can be divided into three levels: size optimization, shape
optimization, and topology optimization. Compared with size and shape
optimization, topology optimization allows the change of topological
relationship between structures in process of optimization, which is a
more essential and comprehensive method. In recent years, topology
optimization methods have also been applied to design 3DPC structures
[93–95].
According to different topological principles, topology optimization
methods can be divided into two categories: 1) topology optimization
based on material density; 2) topology optimization based on boundary
evolution. The topology optimization method based on material density
realizes the overall structure optimization by adjusting material distri­
bution in the design area [96–98]. The bi-directional evolutionary
structural optimization method (BESO) [99], which is normally used in
additive manufacturing, is essentially a material density method. By
using this method, the optimization is realized gradually by removing or
adding materials based on stress distribution in structures, nevertheless,
its convergence has to be proved theoretically [100].
The topology optimization method based on boundary evolution is to
optimize the structure topology by controlling the deformation of
structural boundaries. At present, the level-set method proposed by
Osher and Sethian is widely adopted [101]. It describes boundary of the
structure by introducing the isosurface of level-set function, and obtains
the boundary shape of structure by using specific velocity field and
evolution of the function. Although the level-set method is computa­
tionally intensive, the optimized model has a smooth and continuous
shape, which is widely used in optimizing complex engineering struc­
tures and 3D printed structures [102–105].
In addition to loading conditions, the design of 3DPC structures also
needs to consider material anisotropy, interlayer interface defects,
printing process, and structural stability, which resulted in much more
complex than that of normal concrete structures. Presently, the opti­
mization design of 3DPC structure mainly includes three directions:
optimization design of overall structure, optimization design of cross-
section and printing path, and optimization design of structure and
printing technology.
4.1. Overall structural optimization
The overall optimization method is to determine overall contour of
3DPC structure according to the requirements of specific load conditions
or functions. During optimization process, the constraints of printing
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Construction and Building Materials 405 (2023) 133364
process and printing path were not considered. The aforementioned
irregular space truss column (see in Fig. 7(a)) designed by Xtree was
obtained by overall optimization design with consideration of weight of
sunshade, wind load, and structural measures. Compared with the reg­
ular section column, the section area of irregular space truss column is
smaller, and the facade shape is slender. The optimization design of
3DPC flexural structures is more complicated than that of compressed
structures due to the existence of both bending moment and shear load.
In the aforementioned 3DPC truss beam (see in Fig. 11(b)) design, the
prestressed steel bar is designed as a multi-fold line, which was opti­
mized in cooperation with surrounding concrete structure. In this case, a
density-based topological optimization method was used for concrete
structures, and the prestressing reinforcement was designed using the
piecewise linear optimization method for prestressing reinforcement
[106]. The introduction of a filtering procedure in the co-optimization
process ensures that the reinforcement bundle is effectively wrapped
by concrete, thus adding a coupling between shape and topological
variables.
For prefabricated 3DPC structures, the element design of structure
involves several factors, such as the self-support and stability of the
printed unit, the connection performance and construction method of
nodes, and the difficulty of transportation and construction which is also
an optimization problem. The rigid block equilibrium (RBE) method (see
in Fig. 13) proposed by Kao [107] et al., provides a calculation basis for
the segmentation of printing elements. This method is based on the static
balance of rigid bodies under friction and pressure, and thus obtains
optimal segmentation scheme by sensing the stability of structure.
The overall structural optimization is mainly based on the topolog­
ical optimization of the structure contour, shape, and structure, taking
into account the self-weight and loads of the structure. The optimal
structure form is obtained through the overall optimization, which is
reflected in less material consumption and reasonable force. The overall
optimization of the structure mainly focuses on the structure form. For
specific working conditions, the structure type should be determined
firstly, then the overall structure suitable for the structure type is
designed, and finally the amount of material, that is, the filling rate is
determined. The difficulty of overall structure optimization is how to
improve the utilization rate of 3DPC. Exploring new structural forms is
expected to promote the further development of 3DPC structures in the
future.
