Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 141 (2021) 110794

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

3D printing in the construction industry - A systematic review of the

thermal performance in buildings
S. Pessoa a, *, A.S. Guimarães a, S.S. Lucas b, N. Simões c, d
a
CONSTRUCT-LFC, Faculty of Engineering (FEUP), University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias s/n, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
b
Department of the Built Environment, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB, Eindhoven, the Netherlands
c
University of Coimbra, ADAI, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Rua Luís Reis Santos - Pólo II, 3030-788, Coimbra, Portugal
d
Itecons – Institute for Research and Technological Development in Construction, Energy, Environmental and Sustainability, Rua Pedro Hispano, 3030-289 Coimbra,
Portugal

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Building Information Modelling (BIM) paved the way to better information management in the construction
3D printing sector, simplifying and encouraging the advent of digital technologies and tools. The application of large-scale
Thermal insulation additive manufacturing (AM) is growing and therefore subject to intensive research – on account of its disrup­
Building construction
tive potential to revolutionise the Architecture, Engineering and Construction (AEC) industry.
Sustainability
With this systematic literature review, the authors aim to identify the major advances made so far on AM’s
Energy efficiency
Additive manufacturing applicability to the construction sector, with particular attention being given to the thermal efficiency of 3D
Material extrusion printed buildings.
The article begins by presenting the review methodology applied and offering an outline of the current sit­
uation in the construction industry, followed by a discussion on different AM processes. Applications in the
construction industry are presented and the development of extrudable materials is addressed. The influence of
the thermal insulation of the building’s envelope on its energy consumption is explained and experimental ap­
plications presented.
The state-of-the-art shows that 3D printing (3DP) is still in an early stage and the research remains focused on
the printability and structural capacity. There is a noticeable gap on physical aspects such as thermal and
acoustic behaviour, which are of major importance to the indoor environment quality. By discussing the dif­
ference in performance between commercial thermal insulation materials and the existing 3D printed materials,
this research outlines new ways of improving the thermal performance of 3D printed structures, by using ad­
ditives in the printed mix or by acting on the wall’s structure.

1. Introduction
Due to the lack of innovation in building processes, which for de­
cades have remained almost entirely based on manual labour, building
construction is considered a low-tech industry [1]. According to
Wangler et al. [2], in comparison with other sectors, that have been
increasing their productivity, that of construction has remained
stagnant.
The European Commission [3] reported that buildings account for
40% of energy consumption and 36% of CO2 emissions in the EU,
making them the largest energy consumer in Europe. Also, as specified
by the United Nations [4], the global population may reach 10,9 billion
in 2100 which will lead, inevitably, to a rise in demand for housing.
Taking into account the negative impact that building construction
has had on climate change, the ever-increasing consumption of non-
renewable resources and the high demand for urbanisation, it is
imperative to improve the industry’s efficiency and sustainability via
increasing interoperability and productivity within its core. To make the

Abbreviations: AM, Additive Manufacturing; 3DP, 3D printing; BIM, Building Information Modelling; AEC, Architecture, Engineering and Construction; CAD,
Computer-Aided Design; FDM, Fused Deposition Modeling; STL, Standard Tessellation Language; CC, Contour Crafting; 3DCP, 3D Concrete Printing; U, thermal
transmittance (W/(m2K)); R, thermal resistance ((m2K)/W); λ, thermal conductivity (W/(mK)); D, thermal diffusivity (m2/s); ρ, density (kg/m3); c, specific heat
capacity (J/(kgK); EPS, Expanded Polystyrene; XPS, Extruded Polystyrene; VIP, Vacuum Insulation Panels.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sofia.pessoa@fe.up.pt (S. Pessoa).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.110794
Received 14 September 2020; Received in revised form 19 January 2021; Accepted 3 February 2021
Available online 18 February 2021
1364-0321/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Pessoa et al.
bridge between current construction methods and an optimised
automation-oriented approach, different authors investigated the po­
tential of adopting additive manufacturing (AM), commonly known as
3D printing (3DP). While De Schutter et al. [5] underlined the need for
active rheology and stiffening control, Labonnote et al. [6] referred to
the relevant markets for digital construction, Prakash et al. [7] reviewed
the different techniques in manufacturing and Gosselin et al. [8] addi­
tively manufactured two structural elements, whose complex geome­
tries, enabled by the manufacturing process developed, provided
multifunctionality.
Compared to traditional construction methods, construction 3DP has
revealed technical, social, economic and environmental benefits, opens
the possibility of producing more complex shapes with lower associated
costs [9], and allows for the future combined use of 3DP, Building In­
formation Modelling (BIM) and artificial intelligence [10].
However, unlike industries such as the medical and automotive,
which have embraced digital technologies completely, digital trans­
formation in the building industry is just beginning [11]. With research
mainly focused on materials, robotics and structural stability, there are
still many aspects related to the building performance, that need further
investigation. While authors pointed out problems coming from low
bond strength, challenges with joining printed components and the
anisotropic behaviour [12], lack of adequate solutions for thermal
insulation has been given less attention [13]. How 3D printed buildings
perform thermally and acoustically and how they will fit the energy
requirements established by current standards is yet to be determined.
The paper’s main goal is to perform an overview of the existing
research on 3DP in building construction, understanding whether ther­
mal comfort is a concern which has been addressed or not. The paper
starts with the outline of the systematic research methodology adopted,
followed by an overall picture of the construction industry background
and a presentation of relevant 3DP concepts, of currently applied
methodologies and of the interdependence between properties, which
implies the need for a multidisciplinary approach. Then, thermal per­
formance is addressed in-depth and real building thermal insulation
applications are outlined. Finally, future advances as well as benefits
and challenges expected from the implementation of this technology are
discussed and an outlook of possibilities to optimise the thermal per­
formance of additively manufactured walls is presented.
2. Research methodology
The present paper consists of a selection of publications identified in
line with a pre-defined range of criteria. The authors employed a sys­
tematic review methodology in order to provide an unbiased and
comprehensive assessment of the following research questions:
• How and what AM processes are being applied in building
construction?
• Which opportunities and challenges can be expected from the
implementation of 3DP in the Architecture, Engineering and Con­
struction (AEC) industry?
• What are the research lines to follow to improve the thermal per­
formance of printed solutions?
