Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126616

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Mechanical and macrostructural properties of 3D printed concrete dosed

with steel fibers under different loading direction
Amardeep Singh a, b, Qiong Liu b, c, Jianzhuang Xiao b, d, *, Qifeng Lyu e
a
School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Changzhou Institute of Technology, Jiangsu 213032, China
b
Department of Structural Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
c
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
d
Key Laboratory of Performance Evolution and Control for Engineering Structures (Tongji University) Ministry of Education, China
e
School of Environmental and Safety Engineering, Changzhou University, Jiangsu 213164, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Currently, the 3D manufacturing of cementitious materials is at the preliminary stage. The utilization of the
3D printed concrete various materials and the anisotropic behavior of 3D printed mix is still an uncharted section. This study in­
Steel fiber vestigates the significance of loading orientation on 3D printed concrete infilled with steel fibers. The fresh
Loading direction
characteristics and compressive strength were tested using conventional techniques under different loading di­
Anisotropy
rections (0◦ , 45◦ and 90◦ ). Whereas porosity, fractal characteristics and failure planes of the 3D printed concrete
Mechanical properties
Fractal dimensions were characterized using X-Ray computed tomography (X-CT). The fractal characteristics and porosity showed a
strong correlation between each other. Moreover, the tradeoffs between the layer orientation and loading planes
directly reduce the compressive strength. The mix with 0.75% of steel fibers showed the highest compressive
strength at an angle of 90◦ to the loading direction. No interlayer pores were observed in the X-CT scan because
of the better quality and compaction of the 3D printed concrete.

1. Introduction According to a study, 3D printing in construction can reduce construc­

With today’s technologies, the construction sector can be more
advanced and fast-paced. Attentive to the growing construction demand
and the necessity to keep up with the rapid pace of urbanization, the
construction industry adopted additive manufacturing technology in
recent years. Additive manufacturing involves layering materials on top
of one other. This technology is inconvenient to materials such as con­
crete because of changes in the material over time, the absence of
standardization of the printing and the deposition process. Recently, 3D
printing has been a common additive manufacturing in building and
construction. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)/
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) 52900:2015 stan­
dard defines 3D printing as the “process of joining materials to create parts
from 3D model data, typically layer by layer, in contrast to subtractive and
formative manufacturing methodologies.” This type of structure is critical
as urbanization and industrialization increase. Due to a scarcity of nat­
ural resources and concerns about human and environmental safety, the
current impediment to development drives scholars to extend their
perspective on additive manufacturing in the construction industry.
tion waste and labor costs by up to 60% and 70%, respectively, while
decreasing production time by 70% [1]. However, Han et; al. [2]
showed that the environmental impact of 3D printed concrete could be
higher than the conventional concreting methods because of the various
additives and ‘cement’ as one of the main involved factors. These critical
issues, which included waste, cost, and time, encouraged the researcher
to investigate the additive manufacturing possibilities in civil engi­
neering using 3D printing with advanced and optimized materials, along
with novel techniques.
The primary application of 3D printing technology is to utilize or
manufacture building materials that can be employed to form structural
blocks or units that can be combined completely or partially for rapid
construction. Utilizing a nozzle system in 3D printing limits large ag­
gregates to be used in 3D printed concrete. To print concrete with a
nozzle system, it must meet two requirements: (i) it must be workable,
and (ii) it must have sufficient adhesion and stiffness to print a taller
section [3]. There are currently two types of 3D printing available for
concrete: (i) extrusion-based printing and (ii) particle bed-based print­
ing. The simplest method is extrusion printing, which consists of a