4.2. Optimization design of cross-section and structural form
The 3DPC structure is formed by printing concrete layer by layer,
therefore, the mesh of cross-section is an essential factor to ensure load-
bearing performance and structural printability. Wang [108] et al., used
lightweight ceramic concrete as 3D printing material, and designed four
rectangular and cubic specimens with different cross-sectional grids (see
in Fig. 14) for in-plane flexural and compressive tests, respectively. The
D. Liu et al. Construction and Building Materials 405 (2023) 133364

Fig. 13. Principles and examples of CRA method [107].

Fig. 14. Types of cross-sectional grids [108].

flexural test results show that the flexural performance of truss mesh and
triangular mesh structures is significantly higher than that of cellular
and rectangular mesh. The cracks of cellular mesh appear in shear span
region, and the cracks of other types of grids appeared in the pure
bending section. The results from compressive tests show that the rect­
angular mesh has the best compressive capacity and deformation
resistance, that’s because the vertical mesh form is easy to transmit
vertical loads. From the perspective of 3DPC material properties and
printing technology, the optimization of cross-section mesh should
minimize node crossing, and ensure that the structure force transmission
route is clear and simple.
Different structures have diverse force transmission paths under the
action of load, hence that a reasonable cross-section grid should be
conducive to the stress transmission under satisfying the functions of
building. ETH used the thrust network analysis (TNA) method to
generate the arch-shaped multi-rib mesh floor slab, as shown in Fig. 15.
Fig. 15. Optimization design of arched floor slabs [109].
The optimized rib line of floor overlaps with the pressure trajectory of

12
D. Liu et al.
arch, which can give full play to the compressive performance of con­
crete. The thickness of mesh multi-rib slab is only 2 cm at the thinnest
point, which can save about 70% of material usage as compared with
that of normal reinforced concrete floor cover [109]. TNA algorithm can
determine the most appropriate arch shell shape under gravity load in
the spatial domain, and then combine projection geometry and graph­
ical statics to obtain the thrust line of the structure [110]. This method is
especially suitable for the design of masonry structures without rein­
forcement, and has a broad application prospect in the structural opti­
mization of 3DPC. Furthermore, Fig. 16 shows the cross-section
optimization results of “Office of the Future” which was built in 2019
in Dubai by Eindhoven University of Technology [11]. The office is a
box-shaped shell structure, and the centerline of contour is determined
according to the requirements of office space (blue line in Fig. 16(a)).
The thickness and surface curvature of the shell are regulated by 18
reference points on the centerline, and finally, the minimum vertex
displacement of the shell is used as the objective function to obtain the
sine wave-shaped cross section.
The optimization of cross-section and structural form focuses on the
cross-section form, in which the structural type is usually already
determined and the effect of different mesh types on the performance of
components is mainly investigated. For contour technology, the opti­
mization of cross-section and structural form is related to find the most
suitable internal filling pattern. Differing from the overall optimization
of the structure, the optimal design of the cross-section and structural
form are usually based on the determined filling rate. With a specific
filling rate, the different mesh forms can change the force transmission
paths of the structure, which ultimately affects the structural perfor­
mance. The optimal design of cross-section and structural forms depend
on force analysis and optimization algorithms, so finding the optimi­
zation models with higher accuracy will be a future research direction.
4.3. Collaborative optimization combining structural design and printing
technology
The technical advantage of 3DPC is that the printing and
manufacturing process can be involved during designing of structures.
Therefore, a complete optimization scheme should comprehensively
consider the section form, structural profile, and printing process.
Different printing technology will change the layer thickness, width, and
curvature of the extruded concrete strips, thus affecting the interlayer/
interstrip structure and pore structure of the 3DPC. Accordingly, the
geometric form of the printed element likely affects the stability of el­
ements, which is one of the constraints for rational division of the
element in structural optimization design.
Current researchers have investigated various aspects of printing
efficiency, material utilization, synergistic optimization of structures,
cross-sections, and printing processes. Typically, 3DPC is printed with a
single nozzle, which is a drawback for complex structures as it signifi­
cantly increases the build time and reduces printing efficiency. For this
reason, Carstensen [111] investigated the influence of 3D printing
nozzle size in a density-based topology optimization method, focusing
on the length of material print path and overlap between paths. The
results showed that the use of a large-sized nozzle is favorable for short-
distance continuous printing when the structure size is large.
