MODULE – 5

Additive Manufacturing Systems

&
Future of Automated Factory

Prepared by:
Anand A
Assistant Professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
RajaRajeswari college of Engineering,
Bangalore - 74
Additive Manufacturing Systems:
Basic principles of additive manufacturing, slicing CAD models for AM, advantages
and limitations of AM technologies, Additive manufacturing processes: Photo
polymerization, material jetting, binder jetting, material extrusion, Powder bed
sintering techniques, sheet lamination, direct energy deposition techniques,
applications of AM. Recent trends in manufacturing, Hybrid manufacturing.

Future of Automated Factory:

Industry 4.0, functions, applications and benefits. Components of Industry 4.0,
Internet of Things (IOT), IOT applications in manufacturing, Big-Data and Cloud
Computing for IOT, IOT for smart manufacturing, influence of IOT on predictive
maintenance, industrial automation, supply chain optimization, supply-chain &
logistics, cyber-physical manufacturing systems.
 Introduction to Additive manufacturing (AM)
❖ Additive manufacturing is a class of manufacturing/building complex three
dimensional parts from their CAD models rapidly in a layer by layer manner.
❖ Once a CAD sketch is produced, CAD models are sliced to obtain tool path
and layer(converted to Machine understandable language – STL file)
information which are used by the additive manufacturing equipment .
❖ The AM equipment reads in data from the CAD file and lays downs or adds
successive layers of liquid, powder, sheet material or other, in a layer-upon-
layer fashion to fabricate a 3D object.
❖ The term AM encompasses many technologies including subsets like 3D
Printing, Rapid Prototyping(RP),Direct Digital
Manufacturing(DDM),layered manufacturing and additive fabrication.
Figure: Additive manufacturing machine setup

Figure: CAD image of a teacup

with further images showing
the effects of building using
different layer thicknesses
Figure : Additive vs Subtractive Manufacturing
Design for manufacturability is the general engineering practice of
designing products in such a way that they are easy to manufacture.viz
depending on the manufacturing technology.
 Advantages & Disadvantages of AM – contd..
Advantages: “Complexity for free” means additive
➢Freedom of design & Immediate manufacturing allows the fabrication
design revisions of complex geometries without any
➢Complexity for free increase in the cost of production.
➢Zero tooling costs
➢Lightweight design
➢Elimination of production steps
(some amount of lead time is reduced)
➢Material flexibility
Disadvantages:
➢Slow build rates
➢High production costs
➢Discontinuous production process
(like run out of material)
➢Limited component size
Generic process of AM (CAD model to final part)

Step 1: CAD model.

Step 2: Conversion of CAD
model to STL file.
Step 3: Transfer and
Manipulation of STL File on
AM Machine
Step 4: Machine Setup
Step 5: Build
Step 6: Removal
Step 7: Postprocessing
Step 8: Application
Step 1: CAD model
All AM parts must start from a software model that fully describes the external
geometry. This can involve the use of almost any professional CAD solid
modeling software, but the output must be a 3D solid or surface
representation. Reverse engineering equipment (e.g., laser scanning) can
also be used to create this representation. Scaling may be required to
account for shrinkage or coating.

Figure: 3D CAD model

Step 2: Conversion to STL file (pre-processing software)
 Once the model is developed using any of the CAD tool, the next step in the
additive manufacturing process is to translate the model into the right language
for the 3D printer to understand.
 Using a pre processor software, the spatial location or the part surface of
3D model is converted into a regular pattern (triangles of various sizes). It's
the most commonly used format in additive manufacturing for 3D printing.
STL stands for Standard Triangle Language, or Standard Tessellation
Language. The information stored in this file format does nothing more than
describe the geometry of the model. It does not contain any information on
the type of material to use, texture, or color the model. But what it does have
is highly detailed information about the surface or the model, which is exactly
what the 3D printer is going to print once the file is uploaded as shown in Fig.
Tessellation – A regular
pattern made up of flat
shapes repeated & joined
together without any gaps
or overlaps.

Figure: The differences

between CAD and STL
Models, representing how
STL modeling works.
 A CAD model on the left converted into STL format on the right

STL uses triangles to describe the surfaces to be built. Viz. approximating

the surfaces of the model with a series of triangular facets.
Step 3: Transfer and Manipulation of STL File on AM Machine
The STL file describing the part is transferred to the AM machine. Here,
prior to building part, the file is imported into a slicer program where the STL
file is sliced into multiple layers of required thickness including the support
provided to the model if required.

