Module - 1

Elements of Mechanical Engineering
(15EME14/24)
MODULE : 1 - ENERGY RESOURCES
Prepared by:
Anand A
Assistant Professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Rajarajeswari College of Engineering,
Bengaluru – 74.
13-Feb-2016 ME Dept. RRCE 1
Module – 1:Energy Resources
Preamble:
The term “Energy “ is defined as “the ability or capacity of a system to do
work”. Energy exists in everybody whether they are human beings or animals or
non living things.
Energy can have many forms: kinetic, potential, light, sound, wind,
gravitational, elastic, electromagnetic or nuclear.
According to the law of conservation of energy, any form of energy can be

converted into another form and the total energy will remain the same.
Energy sources are available either on the earth surface or below the earth
surface which are classified as Renewable Energy source ( Non – Conventional)
and Non - Renewable Energy source (Conventional).

Renewable Energy & Non-renewable Energy
 They are in-exhaustible (in-finite).  They are exhaustible (finite).
 Freely available in nature and eco-

friendly.  Not freely available nor eco
friendly (emit higher carbon).
 They are continuously restored by

nature after utilization.  These sources once used cannot be
recovered any more.
 Initial cost for utilizing these
resources is high, but cost of  Both initial cost and maintenance
maintenance is low. costs are high.
 Eg: Solar, Wind, Bio-mass, tidal,

ocean thermal, geo thermal etc.  Eg: fossil fuels, natural gas, oil and
coal, nuclear fuels etc.
Petroleum based fuels:
What is a Fuel:
• Fuel is a combustible substance which on burning in air or oxygen liberates large

amount of heat or heat energy that can be used economically for domestic and
industrial purposes. Eg. Wood ,Coal, Coke etc.
• To cause combustion, fuel must contain one or more combustible elements like
carbon, hydrogen, sulphur which when exposed to sufficient amount of oxygen
generates heat energy.
• Thus in the process of combustion, the chemical energy present in the fuel is
converted into heat energy.
• e.g.:
Coal → Coke + Coal gas
C (coke) + O2 → ash + heat + CO2
Classification of Fuel:
Solid fuels: • On basis of physical state:
 Refers to various types of solid (appearance)
material that are used as fuel to
produce heat energy. FUEL
 Eg: wood, coal, coke, charcoal, etc.
LIQUI
SOLID GAS
D
Advantages : Limitations:
 Easy to transport.  Ash content is high.
 Convenient to store without any risk of  Large portion of heat is wasted.
explosion.  (viz. combustion cannot be
 Cost of production is low. controlled)
 Posses moderate ignition temperature.  Their cost of handling is high.(viz.
(viz. will not catch fire immediately.) maintenance, disposal,cleanliness
etc.)

Liquid fuels
 It is a mixture of many different hydrocarbons,
found deep in the earth’s crust.
Disadvantages:
 e.g.: Petrol, Diesel, Kerosene,, Lubricating oil,
Grease etc.  Cost of fuel is high.(crude oil
Advantages :
 Posses higher calorific value per unit mass filtration)
than solid fuels.(because free from
impurities).  Special storage tanks are required.
 They burn without dust, ash etc.
 Firing and turning off the fuel is easy.  Greater risk of fire hazards.(highly
 Easy to transport through pipes.
 Cleanliness of surrounding(viz. stored in a inflammable)
container).
 Stored indefinitely without any loss in air
tight container.
 Economy in space.
 Require less air for combustion(viz. less
denser)
Gaseous fuels
 Gaseous fuels occur in nature, Disadvantages:
besides being manufactured from
solid and liquid fuels.  Special storage tanks are required.
 E.g.: LPG, Natural gas, coal gas,
 Greater risk of fire hazards.(highly
producer gas, coke oven gas, CNG.
Advantages: inflammable)
 Can be conveyed easily through
pipelines to the actual place of need.
 Combustion can be readily
controlled for change in demand like
oxidizing, reducing, length flame,
temperature.