Optimizing the printing path based on the structures can not only
improve the printing efficiency but also improve the performance of
Fig. 16. Optimization design of box shell structure [11].
13
Construction and Building Materials 405 (2023) 133364
nodes. Fig. 17(a) presented the optimization of cross-section printing
path of the beam that was constructed by Ballistic Architecture Machine
(BAM) and Technical University of Eindhoven (TU/e) [88]. The test
beam was not designed for curvature, and the cross-section has multiple
right-angle inflection points, while the optimized cross-section curve is
smoother, which reduces the stress concentration and total length of
printed path (0.9 m per layer). Synergistic optimization of structure and
print path can enhance the performance of 3DPC structures. To fully
exploit the material properties of 3D printed fiber-filled polymer com­
posites, Jiang [112] et al., proposed the topology optimization method
of Continuous Fiber Angle Optimization (CFAO), as shown in Fig. 17(b).
The CFAO method takes the fiber angle as a coefficient and sets the
maximization (i.e., fiber orientation to align with the imposed force
direction) of fibers along the tangential direction of print path as the
objective function to obtain optimal layout and orientation of fibers.
This method optimizes the Solid Isotropic Material with Penalization
(SIMP) model, and can realize topology optimization at both two-
dimensional and three-dimensional levels.
The aforementioned Striatus bridge (as shown in Fig. 10(b)) is a
current successful example of overall profile optimization, segmental
section optimization, and printing process optimization [87]. Fig. 18
demonstrates the whole process of structural optimization design of the
Striatus bridge. The designer first uses the TNA algorithm to obtain a
three-point supporting shell structure under self-weight loading, and
then adjusts the printing speed according to dynamically monitored
element deformation to ensure geometric stability of the printing
element and mechanical properties of 3DPC. In light of the above, the
synergistic optimization of 3DPC structures and printing technology
requires simultaneous attention to the safety, efficiency, environmental
protection, and aesthetics of structure construction, which is a complex
multi-parameter problem.
The design of 3DPC structure is inseparable from the optimization of
printing technology, which consists of many contents, and the optimi­
zation mainly considers parameters such as the printing path and nozzle
size. Different print paths can affect the connection strength of nodes
and the construction efficiency of 3DPC structure. Various nozzle sizes
also affect the printing efficiency, in addition, for fiber-reinforced con­
crete, the nozzle size will also affect the degree of fiber dispersion, on the
other hand, the smaller printhead size is more sensitive to the rheolog­
ical properties of 3DPC. Other printing technologies, such as print in­
terval time and printhead travel speed, can be adjusted according to the
rheology of the material. To improve the printing speed and quality,
emphasis should be placed on the development of 3D printing software
that enables automatic node optimization and shortest print path plan­
ning. In addition, for specific structures, the development of variable-
diameter printheads can be better optimized for efficient and high-
quality printing.
5. Structural connection construction
3DPC structures are mostly constructed in the form of prefabricated
assemblies, therefore, connection construction measures are the critical
factor to ensure reasonable force and efficient construction of structures.
Different structural forms have different requirements for connections.
Columns or walls need to ensure the continuity of vertical force trans­
mission, and prevent the occurrence of lateral buckling. Arch or shell
structures need to prevent lateral displacement and cornering of the arch
and shell sections. Beams and slabs need to address the transfer of shear
forces in the connected sections. The special characteristics of 3DPC
structures also impose higher requirements on their connection config­
urations. Researchers have explored connections for 3DPC structures by
drawing on the connection structure of classic composite structures and
assembled structures, which are reviewed in this section.
D. Liu et al. Construction and Building Materials 405 (2023) 133364

Fig. 17. Synergistic optimization of structure and printing technology: (a) optimization design of printing path [88]; (b) optimization method of CFAO [112].

Fig. 18. Structure optimization and unit division [87].

5.1. Post-tensioned reinforcement connection mode
Post-tensioned reinforcement can meet the requirements of both
connection and reinforcement, and the performance of this kind of
connection is reliable. Therefore, the post-tensioned reinforcement
connection method is the most commonly used form in 3DPC structure.