* Corresponding author at: Department of Structural Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China.
E-mail address: jzx@tongji.edu.cn (J. Xiao).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.126616
Received 11 October 2021; Received in revised form 26 December 2021; Accepted 22 January 2022
Available online 1 February 2022
0950-0618/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Singh et al.
mixer, a pump, and a nozzle head capable of extruding and printing
mortar or concrete. The 3D printing technology based on particle-beds
was utilized to incorporate aggregates into 3D printed concrete. Fig. 1
shows the illustration example of extrusion and particle bed-based
printing.
Apart from the numerous benefits such as lower construction costs
(labor costs can be reduced by up to 80%) and reduced construction
waste (printed construction generates about 30% of the waste generated
by conventional construction techniques) [4], other benefits include
flexible design, strong and lightweight components, and environmental
friendliness. Traditional concreting methods require an arrangement of
reinforcement [5] prior to casting, which is not feasible in 3D printed
concrete. The lack of reinforcement in 3D printed concrete poses a
considerable risk when used in buildings or parts that require flexibility.
Researchers also investigated various methods of reinforcement such as
U-nails [6], longitudinal reinforcement [7], interlayer fiber reinforce­
ment [8,9], and BFRP bars [10]. The result showed that the 3D printed
concrete with fibers showed superior properties compared with 3D
printed concrete without fibers. Researchers are also experimenting
with using fibers as self-reinforcement in 3D printed concrete to reduce
or eliminate conventional steel reinforcement in 3D printed concrete.
Numerous studies examined the effect of fibers such as steel fibers
[11,12], PVA fibers [13–15], PE fibers [16,17], ballast fibers [18,19],
carbon fiber [19,20] and glass fiber [21] on extruded cementitious
materials. Extrusion of fiber-enhanced cementitious materials can result
in an increase in density over non-enhanced cementitious materials. The
fibers can be aligned during the extrusion process if the fiber length
exceeds the nozzle diameter [19]. Moreover, the fiber alignment ratio
also depends on various conditions such as materials, mix, proportion
and matrix cohesion [22]. Hambach et al. [19,23] studied 3D printed
concrete with ballast and carbon fiber and found that when utilized at
1%, flexural strength could be enhanced by up to 178 % compared to
control concrete [24]. Ding et al. [15] investigate the anisotropic
properties of 3D-printed concrete reinforced with PE fibers. The studies
suggested that fiber had a beneficial effect on the bonding layer of 3D-
printed concrete. Additionally, the presence of the PE fibers resulted
in a marked strain-softening tendency, increasing the material’s
ductility. Incorporating up to 2% PE fibers in 3D printed ultra-high
ductility concrete reduced the anisotropic behavior [25]. Xiao et al.
[16] also explored the effect of high temperature on fiber-reinforced
concrete. The study discovered that the PE fibers positively influenced
the compressive and flexural strength but reduced dramatically after a
temperature of 200℃. However, the post-peak behavior of 3D-printed
concrete is increased [16].
It is well established that due to lack of interlayer bonding and
printing defects, the performance of 3D printed concrete is slightly lower
than the mold cast concrete [26]. Reviewed literature shows that fiber
content [24,25] and printing direction [15] both influence the strength
of 3D printed concrete. Thus, by selecting an appropriate print direction
Fig. 1. (a) Extrusion based printing (b) particle bed-based printing.
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Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126616
and fiber content, it may be possible for 3D printed concrete to attain the
properties of mold cast concrete. However, there is a dearth of knowl­
edge regarding material behavior in diverse loading directions and
orientations. For example, in the case of multiple loads acting on a
bridge due to the movement of the vehicles or the action of forces during
earthquake loading. Given the benefits of fibers on cementitious mate­
rials and the influence of build orientation, this study focuses on the
combined usage of steel fibers and printing direction in 3D printed
concrete. After the compressive strength test in three distinctive loading
directions (0◦ , 45◦ and 90◦ to the loading direction), X-Ray computed
tomography (X-CT) evaluated the failure pattern and internal changes in
3D printed fiber-reinforced concrete. This article describes how the
properties of concrete vary depending on the direction of loading.
2. Experimental investigations
2.1. Materials
Ordinary PO cement was used as a binder conforming to Chinese
code GB175-2007 [27]. Table 1 shows the physical characteristics and
elemental makeup of cement. Natural river sand with a particle size
smaller than 1.18 mm and a water absorption rate of 1% was used as
natural fine aggregates (NFA). The 3D printed concrete was made with
additional components such as superplasticizer (SP) (powdered form) to
control the fluidity of the 3D printed concrete; hydroxypropyl methyl­
cellulose (HPMC) to improve the cement hydration due to its high water
retention capacity and adhesive properties to the 3D printed concrete
[28,29]; and commercially available nano-clay (nC) to reduce the pore
size and enhance hardened properties of 3D printed concrete. Small-
sized steel fibers were used in this study because of the constraint on
the extrudability of fresh concrete from the printing nozzle. Steel fibers
were sourced locally (length-13 mm, diameter-0.2 mm, and density of
8.7 g/cm3). Fig. 2 depicts the grain size distribution of sand and the size
repersentation of steel fiber. The proportions of the mix are determined
after a lot of trial and error, and all of the mix designs are presented in
Table 2. In this investigation, four different fiber dosages were used:
0.25, 0.50, 0.75, and 1% by weight of cementitious material.
2.2. Mixing procedure
The basic materials were combined in a planetary mortar mixer set to
a constant speed of 80 revolutions per minute. We employed a dry to wet
mixing process, in which components were dry mixed first and then
calculated water was added. Fig. 3 illustrates the mixing protocol
adopted in this study. The simultaneous casting of mold cast and printed
cubes allowed for comparing the two casting procedures. A high-
precision 3D gantry printer with a 1 m3 printing area and a 20 mm
dia. printing nozzle head equipped with a vertical auger type screw was
used to extrude and print the material. The 3D printer and printing of
fiber-reinforced 3D printed concrete are depicted in Fig. 4.
2.3. 3D printing and specimen casting
Beams with dimensions of 140 (X dir.) × 140 (Y dir.) × 450 (Z dir.)
mm3 were produced and then sliced into three cubes with sides of 100 ×
100 × 100 mm3. Fig. 5 depicts the cubes after they have been sliced for
each orientation. The samples were cut along the orange line for the
specimens with 0◦ , 45◦ and 90◦ orientation to the loading direction
(Fig. 5 (a) and Fig. 5 (b) ). The cubes were cured at a standard tem­
perature of 20 ± 2 ◦ C and relative humidity of 90 ± 5% until 28 days
compressive strength. Three different orientations were used to examine
the influence of steel fibers on the compressive strength of 3D printed
concrete and to test the effect of printing direction and anisotropy.
Table 3 gives the specifics of the specimens used for testing; three cubes
were examined for each loading orientation, and the average of three is
reported in this study.
A. Singh et al. Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126616