Calorific value of fuels
 The calorific value of a fuel is defined as the “quantity of heat (expressed in calories or kilo
calories) liberated by the complete combustion of unit weight (1gm or 1kg) of the fuel in air or
oxygen, with subsequent cooling of the products of combustion to the initial temperature of the
fuel.”
 Alternatively Calorific value of fuel may be defined as the measure of heat energy
(kJ/Kg)produced upon complete combustion with oxygen.
 Moisture if present, considerably reduces the calorific value of a fuel.
 With fuels containing hydrogen, two calorific values are distinguished, the gross and the net
calorific value.
 The gross calorific value refers to the quantity of heat liberated by the complete combustion of unit
weight of the fuel when the water vapour produced by combustion is condensed as a liquid.
 Net calorific value is the heat produced when unit mass of fuel is burnt completely and products of
combustion are allowed to escape.(latent heat of condensation of water ) Net calorific value =
Gross calorific value - Latent heat of water vapour.
Principle of Combustion
 The term combustion refers to “the rapid oxidation of fuel accompanied by the production of heat or heat
and light.”
 Complete combustion of fuel is possible only in the presence of adequate supply of oxygen.
 The objective of combustion is to extract maximum heat present in the fuel, which is accomplished by
controlling
 Temperature to ignite the fuel.
 Mixing of fuel with oxygen.
 Sufficient time to complete combustion.
Figure : Perfect, good and incomplete combustion

Introduction to Solar Energy
 Solar energy is the heat energy(radiant energy) emitted from the Sun due to fusion
reaction is radiated to the earth.
 Solar energy received in the form of radiation(electro magnetic waves) can be
converted directly or indirectly into other forms of energy, such as heat and
electricity.
 Solar energy has the greatest potential of all the sources of renewable energy available
today.
Applications of Solar Energy:
 Water heating
 Heating of buildings
 Thermal electric conversion (Solar Pond)
 Photo voltaic electric conversion
 Cooking
 Desalination of salt water
 Used in vehicles
 For irrigation to run pumps

Solar Energy harvesting:
Solar energy can be utilized directly in two ways,
 By collecting the radiant heat and using it in a “thermal
system.”
 By collecting and converting it directly to “electrical energy
using a photovoltaic system.”

Liquid flat plate collector (Solar thermal system)
Figure : Flat-plate collector.
PRINCIPLE: The purpose of a solar thermal

collector is to absorb the radiant energy of the
sun and to transfer the resultant heat to a fluid
of application.

Major Components of a flat plate collector system

Description of components
Absorber Plate & Channels or Tubes:
 Is a metal surface, mostly black in color. It absorbs and converts radiation into thermal energy and then, by
convection and conduction it is transferred to the circulating cold fluid.
The Transparent Cover:

 Is the upper part of the collector covering the absorber plate. It is made from transparent glass to permit
penetration of solar beams. It therefore protects the absorber from environmental damages and decreases
thermal loss.
Thermal Insulation:
 Consists of a material with very low thermal conductivity. It is installed in the bottom and around the sides of
the collector, in order to minimize heat loss. Insulation materials usually used are polyurethane, glasswool and
rockwool.
The Heat Transfer Medium:

 Flowing through the collector to transfer the heat from the absorber to the utilization system. Can be either
air or a liquid, usually water.
The Casing of the Collector:

 The frame or shell is the most important part because it houses all other collector components. It is
constructed usually from aluminum or plastic material having high resistivity to all weather conditions, and to
solar radiation intensity.

Solar Pond(Thermal system)
A pool of very salty water in which convection is inhibited, allowing accumulation of
energy from solar radiation in the lower layers.
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
• The solar pond works on a very simple principle. It is well-known that water or air is
heated they become lighter and rise upward. Similarly, in an ordinary pond, the sun’s
rays heat the water and the heated water from within the pond rises and reaches the top
but loses the heat into the atmosphere. The net result is that the pond water remains at
the atmospheric temperature. The solar pond restricts this tendency by dissolving salt
in the bottom layer of the pond making it too heavy to rise.

Fig: Schematic of a Photovoltaic Cell
PRINCIPLE: Solar cells convert light

energy into electrical energy through a
direct process known as the
photovoltaic effect.

Working Principle of a Solar Cell (photovoltaic cells)
Solar cells convert light energy into electrical energy through a direct process known as the
photovoltaic effect.
which occurs when light falling on a two-layer semiconductor material produces a potential
difference, or voltage, between the two layers. The voltage produced in the cell is capable of
driving a current through an external electrical circuit that can be utilized to power electrical
devices.
In a typical photovoltaic cell, two layers of doped silicon semiconductor are tightly bonded
together.
One layer is modified to have excess free electrons (termed an n-layer), while the other layer
is treated to have an excess of electron holes or vacancies (a p-layer).
When the two dissimilar semiconductor layers are joined at a common boundary, the free
electrons in the n-layer cross into the p-layer in an attempt to fill the electron holes.
The combining of electrons and holes at the p-n junction creates a barrier that makes it
increasingly difficult for additional electrons to cross.
As the electrical imbalance reaches an equilibrium condition, a fixed electric field results
across the boundary separating the two sides.