Step 4: Machine Setup

The AM machines are normally used to manufacture small and intricate parts,
it must be properly set up prior to the build process. Such settings would relate
to the build parameters like adjusting the platform, material deposition
rate, controlling the temperature, velocity, SOD, setting the position and
orientation for building the part, the material constraints, energy source,
etc. for building the part.
Step 5: Printing (Build the part)
Building the part is mainly an automated process and the machine can
largely carry on without supervision. Only superficial monitoring of the
machine needs to take place at this time to ensure no errors have taken place
like running out of material, power or software glitches, etc.

Step 6: Part removal & clean up

The cleanup stage may also be considered as the initial part of the post –
processing. Once the AM machine has completed the build, the part must be
separated from the build platform using which the part was built. Use of
safety interlocks will ensure the safe removal of the part as well as the
operator safety. for example : the temperatures of the built part should be
sufficiently low or that there are no actively moving parts.
Step 7: Postprocessing
Post- processing refers to the stages of finishing the parts for application
purposes.
Need for Postprocessing
➢Support Material Removal (not part of the object)
➢Surface Texture Improvements (like roughness or waviness by polishing
or coating )
➢Accuracy Improvements (Abrasive finishing – like polish, sand papering,
or coating )
➢Aesthetic Improvements (Surface coating)
➢Preparation for use as a Pattern (replica of the object)
➢Property Enhancements (like mechanical, thermal, optical or electrical
etc.)
 Figure : Need for Postprocessing

Aesthetic Improvements Support Material Removal

Preparation for use as a Pattern Surface Texture Improvements

Step 8: Application
Following post – processing, parts may now be ready to be used. However, they
may also require additional treatment before they are acceptable for use. For
example, they may require priming and painting to give an acceptable surface
texture and finish. Treatments may be laborious and lengthy if the finishing
requirements are very demanding.
 Additive manufacturing processes

 One of the better ways is to classify AM systems broadly by the

initial form of its material, i.e. the material that the prototype or
part is built with.

All AM systems can be easily categorized into:

➢ liquid-based

➢ powder based and

➢ solid-based
Additive manufacturing processes:
➢Vat Photopolymerization (Stereolithography – printing thin layer of
a material curable by UV/laser beam)

➢Powder bed sintering techniques (Selective Laser Sintering)

➢Sheet lamination (Laminated Object Manufacturing)
➢Material extrusion (Fusion Deposition Modeling)
➢Material jetting,
➢Binder jetting,
➢Direct metal deposition techniques.(DMD)
Figure: Vat Photopolymerization “Stereolithography apparatus,”
Stereolithography Apparatus(SLA) is a liquid-
based process which builds parts directly from
CAD software.

•SLA uses a low-power laser to harden photo-

sensitive resin and achieve polymerization.

•The process begins with a 3D CAD file. The

file is digitally sliced into a series of parallel
horizontal cross-sections which are then
provided to a Stereolithography
Apparatus(SLA) one at a time.

•A laser traces the cross-section onto a bath of

photopolymer resin which solidifies the cross-
section. The part is lowered a layer thickness
into the bath and additional resin is swept onto
the surface.

•The laser then solidifies the next cross-section.

This process is repeated until the part is
complete.
 a b

Figure: Support structure representation ,

a – CAD model, b – AM part
Advantages
➢Good dimensional accuracy - The process is able to maintain the dimensional accuracy of
the built parts to within 0.1mm.
➢Good surface finish - Glass-like finishing can be obtained on the top surfaces of the part
although stairs can be found on the side walls and curve surfaces between build layers.
➢Unattended building process - The system is very stable. Once started the process is fully
automatic and can be unattended until the process is completed.
➢The process is of high resolution and capable to build parts with rather complex details.
➢3D Systems Inc. have developed a software called "Quickcast" for building parts with
hollow interior which can be used directly as wax pattern for investment casting
➢It is the most widely used process in the RP field
Disadvantages
➢ Necessity to have support structures
➢ Accuracy not in the range of mechanical part manufacturing.
➢ Restricted areas of application due to given material properties.
➢ Labour requirements for post processing, especially cleaning.
SLS uses a great variety of materials, including nylon,
polystyrene, metals (steel, titanium, composites) and
sand mixtures, can be used.