Table 1
Physical properties and elemental composition of cement.
Elemental composition (symbol) (%)

SiO2 CaO TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO Na2O K2 O SO3 Others

19.9 64.9 0.21 4.42 2.23 0.58 0.08 1.23 2.67 3.78
Physical properties
Consistency (%) 27
Initial setting time (mins) 122
Final setting time (mins) 242
Specific gravity 3.15
28 days compressive strength (MPa) 45.9
LOI* 3.97

Fig. 2. (a) Grain size distribution of the river sand, (b) Steel fibers.

Table 2
Mix proportions.
S no. Mix notation Cement Sand Nano-clay HPMC Water SP Steel fibers Steel fibers
(grams) (%wt. of cement) (%vol. of cement)
1 Control (CON) 1000 1000 1.80 1.28 350 0.80 0 0

2 M0.25 1000 1000 1.80 1.28 350 0.87 0.25 0.30

3 M0.50 1000 1000 1.80 1.28 350 1.15 0.50 0.60
4 M0.75 1000 1000 1.80 1.28 350 1.32 0.75 1.00
5 M1.00 1000 1000 1.80 1.28 350 1.52 1.00 1.30

Fig. 3. Mixing protocol adopted for the 3D printed concrete.

2.4. Experimental program was quantified using the spreading flow from the flow table test.

2.4.1. Fresh properties 2.4.2. Printability and buildability of 3D printed concrete

The fresh characteristics of 3D printed concrete were evaluated in In terms of printability, a nozzle height of (10 mm) and a nozzle
two ways: flowability and buildability. The flow of the 3D printed diameter of 20 mm (fixed) were adopted as prerequisites for 3D printed
concrete was observed using a conical mold conforming to Chinese code concrete. After that, the control mix was printed by varying the extru­
GB/T 2419–2005 [30]. The dispersion flow of the 3D printed concrete sion speed at a varying horizontal printing speed. The effect of varying

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A. Singh et al. Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126616

Fig. 4. (a) High-precision 3D gantry printer (b) Printing in progress.

Fig. 5. Different orientation for the cubes.

printing height of 10 mm. In Fig. 6 (c), the lower layers were printed at
Table 3
(1.5 rad/s) lower extrusion speed, and upper layers were printed at a
Specimen details and loading orientation.
higher extrusion speed (3.5 rad/s), and the flaws in the layers can be
S Mix notation Curing age Loading orientation (to the printed easily seen in the presented figures.
no. (days) filament)
After finalizing the horizontal speed of 20 mm/s, nozzle height at 10
1 Control 28 Mold cast, 0◦ , 45◦ , 90◦ mm, and extrusion speed of 2.5 rad/s, the final specimen was printed
(CON)
with an average filament width of 30 mm and an average height of 10
2 M0.25 28 Mold cast, 0◦ , 45◦ , 90◦
3 M0.50 28 Mold cast, 0◦ , 45◦ , 90◦
mm, and buildability (in terms of stackability), as shown in Fig. 7(a) and
4 M0.75 28 Mold cast, 0◦ , 45◦ , 90◦ Fig. 7(b-c), respectively. Murcia et al. [31] has further shown that when
5 M1.00 28 Mold cast, 0◦ , 45◦ , 90◦ the nozzle size exceeds the printing height, this phenomenon forces the
material layer to the previous layer, increasing the interlayer bonding.

speed was checked for two main aspects (i) the amount of extruded
2.4.3. Compressive strength test
material and the holdability of material at corners due to extruded
The compressive strength tests were carried out conforming to Chi­
material. Fig. 6 (a,b) showed the printed material at a horizontal speed
nese code GB/T50081-2002 [32]. A testing machine with a 50 kN load
of 25 mm/s and printing height of 10 mm. The collapsed layer and the
cell was used to evaluate the compressive strength. The specimen’s di­
extra material at the side of the printed sample are easily visible. Fig. 6
mensions were determined before the measurement within an accuracy
(c) shows the material printed at a horizontal speed of 20 mm/s and
of 0.1 mm. Three cubes were tested for each sample for the 28 days of

Fig. 6. Buildability test (a-c) Failed specimen.