For example, the first 3D printed prestressed concrete bridge was con­
structed in Japan [84]; it comprises 44 elements connected by
tensioning steel bars. The aforementioned 3DPC simply supported girder
bridge (as shown in Fig. 11(a)) consists of 6 elements which are con­
nected by 16 prestressing tendons (Fig. 19(a)) [88]; the truss girder
jointly constructed by Vertico and Ghent University consists of 9 ele­
ments and were connected by 3 prestressing tendons (Fig. 19(b)) [89]. It
should be noted that the compressive strength and stiffness of the units
and their shrinkage creep are particularly important when post-
tensioned prestressing tendons are used, that’s because the shrinkage
deformation of the structure under prestressing can cause a loss of
prestressing, and thereby reduce the integrity and load capacity of the
3DPC structures.
Post-tensioned reinforcement is mainly used in the assembled 3DCP
beams, slabs, and columns by applying prestressing to the structure,
which not only connects the elements but also provides the required

Fig. 19. Post-tensioned reinforcement connection mode: (a) simply-supported beam [88]; (b) truss girder [89].

14
D. Liu et al.
tensile force to the structure. The advantage of this connection method is
that it can improve the mechanical performance of 3DPC structure and
realize the efficient unit connection. The drawback of post-tensioned
rebar connections is their inability to fulfill the requirements of some
special-shaped element connections.
5.2. Mechanical connection mode
Unlike the full-size arrangement of post-tensioned reinforcement,
mechanical connections are generally set at the connection interface of
the elements. According to the different locations of the connections,
mechanical connections can be divided into internal mechanical con­
nections and external mechanical connections. Internal mechanical
connections are mainly used in column structures, which not only
ensure the vertical force transmission of column, but also prevent the
column from lateral buckling. Gaudilliere [77] et al., fabricated three-
section 3DPC columns with metal connectors at the ends of each
element, which were sealed at interface with binder to ensure continuity
of the element joints.
The external mechanical connections rely on metal parts (e.g., bolts
or screws) to connect the 3DPC elements, and are mainly used for
assembled beam or arch structures. Yin [113] et al., used side plates to
connect 3DPC truss beam elements, as shown in Fig. 20(a). The strength
of the side plate should be higher than that of 3DPC material to ensure
the reliability of connection, and the size and shape of the connection
plate can be reasonably set according to the connection part. However, it
is necessary to reserve the connection holes or pre-set the connection
bolts during the printing process, which is expected to reduce the
printing efficiency. Asprone [114] et al., proposed a screw connection
method for 3DPC truss arches, as illustrated in Fig. 20(b). The elements
are connected by an in-plane screw and an out-of-plane screw. The study
showed that the failure of this external screw connection method mainly
occurred in the concrete at the bottom of arch.
Compared with post-tensioned rebar connections, mechanical con­
nections are more widely applicable, but the strength and integrity of
mechanical connections are relatively weaker. In addition, mechanical
connections require pre-setting of connection apertures or connection
bolts during the 3D printing process, which will reduce the printing
efficiency. Among the two types of mechanical connection, external
mechanical connection is stronger but will affect the aesthetics of the
structure; internal mechanical connection is hidden inside the element,
but the connection strength is lower than external mechanical
connection.
5.3. Extrusion connection mode
For arch structures formed by extrusion, the elements are not rigidly
connected and are susceptible to relative rotations and slips, which
makes the force transmission between elements and structural damage.
Fig. 20. Mechanical connection: (a) side panel connection method [113]; (b) screw connection method [114].
15
Construction and Building Materials 405 (2023) 133364
Therefore, the connection of arch elements needs to resist the stress
inside structure, and also ensure that the elements do not slip and rotate
under other eccentric loads. The arch elements can be connected under
self-weight loads. In addition, high-performance concrete materials such
as UHPC or high-strength mortar can be used for the joints, for example,
the 3D printed pedestrian arch bridge (Fig. 21(a)) [86] described above
is filled with mortar at the joints of arch elements.
The force transmission characteristics of shell structure are similar to
those of arch. Borg [115] et al., designed a curved shell structure, and
the connection between elements was similar to mortise and tenon
joints, as shown in Fig. 21(b), which enables the panels to support
themselves without the need for additional mechanical fixation. A 25
mm semi-density rubber (black in the figure) was placed between the
shell elements. Under the action of load, the deformation of rubber can
also occur to prevent the local failure of brittle concrete.