Working Principle of a Solar Cell (photovoltaic cells) Contd…
 When light of an appropriate wavelength (and energy) strikes the layered cell and is
absorbed, electrons are freed to travel randomly.
 Electrons close to the boundary (the p-n junction) can be swept across the junction by the
fixed field. Because the electrons can easily cross the boundary, but cannot return in the
other direction (against the field gradient), a charge imbalance results between the two
semiconductor regions.
 Electrons being swept into the n-layer by the localized effects of the fixed field have a
natural tendency to leave the layer in order to correct the charge imbalance.
 By providing an external circuit by which the electrons can return to the other layer, a
current flow is produced that will continue as long as light strikes the solar cell.
 In the construction of a photovoltaic cell, metal contact layers are applied to the outer
faces of the two semiconductor layers, and provide a path to the external circuit that
connects the two layers.
 The final result is production of electrical power derived directly from the energy of light.
 The amount of energy produced by the cell is wavelength-dependent with longer
wavelengths generating less electricity than shorter wavelengths.

Nuclear Power Plant

Working Principle of Nuclear Power Plant
 In nuclear power station, electrical power is generated by nuclear reaction.
 Heavy radioactive elements such as Uranium (U235) or Thorium (Th232) are
subjected to nuclear fission. This fission is done in a special apparatus called as
reactor.
 In fission process, the nuclei of heavy radioactive atoms are broken into two
nearly equal parts. During this breaking of nuclei, huge quantity of energy is
released.
 heat generated due to nuclear fission is used to produce steam from water in the
boiler. This steam is used to drive a steam turbine. This turbine is the prime mover
of the alternator. This alternator generates electrical energy.
 One kg of uranium is equivalent to 4500 metric tons of high grade coal.
A nuclear power station has mainly four components.
 Nuclear reactor,
 Heat exchanger,
 Steam turbine,
 Alternator.
Nuclear Reactor:
 A nuclear reactor is a cylindrical shaped stunt pressure vessel. The fuel rods are
made of nuclear fuel i.e. Uranium moderates, which is generally made of
graphite cover the fuel rods. The moderates slow down the neutrons before
collision with uranium nuclei. The controls rods are made of cadmium because
cadmium is a strong absorber of neutrons.
 In nuclear reactor, Uranium 235 is subjected to nuclear fission. In nuclear
fission, the nuclei of nuclear fuel, such as U235 are bombarded by slow flow of
neutrons. Due to this bombarding, the nuclei of Uranium is broken, which
causes release of huge heat energy and during breaking of nuclei, number of
neutrons are also emitted. The heat released during nuclear reaction, are
carried to the heat exchanger by means of coolant consist of sodium metal.
Heat Exchanger:
 In heat exchanger, the heat carried by sodium metal, is dissipated in water and
water is converted to high pressure steam here. After releasing heat in water
the sodium metal coolant comes back to the reactor by means of coolant
circulating pump.

Steam Turbine:
 In nuclear power plant, the steam turbine plays the same role as coal power
plant. The steam drives the turbine in same way. After doing its job, the exhaust
steam comes into steam condenser where it is condensed to provide space to
the steam behind it.
Alternator:
 An alternator, coupled with turbine, rotates and generates electrical power, for
utilization.

Hydro Electric Power Plant

PRINCIPLE :Hydropower plants capture the energy of falling water to generate
electricity. A turbine converts the kinetic energy of falling water into
mechanical energy. Then a generator converts the mechanical energy from
the turbine into electrical energy.
Parts of a Hydroelectric Plant:
Most conventional hydroelectric plants include four major components.
Dam:
 The dam is made on a river to collect water. Whenever it rains, the water
is collected into the dam so it serves as a water reservoir. The potential
energy for further work is generated by the water level difference
between the dams and the turbines because the water level in the dams is
very high. Dams also control the water flow through penstocks.
Intake:
 Gates on the dam open and gravity pulls the water through the penstock,
a pipeline that leads to the turbine. Water builds up pressure as it flows
through this pipe.

Turbines:
 The next step is to convert this kinetic energy of water into mechanical energy. The
water flows from a height throw the penstocks which are the channeled vessels to
the turbines which have blades. The falling water has enough kinetic energy that
when they strike hard with the blades of the turbines, they start spinning which
means that the kinetic energy is converted into mechanical energy. The turbines
resemble a lot with the windmills in which wind energy is used instead of water.
Generators:
 The shafts of the turbines convert the mechanical energy into electric energy.
Basically, the generators work on the principle of magnets which is that when you
pass a magnet near a conductor, electric current flows through it.
Transformer :
 The transformer inside the powerhouse takes the AC and converts it to higher-
voltage current. The electricity via power lines is transferred to substation which
provides it to the consumers.
Outflow:
 Used water is carried through pipelines, called tailraces, and re-enters the river
downstream.