4
A. Singh et al.
Fig. 7. (a) Printed filament (b-c) Buildability.
curing age. Fig. 8 shows the loading direction during the compressive
strength test.
2.5. Microstructural investigation
2.5.1. X-ray micro-computed tomography (X-CT)
With the advancement of technology, researchers now have wide­
spread access to a non-destructive testing technique known as X-Ray
computed tomography (X-CT). X-CT is superior at identifying porosity
and other non-visible concrete components. The generated X-Ray is
transmitted through a rotating sample and projected onto a detector
during the scanning process, transforming the image into radiographic
images. Before testing, the voxel size is determined, and different ma­
terials exhibit varying degrees of radiation attenuation based on their
electron densities and compositions. These diverse atomic compositions
result in a final image with varying visual contrast. The machine images
are then reconstructed to create a three-dimensional sample represen­
tation. Three damaged samples of mix ’M0.75′ are used in this experi­
ment to determine the failure envelope of 3D-printed concrete. The
porosity, steel fibers, fissures, and cracked surface are all studied using
the X-CT.
To understand the heterogeneity and anisotropy, fractal character­
istics were analyzed. Mandelbrot’s [33] fractal theory, developed in the
1980 s, can effectively estimate complex microstructures’ pore size
distribution in porous media. Fractal theory may be used to measure the
solid-pore-fracture structures found in a wide variety of naturally
occurring porous media. Effective fractal analysis is contingent upon the
fractal dimension being calculated precisely. The BCM method devel­
oped by Li et al. [34] and Buczkowski et al. [35] is the most common
Fig. 8. Loading direction for each type printing direction.
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Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126616
method for estimation as compared with box rotation and box flex
methods developed by Pruness [36]. The images acquired from the X-CT
were denoised, cropped, and binarized sequentially to locate the voids.
Denoising was removed from the median filter with a radius of two
pixels. The 3D image was then cropped to create a maximum effective
cube as the region of interest (ROI), and finally, the image was binarized.
Algorithms can generally determine the threshold value, such as the
bimodal or watershed methods. Thus, the threshold value was manually
determined using experimental data on porosity obtained via the
weighing method, in accordance with SY/T 5336–1996.
This paper shows the fractal dimension of the same sample, ’M0.75′ ,
under three different orientations to characterize the pore structure.
This study extracts the fractal dimension of different pores by using
AVIZO©. The fractal dimension of the sample was calculated using Eq.
(1) [37]:
lgN(s) lgN(s)
FD = − lim = lim (1)
s→0 lg(s) s→0 lg(1/s)
Where s is the side length of the cubic box, N (s) is the smallest
number of cubic boxes or balls that can cover the point set F and the box-
counting dimension of the point set F.
Additionally, the research examines the effect of steel fiber volume
fractions on the compressive strength of printed hardened concrete. X-
CT is also used to evaluate the orientation and distribution of steel fibers
and the distribution and content of pores. The X-CT imaging machine is
a high-energy industrial CT imaging system that consists of three parts:
X-ray source, specimen table, X-Ray detector (Fig. 9). The CT images
generated in this study have a 2048 × 2048 pixels (0.098 mm/pixel)
A. Singh et al.
Fig. 9. X-CT imaging machine.
resolution.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Fresh properties
As illustrated in Fig. 10, the control mixture had the greatest slump
value among all the mixes. All combinations have a general downward
trend in slump flow. Additionally, when the fiber replacement ratio
rises, the slump flow of the mix diminishes. At 0 min, when compared
with control, the reduction by 4.76%, 5.71%, 5.71%, and 6.67% lower
than the control for M0.25, M0.50, M0.75, and M1.00, respectively.
Similarly, the decline in M0.25, M0.50, M0.75 and M1.00 was 6.67%,
10.00%, 10.95%, 11.43%, 12.62 %, and 12.38%, 12.86%, 14.76%,
15.24 %, respectively, at 30 and 60 min. Steel fibers, which are not
included in the control mix, restrict fresh concrete’s mobility because of
their interlocking nature [38]. The enhanced inter-particle friction be­
tween the steel fibers and the cement matrix may also be attributed to
geometric features [39]. Another reason for the decreased slump is the
higher viscosity induced by fiber tangling [40], which increases as the
steel fibers in the 3D printed concrete increase. The addition of HPMC in
Fig. 10. Slump flow of 3D printed concrete over time.
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Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126616
the 3D printed concrete mix can maintain the viscosity of the mix during
pumping and extrusion and maintain the initial flow of the 3D printed
concrete mix without affecting the hardening state [41]. Also, the
addition of nano-clay (nC) in the mix can increase the structural
rebuilding after the concrete has been extruded from the nozzle and
increase the thixotropy of the mix [42] because of the charged particles
of nC, which behaved as an interlocked web leading to a stronger
microstructural network in the fresh state leading to the increase the
friction and adhesion among particles in the presence of the nC [43,44].
3.2. Compressive strength
The compressive strength of 3D printed concrete is depicted in
Fig. 11, whereas the relative compressive strength of 3D printed con­
crete is depicted in Fig. 12. The figures demonstrate that the mold cast
specimens showed the highest compressive strength in all cases, which
may be attributed to the reduced voids, which resulted in the required
high density for the highest load-bearing capacity compared to the
printed counterpart. Each combination was anticipated to experience an
approaching drop due to the shift in sample orientation. In control mix
series, the compressive strength of samples at 90◦ , 45◦ , and 0◦ orienta­
tions was reduced by 12.62%, 15.67%, and 26.33%, respectively, when
compared with mold cast concrete. In mix series with 0.25% fiber
incorporation ratio the compressive strength of samples at 90◦ , 45◦ , and
0◦ orientations was reduced by 7.12%, 21.48%, and 29.24%, respec­
tively, when compared with mold cast sample. In mix series with 0.5%,
the compressive strength of samples at 90◦ , 45◦ , and 0◦ orientations was
reduced by 14.41%, 21.64%, and 33.81%, respectively, when compared
with mold cast sample. Similarly, in mix series with 0.75% fiber incor­
poration ratio the compressive strength of samples at 90◦ , 45◦ , and
0◦ orientations was reduced by 6.22%, 17.26%, and 32.66%, respec­
tively, when compared with mold cast sample. When the fiber incor­
poration ratio was 1.00%, the compressive strength of samples at 90◦ ,
45◦ , and 0◦ orientations was reduced by 14.96%, 18.55%, and 27.04%,
respectively, when compared with mold cast samples.
When evaluating mixes at 90◦ orientation to the loading direction,
M0.75 demonstrated the highest compressive strength, followed by
M0.50, M1.00, CON, and M0.25. Simultaneously, compressive strength
dropped in the order M0.75, CON, M1.00, M0.50, M0.25 at 45◦ and