Figure : Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

Powder Bed Fusion Process
Figure : Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
Powder Bed Fusion Processes
Advantages
➢ Capable of producing the toughest part compared with other process
➢ Large variety of material can be used, including most engineering plastic, wax, metal,
ceramic, etc.
➢ Parts can be produced in short time, normally at a rate of up to 1 inch per hour
➢ No post curing of parts is required
➢ During the building process, the part is fully supported by the powder and no
additional support is required.
Disadvantages
➢ The powder material requires to heat up to the temperature below the melting point
before the building process, which takes about 2 hours. After building the parts, it also
takes 5 to 10 hours to cool down before removing the parts from the powder cylinder.
➢ The smoothness of the surface is restricted to the size of the powder particles and the
laser spot resulting that the surface of the part is always porous. Smooth surface can
only be obtained by post processing .
➢ The process chamber requires continuous supply of nitrogen to provide a safe
environment for the sintering process to be taken place resulting expensive running
cost of the process.
➢ Toxic gases will be generated from the process, which leads to an environmental issue.
Solid Sheet Systems
 Apart from the slice unwanted
material is also hatched in rectangles
to facilitate its later removal but
remains in place during the build to
act as supports.

Figure: Laminated Object

Manufacturing Process
Support material
Advantages
 The raw materials costs are relatively low;
 Variety of organic and inorganic materials can be used such as paper, plastic,
ceramic, composite, etc.
 Relatively low costs.
 Much faster process than competitive techniques.
 Virtually produces no internal stress and associated undesirable deformation.
 Best suited for building large parts, as if the machine with the largest
workspace on the market today.
Disadvantages
 Limited stability of the objects due to the bonding strength of the glued layers.

 Not well suited for manufacturing parts with thin walls in the z-direction

 Hollow parts, like bottles, can not be built.

Molten Material Systems
Working Process
 FDM is an additive manufacturing technology, works on the principle of
sintering. The plastic polymer is feeded to a heated nozzle, which will lay
down it in layers to produce a product.

 The following layers are added on top of previous layers. Layers are fused
together upon deposition as the material is in a melted state.

 The nozzle can move horizontally and the platform moves up and down
vertically after each new layer is deposited.

 The pressure of the nozzle must be kept steady and constant and in a
continuous stream.
Advantages
 Quick and cheap generation of models.
 Easy and convenient date building.
 No worry of possible exposure to toxic chemicals, lasers, or a liquid polymer
bath.
 No wastage of material during or after producing the model
 No requirement of clean-up.
 Quick change of materials
 Different colours are possible
Disadvantages
 Restricted accuracy due to the shape of the material used: wire of 1.27 mm
diameter.
 Supports may be required
 Part strength is weak perpendicular to build axis.
 Temperature fluctuations during production could lead to delamination
 Introduction to Material Jetting

Principle:
The Material Jetting 3D printing manufacturing technique is often compared to
the standard 2D ink jetting process. Utilizing photopolymers, metals, or wax
that solidify when exposed to light or heat (in a similar fashion to
Stereolithography) ensures that physical objects are built up one layer at a time.
The materials used in MJ are thermoset photopolymers (acrylics) that come
in a liquid form.
Figure: Material Jetting
Working: Material is jetted onto the build surface or platform, where it solidifies
and the model is built layer by layer. Material is deposited from a nozzle which
moves horizontally across the build platform. Machines vary in complexity and in
their methods of controlling the deposition of material. The material layers are then
cured or hardened using ultraviolet (UV) light.
As material must be deposited in drops, the number of materials available to use is
limited. Polymers and waxes are suitable and commonly used materials, due to
their viscous nature and ability to form drops.
Material Jetting – Step by Step
➢The print head is positioned above build platform.
➢Droplets of material are deposited from the print head onto surface where
required, using either thermal or piezoelectric method.
➢Droplets of material solidify and make up the first layer.
➢Further layers are built up as before on top of the previous.
➢Layers are allowed to cool and harden or are cured by UV light. Post processing
includes removal of support material.
 The medical industry often utilizes full
color printing to produce educational
medical models.