Extruded connections do not require additional metal connectors
and no additional connection design is needed during the printing
process, but extruded connections can only be used in structures that can
be self-stabilized (i.e. arch and shell structures, etc.). To improve the
strength and stability of extruded connections, the extruded connection
interface can be reinforced with epoxy resin adhesive or high-
performance mortar. Extruded connections are highly efficient in con­
struction and will play an important role in 3DPC element connections
in the future.
6. Challenges and opportunities in 3DPC
Compared with the traditional construction method, the advantage
of 3DPC technology lies in the integration of material preparation,
geometric modeling, structural performance design, and construction,
which can achieve the unification of performance and function. To date,
the research and application of 3DPC technology have covered all levels
of materials, structures, optimization, and connectors. Fig. 22
Fig. 21. Extrusion connection mode: (a) arch structure [86]; (b) shell struc­
ture [115].
D. Liu et al.
Fig. 22. Research framework for 3DPC.
summarizes the main research on various aspects of 3DPC technology.
The above research progress and results demonstrate the technology of
forming 3DPC structures, they also indicate several shortcomings. These
represent the current technical challenges that need to be addressed for
further advancing 3DPC technology.
(1) Mechanical properties and constitutive relation of 3DPC mate­
rials: At present, the research on material properties of 3DPC is mainly
focused on the strength test, from the initial test method of conventional
concrete to the study of unique pore structure between layers/strips of
3DPC, bonding performance, and the preliminary constitutive relation
has been fitted based on the test curve. However, from the above results,
the research on 3DPC material properties still lacks unified standards,
especially the research on constitution relation of 3DPC is insufficient.
The existing constitution relations are not universal enough, because
they are based on specific components, ratios, and printing technology.
Moreover, a lack of systematic theoretical analysis for printing param­
eters and their influence on the anisotropy of 3DPC. Therefore, the
establishment of constitutive models for generalized applications and
evaluation systems for printability is a new direction for the research of
mechanical properties of 3DPC, and is an important basis for the
structural design of 3DPC.
(2) Strengthening technology and analysis theory of 3DPC compo­
nents: Due to the special material properties and printing process of
3DPC, the goal of 3DPC structure design is to provide an effective
structural form that can bear flexural and shear loading, and thus real­
izing efficient construction. The above exploration results of various
types of engineering structures show that the 3DPC structure that meets
the requirements of load-bearing performance can be achieved, how­
ever, the normal reinforcement technology is difficult to be realized. In
addition, the design and calculation methods of 3DPC structures mainly
rely on the theory of normal concrete structures. Therefore, it is neces­
sary to find improved technology that can match the printing process to
broaden the application of 3DPC in the field of structural engineering.
Meanwhile, it is urgent to establish analysis theory and design methods
for 3DPC structures based on mechanics of materials.
(3) Intelligent optimization design method of 3DPC structures: The
optimization design and construction of 3DPC structures involve many
elements such as material properties, structural properties, printing
path, and section mesh form. Currently, there are two main problems in
optimization of 3DPC structures: 1) optimization of cross-section and
print path combined with material properties; 2) synergistic optimiza­
tion considering structural carrying capacity and printing process. The
above optimization problems have complex constraints and large
computational volumes, which cannot be solved by existing topological
optimization methods. It is an inevitable trend for 3DPC to introduce
artificial intelligence into the process of 3DPC structure design and
construction. In recent years, artificial intelligence methods represented
by machine learning have been developed rapidly. Machine learning has
16
Construction and Building Materials 405 (2023) 133364
demonstrated unmistakable advantages in dealing with multi-objective,
multi-constrained, multi-variable problems. Combining machine
learning algorithms with traditional structural optimization frameworks
to achieve efficient multi-objective optimization design is bound to
become a new direction of 3DPC structure design and construction.