M0.75, M1.00, CON, M0.50, M0.25 at 0◦ . The highest strength was
obtained when 0.75% steel fibers were added to the mix, while the
lowest was obtained when 0.25% steel fibers were added. The maximal
compressive strength at 90◦ orientation is determined by the surface
area of each layer in contact with the platen of the compressive strength
Fig. 11. Compressive strength mixes at a different orientation.
A. Singh et al.
Fig. 12. Relative compressive strength at a different orientation.
machine. This can be attributed to the horizontal strips acting as small
beams stacked on top of one another, which helps distribute weight
across a greater area. The second most important explanation is the ef­
fect of interlayer adhesion, which may encourage increased strength in
concrete when orientated at 90◦ . Pressure-driven layer extrusion occurs
when the printing height is less than the nozzle size. In this situation, the
nozzle produces pressure, which may assist in pressing the filament
against the preceding one, resulting in stronger interlayer bonding [31].
Similarly, at 0◦ orientation, the filaments act as columns and as weak
vertical planes [31], resulting in decreased compressive strength.
Another possibility is the previously described pressure-driven layer
extrusion, in which the distance between the nozzle and the material
increases as new layers are added, forcing the nozzle to advance before
material placement. This process can result in structural instability
(buckling) [45,46]. According to the literature [*], several parameters
such as mix design, w/c ratio, w/b ratio, and anisotropic behavior in­
fluence the features of 3D printed concrete. When these parameters are
combined, they can affect the mechanical properties of concrete via pre-
determined planes due to the printing orientation inside the layer and
the paths it establishes for fracture propagation, affecting the structural
performance of concrete.
Regarding the influence of fibers on 3D printed concrete, the mold
cast 3D printed concrete with 0.25% fiber showed the lowest compres­
sive strength, while the mix with 0.75% fiber showed the highest
compressive strength. The lower compressive strength in the case of a
0.25% fiber mix can be attributed to two reasons: (i) the addition of
fibers can bring disadvantages of porosity around fibers in the concrete
and the advantages of reinforcing it or bridging the cracks. (ii) cube
specimens are also influenced by the internal shear stress (due to corners
and lower height to cross-section dimension ratio) as compared with
cylinders which represent more uniaxial stress distribution in concrete
cubes [47]. The strength of the mix with 0.75% fiber dosage was nearly
13% higher than the control sample. The ability of the fibers to delay the
formation and propagation of cracks in concrete can be attributed to the
highest compressive strength of 3D printed concrete [48,49]. According
to various literature, increasing the fiber content leads to an increase in
the compressive strength of concrete mixes; however, after reaching a
certain optimum dosage, the fibers have a negative impact on the con­
crete, which can be explained by agglomeration and entrapped air due
to agglomeration in the mix [50,51], which may be the cause of the
reduced compressive strength of the mix with a 1% fiber dosage.
Comparing the influence of fibers, a trend of increase and decrease in
compressive strength of mold cast samples was observed. Regarding the
compressive strength of concrete in different loading directions, the
7
Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126616
compressive strength reduces as the angle is reduced against the loading
direction, i.e., 90◦ , 45◦ and 0◦ . The reduction can be attributed to the
lack of fibers in bridging the interlayers, which leads to the early failure
of the cubes at 0◦ orientation. While in the case of the specimens
orientated at 90◦ , the layers played an important role in transferring the
load leading to higher strength among all orientated directions.
3.3. X-ray computed tomography (X-CT)
The X-CT analysis of the materials displayed in Fig. 8 is utilized to
investigate the failure envelopes and cracking in the 3D printed concrete
samples, after the compression strength test. The inner structure of the
steel fibers-infused 3D printed concrete is reconstructed using AVIZO©
utilizing the acquired images. Following the 2D examination, the same
samples were subjected to a 3D study. The data was reconstructed, and
the image resolution was assessed to be 98 µm by measuring the two
closest distinct objects. Each volume has a unique attenuation value, as
determined by the linear attenuation coefficient. Attenuation co­
efficients vary per material and are proportional to the X-Ray intensity
after passing through it [52]. The three-dimensional graphic depicts the
failure envelopes and fiber orientation. One of the most challenging and
time-consuming aspects of this research is determining the fiber struc­
ture and orientation in the 3D printed concrete due to the steel fiber’s
smaller size. The variation in intensities caused by minute changes in
density cannot accurately reflect changes in the reconstructed 3D image
of printed concrete. The slightest fluctuation in the voxel gray value can
have a detrimental effect on the analysis’s ability to detect cracks in
damaged samples [53]. Two techniques are used to investigate the
microstructure of concrete, i.e., porosity analysis and fractal analysis. A
single sample (control) was used to determine the porosity of the con­
crete, then three samples with varying orientations and 0.75% fiber
were analyzed again for the failure envelopes.
3.3.1. Mold cast sample
The void ratio was determined using each slice’s average void ratio
value. The 3D reconstruction of pores in the control (mold cast) spec­
imen is depicted in Fig. 13(a). There were no noticeable large pores,
indicating that the 3D printed concrete was of high quality [11,16].
However, the pores are concentrated toward the ’unity’ value, repre­
senting the mixture’s air voids. Along with the pore distribution of the
mix, the compactness and sphericity of the control sample were studied.
Fig. 13(b-d) illustrates the variance in the morphology of the pores in the
control (mold cast) mix. The value close to unity shows the perfect cir­
cular shape of the pores, whereas values close to zero reflect elongated
polygons. The sphericity and compactness are measured using Eqs. (2)
and (3) [54].
π1/3 (6V)2/3
Ψ= (2)
A
Cc =
AP
(3)
N 2 *Tu
where, V = volume of pores (mm3), Ap = surface area of pore (mm2),
ϕ= porosity, N = number of pores, Tu = Tortuosity
The sphericity is the ratio of the surface area of a sphere (with the
same volume as the given particle) to the particle’s surface area. The
presence of nC in the mix leads to the agglomeration of the particles due
to the nucleation effect, and the reactivity in the mix leads to a lesser
pore. The following Table 4 gives an insight into the pore shapes in a
material [55].
3.3.2. Printed samples
Following the X-CT analysis of the mold cast, three samples of fiber-
reinforced mix ’M0.75′ with varying orientations were evaluated. These
specimens were chosen because of the highest strength presented among
all the mixes. Pore distribution is also computed using Avizo’s
A. Singh et al. Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126616