A part printed in half glossy, half

matte, showing the difference in
surface finish
Benefits & Limitations of Material Jetting:
The key advantages and disadvantages of the technology are summarized below:
➢Material jetting can produce smooth parts with surfaces comparable to injection
molding and very high dimensional accuracy.
➢Parts created with Material Jetting have homogeneous mechanical and thermal
properties.
➢The multi-material capabilities of MJ enables the creation of accurate visual and
haptic(sense of touch) prototypes.
➢Material jetted parts are mainly suitable for non-functional prototypes, as they
have poor mechanical properties (low elongation at break).
➢MJ materials are photosensitive and their mechanical properties degrade over
time.
➢The high cost of the technology may make Material Jetting financially not
viable for some applications.
 Binder Jetting

Principle:
The binder jetting process uses two materials; a powder based material and a
binder. The binder acts as an adhesive between powder layers. The binder is
usually in liquid form and the build material in powder form. A print head
moves horizontally along the x and y axes of the machine and deposits alternating
layers of the build material and the binding material. After each layer, the object
being printed is lowered on its build platform.
Figure: Binder Jetting
Binder Jetting – Step by Step
In Binder Jetting, a binder is selectively deposited onto the powder bed, bonding
these areas together to form a solid part one layer at a time. The materials
commonly used in Binder Jetting are metals, sand, and ceramics that come in a
granular form.
1.Powder material is spread over the build platform using a roller.
2.The print head deposits the binder adhesive on top of the powder where
required.
3.The build platform is lowered by the model’s layer thickness.
4.Another layer of powder is spread over the previous layer. The object is formed
where the powder is bound to the liquid.
5.Unbound powder remains in position surrounding the object.
6.The process is repeated until the entire object has been made.
Infiltration & Sintering:
Metal Binder Jetting parts require a secondary process after printing,
like infiltration or sintering, to achieve their good mechanical properties, as the as-
printed parts basically consist of metal particles bound together with a polymer
adhesive.

➢Infiltration: After printing, the part is placed in a furnace, where the binder is
burnt out leaving voids. At this point, the part is approximately 60% porous. Bronze
is then used to infiltrate the voids via capillary action, resulting in parts with low
porosity and good strength.

➢Sintering: After printing is complete, the parts are placed in a high temperature
furnace, where the binder is burnt out and the remaining metal particles are
sintered (bonded) together, resulting in parts with very low porosity.
 A full color print printed in
sandstone with Binder Jetting

Small metal Binder Jetting with fine

holes of great dimensional accuracy.
Benefits & Limitations of Binder Jetting:
The key advantages and disadvantages of the technology are summarized below:
➢Binder Jetting produces metal parts and full-color prototypes at a fraction of the
cost compared to DMLS/SLM and Material Jetting respectively.
➢Binder Jetting can manufacture very large parts and complex metal geometries,
as it is not limited by any thermal effects (e.g. warping).
➢The manufacturing capabilities of Binder Jetting are excellent for low to
medium batch production.
➢Metal Binder Jetting parts have lower mechanical properties than DMSL/SLM
parts, due to their higher porosity.
➢Only rough details can be printed with Binder Jetting, as the parts are very brittle
in their green state and may fracture during post processing.
➢Compared to other 3D printing process, Binder Jetting offers a limited material
selection.
 Directed Energy Deposition

Principle: Directed Energy Deposition (DED) covers a range of terminology:

‘Laser engineered net shaping, directed light fabrication, direct metal
deposition, 3D laser cladding’ It is a more complex printing process commonly
used to repair or add additional material to existing components.
The Directed Energy Deposition (DED) 3D printing technology, also known as
Direct Energy Deposition, creates parts by directly melting materials and
deposing them on the workpiece, layer by layer. This additive manufacturing
technique is mostly used with metal powders or wire source materials. The
process can be used with polymers, ceramics but is typically used with metals,
in the form of either powder or wire.
Figure: Directed Energy Deposition
Directed Energy Deposition (DED) – Step by Step:
1.A 4 or 5 axis arm with nozzle moves around a fixed object.

2.Material is deposited from the nozzle onto existing surfaces of the object.

3.Material is either provided in wire or powder form.

4.Material is melted using a laser, electron beam or plasma arc upon deposition.

5.Further material is added layer by layer and solidifies, creating or repairing

new material features on the existing object.