(4) Assembly construction technology of 3DPC elements: In the
continuous update of structural form of 3DPC, the existing connection
methods mainly rely on post-tensioned steel bars and machinery (metal
parts, bolts, etc.), and the extrusion connection can also be used in arch
and shell structure. The application of the above connection mode in
3DPC structure has the following difficulties: 1) the holes on specimens
should be reserved, and the printing path should be changed for the use
of post-tensioned reinforcement connections; 2) mechanical connections
need to be customized with special connectors; 3) extruded connections
are narrow in application and depend on the self-stability of the struc­
ture. Although the connection methods (mortise-tenon [116] and FRP
[117] connection modes) in traditional composite and assembled
structures can be referenced for 3DPC structures. The aforementioned
connection methods still suffer from disadvantages such as difficulty in
controlling the accuracy of printing and complexity of construction.
With the continuous innovation of 3D printing structural forms, it is
necessary to develop a more reasonable, safe, and efficient assembly
construction technology.
7. Conclusion
There has been extensive research on 3DPC technology since the
concept of concrete 3D printing was proposed in 1997. In-depth
knowledge and extensive experience in the design, optimization, and
construction of 3DPC structures have prompted the beneficial use of
3DPC technology as a construction method, which can reduce the need
for materials and workers. The paper presents a comprehensive review
of the 3DPC structure from four aspects: material properties, structural
forms, optimization design, and connection mode, and discussed the
challenges and future opportunities for further development of 3DPC
technology. The following conclusions can be drawn.
(1) 3DPC technique is a 3D printing technology that forms concrete
structures through an additive manufacturing process. This special
construction technology leads to initial defects at interlayer and inter­
strip interfaces of 3DPC, which reduces the performance of 3DPC
structures. Unlike normal concrete, the properties of 3DPC are not
consistent in different loading directions, that is anisotropy. The suitable
3DPC mixtures should possess both printability and strength, which
often requires engineers to achieve a balance during the design of ma­
terial composition. Additionally, the printing technology (interlayer
interval time and printing speed) and printing nozzle parameters
(height, shape, and size) also affect the mechanical properties of 3DPC.
(2) Similar to normal structures, 3DPC structures are mainly divided
into two categories: compressive components (wall, column, and arch)
and flexural components (beam and slab). Compression components are
the most widely used form of 3DPC structures, because they can fully
utilize the compressive properties of concrete, and are also easier to
design in sections. For flexural components of 3DPC, the truss system is
suitable to replace the normal beam structure. Furthermore, the con­
ventional slab structure is designed with ribs, which can reduce the self-
weight of the 3DPC structures. On the other hand, reinforcement tech­
niques suitable for 3DPC structures have also been proposed. The
transverse reinforcement technology is widely used in compression
components, while the post-tensioned reinforcement is mainly used in
flexural components.
(3) Structural optimization design can take advantage of high de­
grees of freedom of 3DPC to achieve better performance with less ma­
terial. The commonly used optimization methods are topology
optimization based on material density and topology optimization based
on boundary conditions. The optimization design of flexural compo­
nents is more complicated than that of compressive ones. Studies have
D. Liu et al.
shown that rectangular meshes and truss meshes have advantages in
compressive and flexural properties, respectively. In addition, the
printing technology also needs to be optimized based on material
properties and structural form. Overall, the synergistic optimization of
structure and printing technology is the ultimate goal of structural
optimization.
(4) For the prefabricated 3DPC structure, the connection measures
for elements are the basis to ensure reliability of structures. The
connection methods currently used in 3DPC structures are post-
tensioned reinforcement connection mode, mechanical connection
mode, and extrusion connection mode. The extrusion connection mode
is beneficial to transfer pressure, and is commonly used in arch or shell
structures. Post-tensioned rebar connection mode and mechanical
connection mode are mainly used in flexural components. Additionally,
the connection method in the assembled structure can also be referenced
by 3DPC structures.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Dawei Liu: Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Writing – orig­
inal draft, Data curation. Zhigang Zhang: Conceptualization, Funding
acquisition, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – review & editing.
Xiaoyue Zhang: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – review &
editing. Zhaohui Chen: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition,
Supervision.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the National Key R&D Program of
China (Grant No. 2021YFF0500804) for the support of this work. The
authors thank the Wanru Huang, Zhenyue Wang, Wangdui Gerong,
Xinting Zhou, and Dongpu Sun for their work during collection of
literatures.
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