Fig. 13. Representation of pores in the control sample.

concentration frequency of pores is seen between 4 and 6 µm, and as

Table 4
pore size increases, the number of pores in the material decreases.
Examples of object sphericity.
The fractal analysis was performed using a mixture containing 0.75%
Object Volume Area Sphericity fiber in three different orientations. Fig. 15 (a-c) illustrates the volume
percentage of pores and fibers and the fractal dimension of pores and
√̅̅̅
Cone : h = 2√2r 2 2 3 4π r 2 ≈ 0.794
πr
3 fibers in the same mix when viewed in three distinct orientations. Each
Cylinder : h = 2r 2πr3 6πr2 ≈ 0.874
slice’s porosity was calculated by calculating the ratio of varying
Torus : R = r 2π2 r3 4π2 r2 ≈ 0.894
attenuation based on the voxels. The relationship between numerous 2D
Sphere 4 3 4πr2 1
πr characteristics can be demonstrated in Fig. 15 based on segmented and
3
Icosahedron : 20 faces 5 √̅̅̅ √̅̅̅
5 3s2 ≈ 0.939 fractal analysis of the pore and fiber phases of 3D printed concrete.
(3 + 5)s3
12 √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
√̅̅̅ ̅ Numerous peaks are shown in the porosity variation graph, which may
Dodecahedron : 12 faces 1 √̅̅̅
3 25 + 10 5s2 ≈ 0.910
4
(15 + 7 5)s3 be attributable to the increased porosity and interlayers caused by the
√̅̅̅
Octahedron : 8 faces 1 √ ̅̅̅ 2 3s2 ≈ 0.846 printed structure of concrete. As illustrated in Fig. 15 (c)-1, the porosity
2s3
3
Cube : 6 faces s 3
6s 2 ≈ 0.806 appears to follow a typical pattern similar to the fiber, attributed to the
Tetrahedron : 4 faces
√̅̅̅ √̅̅̅ 2
≈ 0.671 printed layers being parallel to the scanning bed, i.e., having the fewest
23 3s
s layer bonds.
12