PRINCIPLE : Kinetic energy present in wind is
converted into electrical energy by a wind
turbine.
NOTE: Wind Turbine’s working principle

is exactly opposite to the working of a
ceiling/table fan.

Fig: Arrangement inside the
Nacelle of a wind a Turbine

Major Parts of Wind Turbine:
Tower of Wind Turbine:
 Tower is very crucial part of wind turbine that supports all the other parts. It
is not only support the parts but raise the wind turbine so that its blades
safely clear the ground and so it can reach the stronger winds at higher
elevations. The height of tower depends upon the power capacity of wind
turbines. Larger turbines usually mounted on tower ranging from 40 meter
to 100 meter.
Nacelle of Wind Turbine:
 Nacelle is big box that sits on the tower and house all the components in a
wind turbine. It houses Power Converter, Shaft, Gearbox, Generator, Turbine
controller, Cables, Yaw drive.
Rotor Blades of Wind turbine:
 Blades are the mechanical part of wind turbine that converts wind kinetic
energy into mechanical energy. When the wind forces the blades to move, it
transfers some of its energy to the shaft. Blades are shaped like airplane
wings blades can be as long as 150 feet.

Shaft of Wind Turbine:
The shaft is connected to the rotor. When the rotor spins, the shaft spins as well. In this
way, the rotor transfers its mechanical, rotational energy to shaft which enters to an
electrical generator on the other end.
Gearbox:
The rotor turns the shaft at low speed ex. 20 rpm but for generator to generate
electricity we need higher speed. Gearbox increases the speed to much higher value
required by most generator to produce electricity.
For example, if Gearbox ratio is 1:80 and if rotor speed is 15 rpm then gearbox will
increase the speed to 15 × 80 = 1200 rpm that is given to generator shaft.
Generator:
Generator is electrical device that converts mechanical energy received from shaft into
electrical energy. It works on electromagnetic induction to produce electrical voltage or
electrical current. A simple generator consists of magnets and a conductor. The
conductor is typically a coiled wire. Inside the generator shaft connects to an assembly
of permanent magnets that surrounded by magnets and one of those parts is rotating
relative to the other, it induce the voltage in the conductor.When the rotor spins to the
shaft, the shaft spins the assembly of magnets and generate voltage in the coil of wire.

Anemometer:
It measures the wind speed and passes the speed information to PLC to control the
turbine power.
Wind Vane:
It senses the direction of wind and passes the direction to PLC then PLC faces the blades
in such a way that it cuts the maximum wind.
Pitch Drive:
Pitch drive motors control the angle of blades whenever wind changes it rotates the
angle of blades to cut the maximum wind, which is called pitching of blades.
Yaw Drive:
Blades and other components in wind turbine is housed in Nacelle , whenever any
change in wind direction is there Nacelle has to move in the direction of wind to extract
the maximum energy from wind. For this purpose yaw drive motor are used to rotate the
nacelle .It is controlled by PLC that uses the wind vane information to sense the wind
direction.

Definition and Introduction to Steam
 Steam is the gaseous phase of water.

 Steam produced from water forms one of the most important working
fluids in engineering energy conversion systems.
 Steam is generated in boilers at constant pressure. Generally, steam may
be obtained starting from ice or straight away from the water by adding
heat to it.
 Hence, it could be used as a working substance for heat engines , steam
turbines etc.
 Steam exists in following states or types or conditions.
(i) Wet steam (saturated steam)
(ii) Dry steam (dry saturated steam)
(iii) Superheated steam

Formation of Steam temperature-(Enthalpy Diagram t-h diagram)
Figure 2.1 : Shows the various

stages of formation of steam
starting from ice shows the
corresponding t-h diagram.
Figure 2.2 :The graphical representation

of transformation of 1 kg of ice into 1 kg
of superheated steam at constant
pressure (temperature vs. enthalpy) is
known as t-h diagram.