With the primary goal of identifying studies carried out in the realm
of 3DP applied to the construction sector, with particular care for the
third question, that relates to thermal comfort, an extensive study was
done considering three multidisciplinary scientific research databases,
Scopus, Web of Science and Science Direct.
To collect the data the authors selected a set of search terms (Table 1)
within the scope of the analysis, which were concatenated into a search
string using Boolean operators, quotes, and parentheses to refine the
search.
All the databases were programmed to choose from the titles of the
articles, abstract and keyword list. Every citation was downloaded and
2
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 141 (2021) 110794
Table 1
Keywords searched by keyword category.
How? What? Objective?
Technology Industry Research field
3D printing Construction Material
Additive manufacturing Building Thermal
imported into EndNote X8, the duplicates were removed and the rele­
vant articles were chosen based on the fulfilment of a set of criteria, as
follows: 1) Type of article: papers, conference papers and reviews; 2)
Date: 2010 to 2020 (inclusive); 3) Language: English; 4) Off-topic:
Reading the titles and abstracts to verify their relevance (articles
related to space, art, textiles, biology, food, among others were
considered to be out of context); 5) Not accessible.
Then, the selected articles were read and the main conclusions cited.
The references in those articles were also consulted and extra informa­
tion was collected. For example, statistical data and International
Standards were analysed in detail.
3. Construction industry
The construction industry has made an important contribution to
countries’ economies across the world. In 2016, the industry had a direct
impact on 18 million jobs in the European Union, contributing to around
9% of the EU’s gross domestic product [14].
The construction sector is a direct source of employment and is
responsible for building infrastructures that drive progress, thereby
promoting economic growth. Nevertheless, the sector has faced diffi­
culties in shifting from traditional manufacturing to a higher level of
automation, adding to that, poor management, particularly concerning
the information flow between phases of the construction process, left
this sector struggling to increase productivity [15].
The high number of different players such as architects, engineers,
consultants, contractors, subcontractors, and materials suppliers at each
stage of the process, and in each new project, sometimes working to
secure their own interests rather than to protect those of the client,
alongside the numerous SMEs, hamper the sector’s development.
Consequently, due to the high fragmentation of the construction process,
waste from construction and demolition constitute approximately
25–30% of all waste generated every year in the EU [16].
As a result of the poor project management and execution, mis­
matches in risk allocation and underinvestment in skills development,
R&D, and innovation, the sector is facing a serious productivity prob­
lem. In contrast with the manufacturing global productivity growth of
3,6% a year over the last 20 years, the construction industry grew only
about 1% a year [17].
In the interest of boosting the sector’s efficiency and overall pro­
ductivity, the construction industry must embrace the digital age. Ac­
cording to the Industry Digitization Index of the McKinsey Global
Institute [17], construction is one of the least digitised sectors across the
globe, coming second-last in the US, only ahead of agriculture, and oc­
cupies the last position in Europe. However, despite the industry’s
struggle to develop, between 2013 and early 2018, $18 billion were
invested in construction technology [18] and in the United Kingdom,
from 2017 to 2018, the number of construction firms using BIM
increased by 12% [19].
Currently, the construction sector is shifting from working with 2D
classic Computer-Aided Design (CAD) processes to 3D modelling with
BIM [20] – an alternative way of working and managing information.
While in the geometric CAD approach there is no relational information
between elements, using BIM implies fully parametric modelling in
which objects’ relationships and rules are directly and permanently
updated to the entire model.
BIM relies on a digital model wherein elements have semantic value
S. Pessoa et al.
[21], which means that besides the elements’ geometrical features they
also contain data about spatial relationships with adjacent objects,
behaviour rules, cost, construction timing, manufacturer, technical
characteristics such as thermal properties, among others [22].
Before BIM adoption in building construction, it was challenging to
gather and manage data from all the project teams, and outdated and
incomplete data led to poor planning, mistakes on-site, waste, delays
and unforeseen costs [23]. Therefore, the arrival of BIM brought con­
struction companies a centralised database that allows for an integrated
analysis and a faster and more informed decision-making process [24].
Considering that BIM brings the advantage of fully coordinated in­
formation, its combination with 3DP is expected to offer great potential.
Consequently, Correa [25] studied BIM’s capacity to connect the design
and fabrication phases when using 3DP and proposed one software that
analyses a BIM model and translates it into a batch of components to be
3D printed.
Detailed information databases from BIM are essential when
applying 3DP; therefore, although the application of cutting edge
technologies in construction is only starting [26], with the demonstrated
growing awareness and use of BIM, the door is open to adopting other
digital tools, already available in other branches of industry, which ac­
cording to the European Construction Sector Observatory [27] could
have a positive impact on the sector.
4. Additive manufacturing (AM)
4.1. Concept
The construction industry is trying to move towards a digital-based
design system, similar to what the manufacturing industry has done
[28]. Given that AM is being routinely used in numerous industrial
applications, architects, engineers and builders have become interested
in their use in construction [29].
García de Soto et al. [30] stated that digital fabrication allows for
greater productivity than the established building methods and Fig. 1
shows the real contrast between the classic construction with blocks or
bricks and the 3DP technique.
According to the ISO/ASTM 52900-15 Standard Terminology for
Additive Manufacturing [32] AM, also known as 3DP, is the “process of
joining materials to make parts from 3D model data, usually layer upon
layer, as opposed to subtractive manufacturing and formative
manufacturing methodologies”.
Despite the diversity of AM processing categories, explained later,
the most commonly associated with 3DP is material extrusion, whereby
a predefined digital 3D model is analysed and through a succession of
transversal parts is translated into a print path, where layers are printed
from the bottom up [33]. Material extrusion is essentially a large-scale
implementation of the Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM), a
manufacturing process massively disseminated to the point of being
frequently seen in personal desktop 3D printers.
Generally, in AM a 3D model is drawn in a modelling program before
Fig. 1. Construction methods: a) traditional construction with bricks and b) construction 3D printing [31].
3
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 141 (2021) 110794
being exported into an STL (Standard Tessellation Language) file format,
which corresponds to a standard file type for data exchange among AM
users that contains information regarding the surface geometry of the 3D
object. Then, in conformity with the workflow illustrated in Fig. 2, a
computer software decomposes the model into sliced layers generating a
series of 2D boundary lines that, together with additional data provided
on print characteristics, such as the print orientation, number of outer
contours, or layer height, are processed and result in control commands
for positioning the extrusion nozzle [34–36].