6.Compatible metals include aluminum, copper, titanium, stainless steel, tool

steel, copper nickel alloys, and several steel alloys. This DED technique can
also be used to repair damaged parts.
Figure: Directed Energy
Deposition (DED)
 Figure: Sectional view of
the torch used in
Directed Energy
Deposition. (DED)

Figure: Directed Energy

Deposition. (DED)
Advantages of DED
High build rates – DED’s higher deposition rates at relatively low resolution means faster build rate compared to
some other metal additive manufacturing process
Dense and strong parts – DED creates higher density parts hence their mechanical properties are as good as cast or
wrought material
Near net shape – Parts can be near net shapes requiring minimal amount of post-processing
Can be used for repairing – Ideally suited for application requiring metal addition to existing parts hence lends itself
for repairing applications
Multi-material range – Latest DED machines have the capability to have several different powders or wire
containers which enables to build parts with custom alloy
Larger parts – Comparably larger parts can be built using DED. For example, Sciaky’s EBAM printers have the
capability to print parts a few meters high
Easy material change – Since the material is fed during the process on demand from separate powder containers, it’s
easy to refill or change the material
Reduced material waste – DED only deposits the material it needs during the process meaning less wastage
compared to processes like powder bed fusion (SLS and DMLS) where, the full build platform has to be filled with
metal powder
Disadvantages of DED
High capital cost – Direct energy deposition systems are comparably very expensive to the other types of metal
additive manufacturing systems
Low build resolution – Parts produced using DED technology are lower in resolution with a poor surface finish. It
will look like sand or investment castings and would require secondary processing such as machining or aqua
blasting, hence adding more time and cost
No support structures – Due to its nature of how the DED technology builds parts, support structures cannot be used
during the build process, hence features like overhangs will not be possible
DED is already utilized in key industries like aerospace, defence, oil & gas, as well
as the marine industry, for example, aircraft frames and structures, refractory metal
components, ballistic material tooling repair and reconditioning and marine
propulsion, etc.

Figure: aircraft components

 AM Applications
 Rapid tooling - Rapid prototyping parts are for design
evaluation and testing of properties such as fit and
function. Consequently, the design rules and the material
properties are dedicated to the final product and the way it
will finally be mass-produced
 Rapid manufacturing - rapid manufacturing is the final
production process. Therefore, he has to define all
parameters (design rules, material properties, and the
product characteristics of the selected AM process) not
only for the part but for the build process as well. As this
includes the scaling, the position, and the orientation of the
part as well
 Foundry and Casting Technology

Rigid mold made from aluminum filled

mold half with cast wax pattern epoxy for injection molding of a set of series
for lost wax casting. identical parts (black)
silicon rubber molding; plug system; master
made by Stereolithography; mold with
upper part of plug housing (left), mounted
plugs (right)
Investment casting; casting
tree made from AM-
pattern using wax runners,
sprue and gating (left),
casting before cleaning
(right)
CAD based foundry process chain. 3D CAD
model (top left), AM based sand core and
cavity (center), cast part (bottom right)
Automotive Industries and Suppliers -
Car Components: Interior

Dashboard insert; laser sintering, polyamide

(left); fuel tank. laser sintering polyamide
(right). both: 1 : 1 scale
 Modified front
spoiler for a
special edition
car; laser
Stereolithography

Speakers,
Stereolithography
master and silicon mold
(left), cast part (RTV,
right)
Exhaust gas manifold of a racing car Interior lighting; design variations;
Stereolithography
Lost pattern process; AM master silicon rubber molding; triangle-shaped
part of a gear box housing made by gasket for car mirror fixation
laser
sintering of polystyrene, left;
casting, background right
 Air intake manifold; AM master made
combustion engine housing; AM from polystyrene by laser sintering
master (left), laser sintering, after surface treatment (left),
polystyrene; aluminum casting, one- aluminum casting, one-of-a-kind part
of-a-kind part (right) (right)

Gear box for a racing car; AM master made Freeform shaped parts for the
from PMMA by 3D printing (left), aluminum aerodynamic improvement of racing
casting, one-of-a-kind part (right) cars; test bed in a wind tunnel; parts:
Stereolithography
 Aerospace Industry

Guide wheel for an Aero Engine

Airplane combustion chamber element
hot work steel; base plate (right), aluminum,
(left)
 Aerospace Industry

Hot air duct for an aero engine, 3D

metal printing, post processing

Combustion chamber element,

selective laser melting, SLM
 Consumer Goods
Lamp, laser
sintering,
polyamide

“Paris
Sandals”, high
heels; laser
Mobile phone housing, laser sintering;
Stereolithography masters polyamide

Customized
sunglasses;
laser sintering;
 Toy Industry & Art and History of Art

model of a toy train steam engine;

laminated object manufacturing toy train steam engine; stereolithography part
(LOM); paper, after processing (rear); part after post-
processing by grinding, decorating, and
coloring

Art objects; metal 3D

printing part after AM
production (left) and
after post-processing
and finishing by surface
Laser sintering (left), final
treatment
sculpture (right)
 Bio - Medical

Facsimile of a human scull based on CT data,

Stereolithography, left; 3D printing, right.