3.4. Fractal characteristics of the printed samples

segmentation module and is 3D-printed from the total volume of the
cast. It should be mentioned that porosity and other characteristics were
The fractal dimension and the pore distribution in the samples are
determined before and after sample failure to observe the failure enve­
presented in Fig. 15. From figure Fig. 15(a) and Fig. 15(b), variation of
lopes inside the specimens. In Fig. 14, the void ratio, referred to as
pore volume fraction along with the slices can be seen, and no known
defect, is investigated, and the frequency plot histogram of the pore
relation can be seen in the porosity distribution. Additionally, as seen
diameter is displayed. The frequency plot demonstrates that practically
from Fig. 15 (c)-1, the bottom slices have a small number of pores, owing
all samples have pores with the same diameter. The largest
to the pressure imposed by the top layers of concrete, which results in

8
A. Singh et al. Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126616

concrete due to anisotropy. According to the fitting results, the values of

λmin
λmax
and CKT can be calculated from slope and intercept of the fitting line.
It can also be noted that a larger fractal dimension greatly influences the
pore size distribution of pores in 3D printed concrete. Also, on further
analysis, the pore connectivity was not found in any sample, and the
software was unable to perform the permeability of the current sample
use.

3.4.2. Relation between compressive strength and fractal characteristics

The compressive strength of the mix with 0.75% steel fiber is pre­
sented in Fig. 11. It can be seen that the mold cast sample presented a
strength of 40.15 MPa. The strength under different loading directions of
90◦ , 45◦ , 0◦ is 37.65 MPa, 33.22 MPa, and 27.04 MPa, respectively. The
relation between the compressive strength and the fractal characteristics
(in terms of porosity and pore volume fraction), the pore volume frac­
tion was analyzed from Fig. 15 and replotted in Fig. 17. From the figure,
it can be seen that at 0◦ loading plane, the pore volume fraction fluc­
tuates between 0.001% − 0.006% with the highest pore fraction
concentrated around between the 0.002–0.0025 with an average pore
fraction of 0.003%; 45◦ loading plane, the pore volume fraction fluc­
tuates between 0.000% − 0.011% with the highest pore fraction
concentrated around between the 0.000–0.001 with an average pore
fraction of 0.002%; 90◦ loading plane, the pore volume fraction fluc­
tuates between 0.000% − 0.010% with the highest pore fraction
concentrated around between the 0.000–0.001 with an average pore
fraction of 0.002%. This change in porosity volume fraction distribution
due to the different layering systems and the tradeoffs between the layer
orientation and loading planes is directly responsible for reducing the
compressive strength compared with the mold cast sample. The differ­
ence in the compressive strength is quite noticeable in three different
loading directions, which is opposite to some recent studies [15,57,58]
where compressive strength is independent of the layer orientation.

3.4.3. Analysis of the failed specimen using X-CT

Fig. 14. Pore size distribution of the M0.75 at 0◦ , 45◦ , and 90◦ orientation
to loading.
better compacting and fewer pores in the lower layers of concrete. It is
conceivable to provide an effective method for defining the micro­
structure of 3D printed concrete using fractal theory. The fractal analysis
is performed on three samples based on the pores and fibers contained in
the 3D printed concrete. The total porosity of 3D printed samples is
1.22% for the M0.75 sample, as the pore size increases, a decrease in the
number of pores is observed.
3.4.1. Relation between porosity and fractal characteristics
Based on the porosity and the fractal dimensions along with each
slice in Fig. 15, the heterogeneity of the pore structure can be easily
seen. The relation between the porosity and the fractal dimension can be
expressed using Eq. (4) [56].
( )de− Df
λmin
ϕ = CKT (4)
λmax
Where CKT is a proportionality constant of order one, and λmin rep­
resents the minimum pore diameter of the pore size range. de represents
Euclidean dimension 2 for the 2D plane and 3 for the 3D plane. And can
be expressed by taking log on both sides of the equation, as shown in Eq.
(5) [56].
( ) ( )
λmin λmin
lnϕ = − ln Df + lnCKT + dln (5)
λmax λmax
The relationship between lnϕ and fractal dimensions can be seen in
Fig. 16. The porosity is positively related to fractal dimensions but does
not present a statistical self-similarity, meaning that fractal dimensions
may not be suitable for describing the distribution of pores in 3D printed
After the compressive strength test, the damaged mix samples with
0.75% fibers were investigated, and the failure planes and envelopes are
presented in Fig. 18. From Fig. 18, a sharp big failure envelope between
the two layers of concrete can be seen. From the failure envelopes, it can
be concluded that the printed structure is more venerable to the loads
aligned with the longitudinal filaments and least affected when the load
is perpendicular to the printed filaments. The colors in the figures
represent how large the pores are, the green color represents the highest
intensity of the air void or, in other terms, the largest failure plane,
whereas the darker colors represent the smaller pores, with pink color
showing the smallest pore size in the specimen. It can be seen from
Fig. 18(a) that the large failure envelope is presented perpendicular to
the XY plane (loading plane). This large envelope can be because during
loading the mix at 0◦ , because of the buckling effect of the individual
layer, the concrete showed a weaker plane at the farthest element of the
concrete, leading to the failure of the mix orientated at 0◦ . In the case of
the mix at 45◦ (Fig. 18(b)), multiple planes of the failure can be seen the
sample which is presented in the YZ plane. It is also worth mentioning
that an inclined failure plane was observed in the mix, which can be
attributed to the shear failure due to the layer separation, especially
when the specimen is loaded at 45◦ to the loading plane (XY plane).
However, the case of layer separation can be observed but not limited to
the specimens when inclined loads act on the 3D printed structure. In the
case of specimen loaded at 90◦ (Fig. 18(c)), when the layers are
perpendicular to the loading plane (XY plane), no obvious failure planes
are observed, which can be attributed to the even distribution of the
loading in this direction.
Due to the steel fiber’s smaller size and the limitation of the X-CT
scanner, the analysis in determining the fiber structure and orientation
in the 3D printed concrete was inconclusive. The figures showing the
fiber orientation of the failed specimen with (0.75% fiber fraction) are