4.2. Process categories
3DP developments started in the mid-1990s and since then this
technology has grown extensively [37]. Although having emerged as a
rapid prototyping process based on the fast creation of a product’s
prototype from a digital model, with the increasing precision of its
application, that allowed for it not to be used only for prototyping, the
rapid prototyping became additive manufacturing. Following this
development and with the increase in research on this subject, there was
an expansion in the range of materials with which it was possible to
manufacture, which led to the materialisation of distinct AM categories.
Currently, according to ISO/ASTM 52900-15 [32], AM can be
divided into seven different process categories, namely binder jetting,
directed energy deposition, material extrusion, material jetting, powder
bed fusion, sheet lamination and vat photopolymerization.
For a wider understanding of the differences between the previously
mentioned process categories, based on the research [38–40], an
organisational chart with the typical material applied by category is
provided in Fig. 3 and an explanation is presented:
• Binder jetting: selective deposition of a liquid bonding agent onto
thin layers of powdered material to join the powdered materials and
generate an object layer by layer. The typical materials used are
powdered polymers, metals, ceramics and shape-memory alloys;
• Directed energy deposition: fusion of materials using concentrated
thermal energy (a laser, electron beam or plasma arc) to melt the
material as it is being deposited. It is usually used with metal powder
and wire feedstock;
Fig. 2. Material extrusion process workflow.
S. Pessoa et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 141 (2021) 110794

developing large-scale 3D printers, yet the developed technologies differ

in terms of printing techniques and materials.
For a better understanding of the spread of investigations and their
respective AM processes, an overview is presented in Table 2, following
the articles cited.
As demonstrated in Table 2, the predominant process currently
studied regarding the 3DP application to the construction industry is
material extrusion – the process that better fits the rheological properties
of cementitious materials.
Fig. 3. Additive manufacturing categories with materials used. Contour Crafting (CC) [41,42] is a material extrusion process that,
according to Yang et al. [43], is the most frequently used method for 3DP
in the AEC industry. The approach developed at the University of
• Material extrusion: selective deposition of a material through a
Southern California is based on the layer by layer deposition of a fast
nozzle or orifice to produce an object layer by layer. It is typically
setting polymer-modified cementitious material, that builds civil struc­
used with thermoplastic filaments and flowable slurries;
tures from the bottom up, using an extrusion nozzle [44]. Similar
• Material jetting: selective deposition of droplets of the building
methods to the CC approach are the Eindhoven University of Technol­
material layer by layer to produce an object. Usually, the typical
ogy’s 3D Concrete Printing (3DCP) [37] (Fig. 4a), Concrete Printing
materials applied are photopolymers, polymers and waxes;
[45–47] developed at Loughborough University, the Chinese contractor
• Powder bed fusion: selective fusion of regions of a powder bed with
Winsun’s approach [48,49] and the Total Kustom technology [50]
thermal energy (a laser or electron beam), where the surrounding
developed by the contractor Andrey Rudenko that is currently being
powder acts as support material. The common materials used are
used on construction sites. Also, the 3D printers Vulcan II [51] by ICON
polyamide, metal and ceramic powders;
and BOD2 [52] by COBOD International are gantry systems able to print
• Sheet lamination: the bonding of sheets of material to produce an
on-site.
object. Depending on the material, the layers can be bonded by glue
HuaShang Tengda [53], a Chinese construction company went
or adhesive coating (paper and polymer sheets) or ultrasonic welding
beyond the simple extrusion process to manually erect the steel rein­
(metal sheets) can be used;
forcement and plumbing pipes of the building on-site, and then, with a
• Vat photopolymerization: the selective cure of a vat of liquid
large-scale 3D printer laid a Class C30 concrete over the frame that has
photopolymer by light-activated photopolymerization, via a laser or
been conventionally built.
projector. The typical material used is ultraviolet curable polymer
Equally implementing the material extrusion process but with a ro­
resins.
botic arm system instead of a gantry robot are Apis Cor [54], XtreeE [8,
55,56] and CyBe Construction [57,58].
All seven processing families have distinct levels of complexity as a
Pioneering work has been done with alternatives to working with
result of each operating principle, that affects not only the surface fin­
large robots by the Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia
ishes’ quality but also the structural properties, productivity and cost of
named Minibuilders [59,60]. The technology developed is based on the
the objects produced. The selection of an additive manufacturing pro­
simultaneous work of small robots using sensors and a similar extrusion
cess between the different methods available depends on the material
process to the previously mentioned. Unlike other studies, the material
that is going to be used and on the intended application that implies a
printed is a two-component synthetic marble made with a polymer
certain set of requirements.
mixed with marble powder.
At present, numerous research projects are studying different ways of
Zhang et al. [61] from the Nanyang Technological University in
implementing 3DP to the construction industry, with several groups
Singapore addressed the impracticability of having printers larger than

Table 2
Different AM methodologies implemented in the construction industry.
Technology designation Developer Process Material System Mobility Construction

Contour Crafting [41,42] University of Southern California Material extrusion Concrete Gantry Static Off-site
3D Concrete Printing [37] Eindhoven University of Technology Material extrusion Concrete Gantry Static Off-site
Concrete Printing [45–47] Loughborough University Material extrusion Concrete Gantry Static Off-site
Winsun [48,49] Winsun Material extrusion Concrete Gantry Static Off-site
Total Kustom [50] Andrey Rudenko Material extrusion Concrete Gantry Static On-site
Vulcan II [51] ICON Material extrusion Concrete Gantry Static On-site
BOD2 [52] COBOD International Material extrusion Concrete Gantry Static On-site
HuaShang Tengda [53] HuaShang Tengda Material extrusion Concrete Gantry Static On-site
Apis Cor [54] Apis Cor Material extrusion Concrete Arm Static On-site
XtreeE [8,55,56] XtreeE Material extrusion Concrete Arm Static Off-site
CyBe RC 3Dp [57,58] CyBe Construction Material extrusion Concrete Arm Mobile On-site
Minibuilders [59,60] Institute for Advanced Architecture of Material extrusion Polymer Group of small Mobile On-site
Catalonia robots
Multiple robot printers [61] Nanyang Technological University Material extrusion Concrete Group of small Mobile On-site
robots
Shotcrete 3D printing [62] Braunschweig Institute of Structural Design Material sprayed Concrete Gantry Static Off-site
D-Shape [63,64] Monolite UK Binder jetting Micro-concrete Gantry Static Off-site
Digital Construction Platform Media Lab of the Massachusetts Institute of Print-in-Place Polyurethane Arm Mobile On-site
[65] Technology fabrication foams
Flight Assembled Architecture Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Material assembly Foam brick Aerial robots Mobile On-site
[66]
WoodFlex 56 [67] Güdel Group Material assembly Timber Gantry Static Off-site
Hadrian X [68,69] Fastbrick Robotics Material assembly Brick Arm Mobile On-site
In-situ Fabricator [70,71] Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Material assembly Brick Arm Mobile On-site
FreeFAB [72,73] Laing O’Rourke Material extrusion Wax Gantry Static Off-site

4
S. Pessoa et al.
Fig. 4. Additive manufacturing technologies in construction: a) 3DCP facility at the Eindhoven University of Technology [74], b) D-Shape printer by Monolite UK
[75] and c) Digital Construction Platform by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Media Lab [65].
buildings by proposing a printing system with multiple robot printers.