1 : 1 scale model of human bronchial

tubes; 3D printing (powder-binder)

AM production of hearing aid shells

 Bio - Medical

Partial denture; digital design (left), finished

part made by selective laser melting (right)

Ear epithesis, “raw ear” after 3D printing

and wax infiltration (left); final ear made
from silicon by counter casting of the
wax master
Medical modeling and customized implants.
Facsimile of a human scull with customized
implant made from an AM wax pattern by
investment casting of titanium (left) and made
directly by EBM (right)
 Jewelry

Customized
production;
individualization,
jewelry direct
manufacturing
by selected laser
melting of gold

Customized production;
individualization, jewelry
masters for investment
casting processed in one build
 Architecture and Landscaping
Architects usually present their creative ideas by scaled models.

Architectural model, mosque, laser 3D display of a concept for a touristic

sintering center, laser sintering of polyamides

Urban landscape, landmarks highlighted by

individual coloring
Figure: Remanufacturing Broken Gear Teeth
Bi Metallic parts
Hybrid manufacturing:
➢It is a term that describes combining additive manufacturing and subtractive
manufacturing in a single machine system. Additive manufacturing, also known as 3D
printing, is used to build up a component, part or structure within another part; traditional
subtractive manufacturing, or computer numerical control (CNC) milling, is used to
fabricate, spot mill, polish and so on.
➢These can be in either order. For example, additive manufacturing in the form of laser
cladding could be used to build up a metal form that, when cooled, is machined using
traditional methods.
➢A reverse example would be subtractive machining used to create a base structure,
with additive manufacturing used to create thin structures on top of the base.
Subtractive manufacturing is used where traditional methods suffice and additive
manufacturing is used where a high degree of delicacy is needed.
➢Since hybrid manufacturing incorporates both additive and subtractive
technologies, fabrication and precision can be attained in a more efficient and unified
environment. The combination is meant to enable greater design freedom, flexibility
and intricacy in creating complicated parts or those with radical geometries that
conventional manufacturing was not able to produce.
 Figure: Using one of the
AM technique to build
part.

Figure: Using one of

the subtractive
manufacturing
technique to build part.
 RECENT TRENDS IN MANUFACTURING

Need for new Manufacturing Trends :

➢Reduce operating costs, while maximizing long-term profitability and increasing
product quality
➢Improve ability to quickly respond to market changes and customer demand
➢Improve supply chain efficiency
➢Improve demand planning scope and accuracy
➢Improve availability and visibility of key information needs
➢Close functional gaps and increase integration between back-office and shop
floor systems.
 Globally Emerging Manufacturing Practices:

Many commonly known practices used today that facilitate cost reduction, quality
improvement and flexibility in the manufacturing environment. Some examples
of these are:
(a) Lean Manufacturing (focuses on minimizing the waste within the firm – defects, excess
processing, inventory, waiting, transportation, non-utilized talent & increase value of products
delivered to customers.)

(b) Agile Manufacturing (respond quickly to customer needs and market changes while
still controlling the cost & quality.)

(c) Just-in-Time (inventory mgmt. system – right material at right time to right place, for
this inventory forecast demand should be accurate.)

(d) Flexible Manufacturing System (ability to quickly adapt to variations/deviations in

product variety & production schedules.)
 Globally Emerging Manufacturing Practices: contd..

(e) Rapid Manufacturing (control the manufacturing process by computer using a

mathematical tool created with the aid of a computer.)

(f) Demand Flow Manufacturing (linked to daily changes in demand, a closed loop b/w
customer orders, production scheduling and manufacturing execution is established along with
flow of material across the supply chain)

(e) Advanced Planning and Scheduling (it is a mfg. mgmt. process by which raw
materials and production capacity are optimally allocated to meet demand.)
Each of these practices has its unique focus, strengths and inherent weaknesses.