9
A. Singh et al. Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126616

Fig. 15. Variations of 2D dimensions (fractal and pore) properties with slice depth.

shown in Fig. 19. It can be seen that the fibers on the surface of the
specimen can be easily segmented, but the fibers in the inner core of the
specimen are not visible, leading to an inconclusive result of the fiber
orientation.
4. Conclusions
In this experimental study, the effect of the fibers and the different
loading orientations were investigated. Based on the test results, the
following conclusion can be drawn:

10
A. Singh et al. Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126616

Fig. 16. Relationship between the porosity and the fractal dimensions.

Fig. 17. Pore volume fraction distribution in three samples at different loading orientation.

Fig. 18. Failure envelopes of three specimens of M0.75 at different orientations.

1) With the addition of the fibers, the flow of concrete was slightly
reduced with the addition of 1% fiber, whereas the printability of the
fiber-reinforced 3D printed concrete was not affected. The extrud­
ability of the current mix design was not hindered with 1% fiber in
the mix.
2) The effect of print direction showed different magnitudes strength
reduction at different fiber content, i.e. in the order of 90◦ > 45◦ >
0◦ of loading direction. The mixes exhibited a general increase in
compressive strength with increased fiber content up to 0.75%. Mold
cast M0.75 had the maximum strength of 40.15 MPa, which is 1.13
times that of CON mix. Additionally, the strength recorded at 90◦ ,
45◦ , and 0◦ orientations was 1.21, 1.11, and 1.03 times that of the
CON sample.
3) Based on the image reconstruction, fractal dimensions were estab­
lished of the 3D printed concrete at various orientations, using the
box-counting method. It was concluded that the fractal dimensions
are not suitable for establishing a relation between the pore size
distribution because of the extreme anisotropic behavior of the 3D
printed fiber-reinforced concrete in this study.
4) Using X-CT, it was determined that the addition of fiber to 3D printed
concrete could result in increased porosity during printing. The scan
of a 90◦ orientated sample reveals a reduction in porosity in the
lowest layer of concrete, owing to the compaction impact of the top

11
A. Singh et al.
Fig. 19. Fiber segmentation of three specimens of M0.75 at different orientations (segmentation stages from left to right).
layers. A strong core in terms of visual inspection of failed specimens
was observed in the case of specimens at 45◦ and 90◦ orientation. At
the same time, a large crack parallel to the plane of layers is observed
in the mix at 0◦ . This suggests that the 3D printed structures can
withstand vertical loads rather than inclined and horizontal loads.
5) Based on the X-CT analysis of the failed specimen, the segmentation
of the fiber for the fiber orientation and structure was not easy to
segment because of the finer size of pores and the limited capacity of
the X-CT machine (macro scale).
6) The current study is limited by the printer’s specifications, specif­
ically the nozzle diameter, allowing only a limited fraction of fibers
to be used with smaller sizes. The future scope of this study will be to
explore functionally graded 3D printed samples with varying fiber
fractions and to determine the efficacy of this form of customized
printed concrete.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Amardeep Singh: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation,
Data curation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing,
Funding acquisition. Qiong Liu: Investigation, Writing – review &
editing. Jianzhuang Xiao: Validation, Funding acquisition, Supervi­
sion. Qifeng Lyu: Investigation, Data curation, Writing – review &
editing.
12
Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126616
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This study is supported by China’s National Natural Science Foun­
dation (No: 52078358 and No. 51908075) and the Changzhou Science
and Technology Plan (No. CQ20214030).
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