Shotcrete 3D printing [62] is an unconventional AM method developed
by the Institute of Structural Design at Braunschweig University of
Technology. The technology does not require formwork and, in contrast
with the material extrusion process, the concrete mix rather than being
deposited is sprayed, which allows for more geometric freedom as the
application angle can be variable. Different from the extrusion, the
D-Shape method [63,64] (Fig. 4b) invented by Enrico Dini from the
construction printing company Monolite UK, uses a binder jetting 3D
printer that selectively adds a mineral binder to a sand substrate to build
a full-scale building.
Another approach to robotic fabrication on an architectural scale is
the Digital Construction Platform [65] (Fig. 4c), developed by Media Lab
at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The system consists of a
mobile robotic arm that additively fabricates insulation formworks for
cast concrete structures using two-part spray polyurethane foams, in a
new 3DP process which the authors call Print-in-Place fabrication. In the
aerial construction approach, the Flight Assembled Architecture project
[66], created by the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich,
demonstrated the possibility of a group of software-controlled flying
robots to construct a structure by cooperatively placing individual foam
bricks on top of each other. WoodFlex 56 [67] developed by the Güdel
Group in collaboration with the company ERNE AG Holzbau alongside
ROB Technologies, a Swiss Federal Institute of Technology spin-off
company, is a multi-functional gantry robot that is capable of per­
forming automated assembly and processing tasks of large-scale timber
constructions. Furthermore, Hadrian X [68,69] invented by Fastbrick
Robotics is a robotic arm that autonomously builds a brick structure
without traditional mortar from a single position on-site, using opti­
mised blocks and in a similar way, In-situ Fabricator [70,71] by the
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology is a mobile robot that iteratively
places bricks on-site.
A different solution to 3DP construction is FreeFAB [72,73] devel­
oped by the construction firm Laing O’Rourke, that proposes a robotic
system for printing large wax moulds used as formwork to cast concrete
panels. Then, the wax of the finished panel is melted in a recycling
station and it can be reused for other moulds.
From the examples in Table 2, the preferred printing system corre­
sponds to a robotic arm fixed to a large gantry system. However, having
a gantry bigger than the actual structure to be printed is unmanageable
for two-storey buildings and the size and reach of the extrusion nozzle
are limitations to concrete deposition.
On balance, most 3DP methodologies currently being studied can be
grouped into three main robotic system types, gantry systems, robotic
arms and aerial robots. Aerial systems have constraints associated with
high energy costs per flight and limited load capacities and static sys­
tems require human assistance for transportation to and setting up at the
worksite; hence, researchers are now trying to develop more flexible
mobile printing systems.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 141 (2021) 110794
4.3. 3DP applications in the construction industry
Despite the acknowledged potential of using 3DP in the construction
industry, there are still doubts about whether additively manufactured
large-scale constructions are feasible. Thus, on a trial and error basis,
research centres together with companies are implementing the con­
cepts developed until now in prototypes.
Zhang et al. [76] developed high-thixotropy 3DP concrete to
manufacture large structural components in situ without formwork and
as a proof of concept, designed and manufactured a bus station, 8.4 by
2.8 by 3.1 m, in less than 12 h (Fig. 5a). Naboni et al. [29] additively
manufactured the Trabeculae Pavilion (Fig. 5b), which features a
full-scale engineered load-responsive cellular structure, printed by a
group of delta robots available in the market. To build the 36 square
metre structure, a high-resistance non-specified biopolymer was
extruded using fused filament fabrication. 3DP technology has also been
applied to bridges; in 2017, the Eindhoven University of Technology
completed a bicycle bridge in Gemert (Fig. 5c) using the concept of
design by testing to certify the bridge for public use [77]. The bridge,
which complies with the Dutch building regulations, has a span of 6.5 m
and a width of 3.5 m and all its elements took 48 h to print. More
recently, the Eindhoven University of Technology started a project to
build a habitable house in the municipality of Eindhoven (Project
Milestone).
As different perspectives and insights often allow us to move forward
with a more substantial understanding of the circumstances, a selection
of notable real-life applications of 3DP in building construction include:
a) the BOD in Denmark by COBOD, b) a two-storey villa in China by
HuaShang Tengda, c) the “office of the future” in Dubai by Winsun, d) a
hotel suite interior in the Philippines by Total Kustom, e) a residential
house in Russia by Apis Cor, f) the world’s biggest 3D printed building in
Dubai by Apis Cor, g) the Gaia house in Italy by the WASP project and h)
the Chicon house in Texas by New Story and Icon.
The BOD by the Danish firm COBOD International is a 50 square
metre office hotel 3D printed in Copenhagen, Denmark. The small office
was built in 2017 and is recognised as being Europe’s first 3D printed
building. The building fulfils the strict European building codes and has
no straight walls, all of which were 3D printed in only 50 h [78,79].
The company HuaShang Tengda 3D printed a 400 square metre two-
storey villa in 2016 in China that can allegedly withstand a magnitude
eight earthquake on the Richter scale. To build the house, which was
entirely printed on-site in a month and a half, concrete was printed
simultaneously on both sides of an already erected frame structure [80].
A hotel suite interior was 3D printed in 2015 in the Philippines by
Total Kustom. The 10.5 by 12.5 by 3 m suite was printed in less than 5
days and the concrete mixture applied contained local materials such as
volcanic ash [81,82].
Apis Cor printed a residential house in Russia in 2016 with a total
cost of $10,134. The 38 square metre house, instead of being assembled
from pre-printed panels, was 3D printed on-site within 24 h. It was built
in two phases, first with the printer inside the house and then using
S. Pessoa et al.
Fig. 5. Noteworthy 3D printing applications: a) bus stop [76], b) Trabeculae pavilion [29] and c) Gemert bicycle bridge [77].
lifting equipment, the printer was extracted from the inside and placed
outside to print the roof. On the roof, solid plates of LOGICPIR hard
polystyrene, with a low λ of 0.022 W/(mK), were applied as a heat-
insulation layer. The team utilised rock wool ROKLIGHT as overlap
thermo-acoustic insulation. A solid insulation material designated as
LOGICPIR and a liquid polyurethane composition was applied in the
middle of the load-bearing wall and the external concrete structure to fill
all voids in the space, therefore, avoiding the formation of cold bridges
[83]. Apis Cor went from a small house to the world’s biggest 3D printed
building at that point (Fig. 6) when they completed an administrative
building with two floors in Dubai in 2019. The 640 square metre
building has a height of 9.5 m and was built on-site in an uncovered area,
therefore during printing there was no control of critical aspects such as
temperature and humidity. The team used the Apis Cor mobile 3D
printer to print the building floor by floor and moved it around the
construction site by crane [84].
Gaia is a small house of 12 square metres that was 3D printed in Italy
in 2018 by the WASP project. The walls of the house were 3D printed in
10 days with a mixture made with soil as the main binder, the roof was
made with timber and the foundations were printed in concrete [85].
When printing the walls with the mud mixture, inner vertical cavities
were created which were filled with rice husk for thermal insulation
[86].
Chicon House by New Story and Icon located in Texas, United States,
was the first legalised 3D printed home built in the US. The 60 square
metre house was 3D printed in 2018 using the Vulcan 3D printer and
serves as a proof of concept house for their ongoing project to print
affordable housing in the underserved community of El Salvador [87,
88].
4.4. Properties interdependency
Transferring 3DP to the construction sector is far from being a
straightforward task, with challenges covering different branches of
science, such as material science, mechanical engineering, and com­
puter science, which leads to setbacks and slow progress at times.
First and foremost, instead of the traditional structural beam-pillar
Figs. 6. 3D printed building in Dubai by Apis Cor: a) during printing and b) finished in its environment [84].
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system, in large scale 3DP, the walls themselves assume a structural
support function and must be self-supportive since no formwork is used.
Therefore, the printed material itself and its properties, which are the
basis for project calculations, must be appropriately addressed for the
success of the printed structure.
Cement-based mortars are the most often used material in con­
struction 3DP. However, standard mixes, with high amounts of coarse
aggregates will not go through the extrusion nozzle – too narrow for the
size of these aggregates. To overcome this limitation, the composition of
such mortars usually present, along with cement and water, a large
proportion of fine aggregates, that with a suitable particle distribution,
ensure adequate mechanical strength. Other additives and admixtures,
added as a means to control and optimise specific mixture properties,
either in its fresh and/or hardened state are also present [89].
Concrete mixtures in their fluid state have the significant advantage
of being able to be deposited in practically any shape [90]. Yet, to
guarantee the shape stability of the element while successively laying
layers of material, the mortar used in the extrusion-based process must
present an optimum open time (initial setting time), which has to be
short, so that the mixture quickly obtains sufficient strength to with­
stand the following layers, but also long enough for the previous and
subsequent layer to bond appropriately [91]. When designing a mortar
for 3DP, it is essential to take into account that for the successful
placement of the layers, the material must have a long enough setting
time to enable adequate workability and flowability along with proper
layer adhesiveness [92].
The bonding between the consecutive layers is instrumental to the
mixture’s buildability, which refers to the material resistance to defor­
mation when loaded with newly printed layers. Equally important, is the
major impact that both workability and flowability have in the mixture
ability to be transported without flow interruptions through the extru­
sion system, which is known as the mixture’s extrudability [93,94].
Taking a closer look at what are the hardened state key quality re­
quirements for the extruded material, it must be considered the inexis­
tence of defects in the printed surface, for instance tearing, the
dimension of the component’s conformity and consistency with the
design throughout the print path, the mixture’s strength, the quality of
S. Pessoa et al.
the aggregates, the introduction of additives and admixtures, and the
shrinkage control, which has a significant effect on the dimensional
accuracy and structural integrity of the printed components. Material
shrinkage, which results from water evaporation from external layers, as
well as changes in the temperature caused by the heat of hydration,
increases with the amount of cement in the mixture, therefore can be
reduced by decreasing the amount of water, fineness of the cement or by
increasing the aggregate content of the mixture [95].
Overall, when additively manufacturing a particular component or
structure, the material employed must be compatible with the 3DP
process applied whereby a specific shape designed to fulfil a particular
function is printed. In the case of the construction industry, it is essential
that the structural elements comply with the building code, therefore the
printing mixtures must present adequate mechanical properties
(compressive, tensile, and flexural strength). In the hardware domain, it
is critical to take into consideration characteristics such as the system’s
size, geometry and mobility, the flow rate, and the layer height. It is
indispensable to acknowledge that in 3DP the material applied, the
printing process selected, and the product’s design and function are four
significantly interdependent aspects that entail a set of greatly inter­
linked quality parameters, as it is possible to identify from Fig. 7.
5. Thermal performance
5.1. Thermal insulation
The thermal performance of the exterior walls greatly influences the
energy consumption of buildings and consequently their efficiency as
well as their emission of greenhouse gases [96]. Therefore, the selection
of appropriate thermal insulation materials has a major impact in pro­
moting sustainability, either by reducing the amount of energy used
from fossil fuels or by reducing CO2 emissions.
The application of thermal insulation materials is considered by
Verbeke et al. [97] to be the main aspect that minimises the building
energy demand, particularly in heating-dominated climates. Therefore,
energy performance regulations assign specific conditions to parameters
such as the thermal transmittance (U) of the constructive element (for
instance walls, roofs, and floors), expressed in W/(m2K), or its inverse,
the thermal resistance (R), expressed in (m2K)/W. The U describes the
heat flux through a multi-layer component due to a temperature
gradient.
Fig. 7. Interdependency of material, design, process, and function in con­
struction 3D printing.
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Insulation material in the steady state can be evaluated from its
thermal conductivity (λ), expressed in W/(mK) or, in dynamic condi­
tions, by the thermal diffusivity (D), expressed in m2/s [96]. While λ is
the material intrinsic ability to conduct heat due to a temperature dif­
ference, D describes the thermal inertia, which corresponds to the ma­
terial’s capacity to attenuate heat flow fluctuations due to its ability to
absorb and store heat in the constructive elements and gradually release
it, therefore reducing heat transfer. The amount of heat accumulated is
conditioned by the material’s density (ρ), expressed in kg/m3, and by its
specific heat capacity (c), which is expressed in J/(kgK) [97].
Thermal inertia influences the behaviour of the building both in
winter, when determining the ability to use solar gains, and in summer,
by affecting the building’s ability to absorb temperature peaks.
In summer conditions thermal losses must be greater than thermal
gains, therefore, it is necessary to control the heat flux that needs to be
removed from the space so that the temperature inside does not exceed a
certain value. In contrast, in winter conditions the opposite happens,
thus, to have higher thermal gains than losses, the heat flux supplied to
the space and the power of the equipment needed is determined so that
indoor temperature remains approximately constant around a certain
lower limit value.
Generally, for most buildings and climates, larger amounts of ther­
mal mass on the interior side of the thermal insulation improve thermal
comfort and reduce energy demand. However, while in traditional
constructive methods high thermal masses have been shown to reduce
the risk of overheating, when it comes to buildings used intermittently, a
considerable thermal mass implies the need for more time to adjust the
actual temperature to a comfortable one, causing thermal discomfort
and resulting in an amplified energy demand caused by longer preheat
or precool moments [97]. Also, a considerable amount of thermal
insulation combined with a high indoor temperature can often be
translated into low dissipation of heat via the envelope, which will in­
crease the cooling needs of the building. Thus, it is impossible to design
an energy-efficient building without considering at the same level the
thermal condition indoors as well as the envelope’s thermal insulation
[98].
In addition, the thickness of the thermal insulation material should
be optimised as there is a direct link between the amount of insulation
material used and the investment cost. Currently, non-organic fibrous
materials and organic foamy materials account respectively for 60% and
27% of the European market [99]. Fig. 8 shows that conventional
thermal insulation materials present thermal conductivity values be­
tween 22 and 70 mW/(mK), which combined with their competitive
price, makes them the preference in most buildings. Besides conven­
tional materials such as expanded polystyrene (EPS) or extruded poly­
styrene (XPS), alternative insulation materials (hemp and flax) and
superinsulation materials, like Vacuum Insulation Panels (VIP) and sil­
ica aerogels, are increasingly being used.
Fig. 8. Comparison of the thermal conductivity range of different thermal
insulation materials (information sources: [99–102]).
S. Pessoa et al.
5.2. 3DP thermal insulation applications
The 3DP ability to produce elements with complex geometries is one
of the most important advantages of this technology. In this sense, re­
searchers have taken advantage of this added complexity to study and
project biomimetic designs, which use as inspiration the knowledge of
ecosystems, organisms and biological structures [103].
Solutions developed based on biomimetic designs can provide better
energy performance and reduce negative impacts on the environment.
The incorporation of biomimicry can be seen, for example, in the use of
cellular or lattice structures, which generally not only present optimised
stiffness and lightness properties, but also have good thermal and
acoustical characteristics. Panda et al. [104] experimentally charac­
terised mechanical properties of hexagonal honeycomb cellular struc­
tures printed by an FDM process. Kam et al. [105] additively
manufactured wood components that reproduce the chemistry, me­
chanical, and thermal properties of natural timber, obtaining λ values
from 0.05 to 0.085 W/(mK). Also with a FDM process, Liu et al. [106]
measured the thermal conductivity of thermoplastic polyurethane
samples filled with hexagonal boron nitride platelets. The authors of the
investigation found that the thermal properties depend on the orienta­
tion of the platelets and that the λ increases with increasing its filler
loading.
Aerogels can be incorporated into cementitious composites to reduce
its thermal conductivity. For example, Baghban [107] developed a
fast-setting material with aerogel granules, a phosphate-based cement
and fly ash, identifying a λ of 0.04 W/(mK). It was mentioned the pos­
sibility of using the material developed for on-site 3DP of cementitious
blocks as well as insulating materials.
The incorporation of air bubbles in the cementitious mixture results
in the improvement of its thermal insulation and acoustic absorption
[108]. Falliano et al. [109] developed an extrudable foamed concrete
with potential for on-site 3DP applications. The study presented λ values
of 0.1255 W/(mK) for the extrudable foamed concrete slab and 0.1530
W/(mK) for aerated autoclaved concrete, at the same wet density of 550
kg/m3 . With a similar approach, Alghamdi et al. [110] identified ther­
mal conductivities ranging from 0.15 to 0.25 W/(mK) in 3D-printable
foamed fly ash-based geopolymer matrices. Gama et al. [111] added
cork to enhance properties of the thermoplastic polyurethane used to
produce 3D printed composite foams, decreasing its density and thermal
conductivity without jeopardizing their layer-to-layer bonding perfor­
mance. Finally, Rahul et al. [112] added lightweight expanded clay
aggregates (maximum size 10 mm) to the mixture and verified that the
extrusion capacity is not affected for a replacement of up to 30% of the
volume with coarse aggregate.
While Yoon [113] explored the possibility of activating the shading
devices of building facades using shape memory polymer and He et al.
[114] used the 3DP technology to produce a modular green wall, Sar­
akinioti et al. [115] regulated the temperature inside a building due to a
façade panel printed using FDM. The material applied was a modified
Fig. 9. Diverse 3D printing applications: a) final full-size prototype of the Spong3D research project [115], b) cross-section example of a printed wall insulated with
mineral wool and polyurethane foam [117] and c) vertical cavities inside a printed structure [45].
8
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 141 (2021) 110794
polyethene terephthalate glycol filament, air voids were placed in the
centre of the panel for insulation and an aqueous fluid was introduced
for heat storage. In Fig. 9a, a large-scale prototype of the façade panel
was presented; the study identified a λ of 0.1 W/(mK).
In the field of 4D printing, where functionality acts as a fourth
dimension, Khan et al. [116] mentioned the possibility of making the
printed element responsive to external stimulus. These intrinsic smart
properties range from self-sensing of damage and self-cleaning to
self-adjusting to thermal parameters, as is the case with phase change
materials.
In another study, Kaszynka et al. [117] built a wall with mineral
wool (5 cm) and polyurethane foam (14 cm) between the 3D printed
concrete layers (3 cm each), as shown in Fig. 9b. Based on the stationary
method implemented, the mineral wool, the polyurethane foam and the
concrete mixture revealed λ of 0.0321, 0.0384 and 1.1522 W/(mK),
respectively, which means that the overall U for the wall is 0.18
W/(m2K). The authors performed a numerical simulation that evidenced
condensation problems on the surface of a linear thermal bridge iden­
tified at the intersection of two exterior walls for relative humidity
values over 60%. Thus, since condensations originate fungus and mould,
it is important to underline the necessity of eliminating thermal bridges.
Overall, the research concluded that the wall studied, despite being
smaller in thickness than traditional walls, meets the same
thermal-humidity requirements.
For Gosselin et al. [8] the structure’s shape has an impact on heat
transfer and Lim et al. [45] made reference to the use of the internal
spaces of the printed element (Fig. 9c) to install thermal insulation, to
minimise load or to act as a channel for building services.
With a different approach, a habitable house known as YHNOVA™
(Fig. 10) was built on-site in Nantes, France, in 2017, through a
collaboration between researchers of the University of Nantes, the SATT
Ouest Valorisation and a group of companies. The 95 square metre
house was printed with an automatic vehicle and a robot in 54 h, by
printing two polyurethane-foam walls that encase a third wall made of
concrete. Therefore, both the building’s concrete structure and the
polyurethane-foam insulation, which works as a kept in place formwork,
are created at the same time. The dwelling has been occupied by a family
since the end of the construction and the inhabitants are satisfied in
terms of comfort [28,118].
6. Discussion
6.1. Trends for improving 3DP
The biggest developments in 3DP have been, so far, in the material
and printing systems. For the material, the focus is on the fresh prop­
erties, workability, extrudability and pumpability, and structural prop­
erties [119]. The research in 3D concrete printing can be divided into
two key areas, controlling rheological properties, and improving struc­
tural performance.
Controlling the material’s rheology, through high yield stress and
S. Pessoa et al.
Fig. 10. Yhnova™ house: a) wall cross-section, b) 3D printed without coating and c) finished in its environment [28].
low plastic viscosity, is essential to ensure buildability and pumpability.
However, these properties also depend on the printing system – the
pumping distance and the type of nozzle. 3DP thixotropic mixes require
an open time of up to 30 min, depending on the scale of the printing and
its speed, so careful control of these compositions is the starting point of
the process. While most compositions still contain high amounts of
cement – up to 50% – there was a shift recently towards more sustain­
able alternatives, including alkali-activated geopolymers and the use of
alternative binders [120–122]. The control of the mix includes a careful
selection of the particle size of the aggregates and fibres, which is often
limited by the size of the nozzle. Most mixtures have a high concen­
tration of fine powders, inorganic additives (fly ash, silica fume) and
viscosity modifiers (superplasticizers, accelerators) [123].
From a structural perspective, the lack of reinforcement in 3DCP is
still a major drawback for large-scale applications. Adding fibres
(polypropylene, PVA, steel) can improve ductility and tensile strength
by creating a crack-bridging effect, however, changes rheology, causes
an increase in water demand, and excess of fibres can also clog the
extrusion nozzle [124]. An alternative to fibres is the insertion of rein­
forcing bars in printed hollow structures that are subsequently filled
with concrete or the use of cable reinforcement [125,126].
Though 3DCP is still on a developing stage, there are already ex­
amples of full-scale structures. Off-site construction is more frequently
used because allows for better control of the environmental conditions
during printing, although parts need to be transported and assembled
on-site.
There is currently a wide range of independent studies, each with its
methodologies, printing materials and nuances, which indicates the
worldwide attention that this technology attracts. It should be noted that
some details of these projects, for instance, the material composition, its
performance properties, and which segments are manufactured with an
additive technique, are usually not disclosed for confidentiality reasons.
However, even with so many large-scale projects built worldwide, there
are still many aspects of 3DP that need further investigation. While
traditional construction is made with various materials, each one usually
having a specific purpose, in 3D printing mixtures will have to be able to
fulfil those same functions, including acting as a thermal insulation
material.
6.2. Opportunities and challenges
Building construction nowadays presents a high labour inefficiency
and accident rate, an insufficiently qualified workforce, and difficulties
with controlling the construction site [127,128]. 3DP is regarded as
revolutionary since it has made it easier to create curved shapes at a
lower cost – offering architects freedom in their designs and allowing the
fabrication of ad-hoc elements without extra costs – closing the gap
between desirable and affordable buildings. Also, applying 3DP reduces
waiting times [129], as the 3D printers do not need to eat or sleep, so
they do not stop working until a project is finished, which is ideal when
tackling the housing crisis [130,131].
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 141 (2021) 110794
Regarding materials’ use, 3DP is an additive rather than a subtractive
procedure [132], so fewer materials are required compared to tradi­
tional manufacturing processes. The material can be placed only where
needed, hence saving on material consumption, which provides an
optimisation of the construction components and lowers the industry’s
environmental impact [133,134], because with less waste produced, the
CO2 footprint is reduced [135]. Unlike most conventional approaches,
which are unsustainable, 3DP will make construction more efficient
while creating sustainable growth and stimulating circularity principles,
for instance through the use of recycled and environmentally friendly
materials [136].
Although a reduction in human labour is expected, which might
mean fewer employment opportunities, this situation can be prevented
if traditional construction workers receive adequate training in the new
skills required to operate 3DP systems [137]. In Table 3, in agreement
with the authors cited, an outline of the opportunities that may arise
from the full-scale implementation of 3DP in building construction
alongside its challenges – particularly the structural, thermal, and
acoustic performance of the printed structure, its durability and extru­
sion process – are presented.
Table 3
Main opportunities and challenges of applying 3D printing in the construction
industry.
Opportunities
increase in safety which corresponds to a decrease in the present high accident rate
[138,139]
reduction of construction time which corresponds to an increase in the current low
labour efficiency [9,129,140,141]
reduction of material waste enabling a lower carbon footprint [9,28,138,139,141,
142]
use of recycled and environmental-friendly materials [35]
minimisation of human labour necessity [6,138,139,141]
minimisation of operation costs (no need for formwork or related temporary
structures) [138–140]
increase in design freedom to create complex and customised shapes [9,28,138]
higher control of the construction process and site [141]
better integration of BIM models (provides effective communication, safety and
procurement management) [9,137]
reduction of human-caused errors at construction sites [143]
reduction of dust and noise during the construction phase [143]
Challenges
structural strength [138]
durability properties [138,144]
thermal and acoustic performance [8]
placement of reinforcement [137,138]
expertise needed (workers who can control the print path and integrate robotic and
civil work) [137]
expensive large-scale printer devices [141]
formulation of the material (control of the material’s rheology) [138]
deformation under self-weight [138,145]
layer adhesion and mechanical performance across the layer interface [126,137,145]
S. Pessoa et al.
6.3. Possibilities for improving thermal performance
Considering the advantages of 3DP technology, future efforts to
improve the thermal performance of 3D printed walls may focus on the
following three hypotheses (see Fig. 11):
• Filling the voids of printed components, paying special attention to
the need to prevent the problem of thermal bridges. Common insu­
lation materials can be placed between the printed mortar layers,
resembling a sandwich wall panel;
• Simultaneously extruding distinct materials by layers using different
extrusion nozzles. For example, a sandwich wall with two layers of
mortar separated by a layer of thermal insulation. In this multi-
layered scenario, some layers would improve thermal and acoustic
insulation, while others (in general, external ones) would provide the
structural strength;
• Changing the composition of the mixture by incorporating low
conductivity materials to improve its thermal properties. The solu­
tion cannot compromise its mechanical strength.
In every hypothesis, it is important to do a geometric study of
possible wall solutions that can optimise the application and connection
system between panels, reducing potential thermal bridges and ensuring
high levels of air and water tightness. Also, to take full advantage of the
wall geometry, parametric design can be used to test different solutions
of wall shapes. Take for example the study by Kontovourkis et al. [146],
which is based on an integrated parametric design for 3D clay printing of
prefabricated walls. The optimisation of the wall geometry through this
model of design implies the use of parameters and their intrinsic re­
lationships for the generation of complex geometries through routines
and algorithms present in graphical programming interfaces, as is the
case of Rhinoceros through plugins like Grasshopper 3D.
The difficulties that may delay the implementation of 3DP in the
construction industry are related to the structural, thermal, and acoustic
performance of the printed element, its durability, the control of the
extrusion process and the high cost of the devices necessary. Further­
more, in general, when applying 3DP to the construction sector, the
walls of the building assume structural functions, being self-supporting.
Therefore, applying reinforcement either through incorporating fibres in
the cementitious mixture or through the automatic placement of steel
reinforcements can be a challenge.
Regarding the formulation of the printing material, it must fulfil
specific quality requirements related to its workability, flowability,
extrudability, ability to maintain the shape after extrusion without
Fig. 11. Possibilities to improve the thermal performance of 3D printed walls.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 141 (2021) 110794
deforming under self-weight and adhesion between the subsequent
layers. When developing new thermal insulation materials, it must be
considered that they should meet several requirements, including
adequate mechanical behaviour, durability, dimensional stability,
permeability, hygroscopicity, fire resistance and finally, it is also
essential to consider its sustainability, prioritising the adoption of
environmentally friendly products.
7. Conclusion
The paper presented a systematic review of the literature on the
application of 3DP in the construction industry. Given the sector’s
decades-long productivity problems, its central role in the world econ­
omy alongside the world’s urgent transition to a low carbon future –
essential to mitigate climate issues – smart approaches such as 3DP will
be a key tool for the changes necessary.
This review showed several examples of close collaboration between
the private sector and research groups across the world, an essential step
towards the development of full-scale solutions for 3DP.
Throughout the article, additive manufacturing processes and ma­
terials development were addressed, and several experimental proof-of-
concept applications were analysed, becoming evident that, until now,
the focus of AM research has been on guaranteeing structural soundness
and durability. The thermal performance of 3D printed structures, often
disregarded, needs more study and improvement.
In traditional construction, the level of requirements for thermal
performance is comparable to the structural ones, their importance
cannot, therefore, be of less importance in 3D printing. Taking the oc­
cupants’ comfort as an objective, this article highlights the importance
of conducting further studies on how to answer the thermal demands of
structures built using 3DP.
Overall, this investigation identifies three possible paths to improve
the thermal performance of building walls: (1) application of thermal
insulation materials in the internal voids of the structural layers of the
3D printed wall, (2) print different layers at the same time from different
extrusion nozzles, or (3) change the mortar composition. Furthermore,
construction waste can be reused back into the production cycle as an
integral part of the mixture, bio-insulations and advanced insulators can
be applied, and the heat transmission can also be improved through the
optimisation of the printing path. In contrast with unsustainable stan­
dard construction techniques, 3DP has a favourable impact on the
environment as less waste is generated and it is a promising approach for
circularity.
However, there are no standards for material classification when
applying 3DP, and, to date, each study has been working with specific
materials and printers to meet its purpose. Therefore, for this technology
to be accepted by the construction industry, there are still major prob­
lems to overcome. Starting with the lack of specific regulations, code
compliance can be an obstacle to the full application of this technology.
The printing path depends on the characteristics of the material (such as
flowability, extrudability and buildability) which, because they entail
several variables, make functional optimisation of the shape still a
challenge. The stability of the printed geometry, the cohesion and
interaction of the layers, how to apply reinforcement efficiently, and the
optimisation of the inner pattern design are some of the many questions
that need to be answered to successfully upscale the technology.
In addition to these issues, the construction industry will not tolerate
solutions that raise doubts as to airtightness, moisture control, perme­
ability, acoustic insulation or energy efficiency of the building due to
weak interfaces. For example, since many studies assume the printing of
modular elements that are then joined on-site, it is essential to study how
to close these joints, which, from a thermal point of view, will be places
of great heat loss. The authors believe that the future shift from a classic
to an automated approach will be based on an integrated insulation
solution that would be printed continuously and at the same time as the
cementitious mortar layer.
S. Pessoa et al.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This work is financed by National Funds through the FCT – Fundação
para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (Portuguese Foundation for Science and
Technology) within the project MIT-EXPL/TDI/0041/2019. Sofia Pes­
soa would like to thank FCT for financial support through the doctoral
grant PD/BD/150398/2019. Finally, this work was financially sup­
ported by Base Funding - UIDB/04708/2020 of the CONSTRUCT -
Instituto de I&D em Estruturas e Construções - funded by national funds
through the FCT/MCTES (PIDDAC).
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