Formation of Steam (temperature-Enthalpy Diagram t-h diagram)
 (a) Consider 1 kg of ice in a piston -cylinder arrangement as shown. it is under an
Absolute Pressure say P bar and at temperature –t 0 C ( below the freezing point).
Keeping the pressure constant, the gradual heating of the ice leads to note the
following changes in it, These are represented on a t-h diagram on heating, the
temperature of the ice will gradually rises from p to Q i.e. from – t C till reaches
the freezing temperature 0.
 (b) Adding more heat, the ice starts melting without changing in the temperature
till the entire ice is converted into water from Q to R. The amount of heat during
this period from Q to R is called Latent heat of fusion of ice or simply Latent heat
of ice.
 (c) Continuous heating raises the temperature to its boiling point t C known as
Saturation Temperature. The corresponding pressure is called saturation pressure.
it is the stage of vaporization at 1.01325 bar atmospheric pressure (760mm of hg
at 100'C). As pressure increases, the value of saturation temperature also
increases. The amount of heat added during R to S is called Sensible Heat or
Enthalpy of Saturated Water or Total Heat of Water (h, or h "' ). During the
process, a slight increase in volume of water (saturated water) may be noted. The
resulting volume is known as Specific volume of Saturated Water (Vf or vW).

 (d) On further heating beyond S, the water will gradually starts evaporate and
starts convert it to steam, but the temperature remains constant. As long as the
steam is in contact with water, it is called Wet Steam or Saturated Steam.
 (e) On further heating the temperature remains constant, but the entire water
converts to steam. But still it will be wet steam. The total heat supplied from
OOC is called Enthalpy of Wet Steam (h wet). The resulting volume is known as
Specific Volume of Wet Steam (v wet).
 (f) On further heating the wet steam, the water particles, which are in
suspension, will start evaporating gradually and at a particular moment the final
particles just evaporates. The steam at that moment corresponding to point T is
called Dry Steam or Dry Saturated Steam. The resulting volume is known as
Specific Volume of Dry Steam (vg). This steam not obeys the gas laws. The
amount of heat added during S to T is called Latent Heat of Vaporization of
Steam or Latent Heat of Steam (hfg). During the process, the saturation
temperature remains constant. The total heat supplied from O'C is called
Enthalpy of Dry Steam (hg).
 (g) On further heating beyond point T to U the temperature starts from ts to tu,
the point of interest. This process is called Super heating. The steam so obtained
is called Super Heated Steam.
Introduction to Boilers(Steam Boilers / Steam Generators)
 The boiler is essentially a closed vessel made of steel inside which water is
stored. Fuel (generally coal) is bunt in a furnace and hot gasses are produced.
These hot gasses come in contact with water vessel where the heat of these hot
gases transfer to the water until the water is converted into steam at required
pressure. Then this steam is piped to the turbine of thermal power plant.

Boilers Classification:
There are large number of boiler designs, but boilers can be classified
according to the following criteria:

Babcock and Wilcox Boiler
The Babcock and Wilcox
Boiler consists of
1.Steam and water drum
(boiler shell)
2.Water tubes
3.Uptake-header and
down corner
4.Grate
5.Furnace(Combustion
chamber)
6.Baffles
7.Super heater
8.Mud box
9.Inspection door
10.Mountings and
Accessories

Steam and water drum (boiler shell):
One half of the drum which is horizontal is filled up with water and steam remains on
the other half. It is about 8 meters in length and 2 meter in diameter.
Water tubes:
Water tubes are placed between the drum and furnace in an inclined position (at an
angle of 10 to 15 degree) to promote water circulation. These tubes are connected to
the uptake-header and the down-comer as shown.
Uptake-header and down-corner (or downtake-header)
The drum is connected at one end to the uptake-header by short tubes and at the other
end to the down-corner by long tubes.
Grate: Coal is fed to the grate through the fire door.
Furnace : Furnace is kept below the uptake-header.
Baffles: The fire-brick baffles, two in number, are provided to deflect the hot flue gases.
Superheater: The boiler is fitted with a superheater tube which is placed just under the
drum and above the water tubes
Mud box: Mud box is provided at the bottom end of the down comer. The mud or
sediments in the water are collected in the mud box and it is blown-off time to time by
means of a blow –off cock.
Inspection doors: Inspection doors are provided for cleaning and inspection of the
boiler.

Working of Babcock and Wilcox Boiler:

Coal is fed to the grate through the fire door and is burnt.
Flow of flue gases:
The hot flue gases rise upward and pass across the left-side portion of the water tubes. The baffles deflect the
flue gases and hence the flue gases travel in the zig-zag manner (i.e., the hot gases are deflected by the
baffles to move in the upward direction, then downward and again in the upward direction) over the water
tubes and along the superheater. The flue gases finally escape to atmosphere through chimney.
Water circulation:
That portion of water tubes which is just above the furnace is heated comparatively at a higher temperature
than the rest of it. Water, its density being decreased, rises into the drum through the uptake-header. Here the
steam and water are separated in the drum. Steam being lighter is collected in the upper part of the drum.
The water from the drum comes down through the down –comer into the water tubes.
A continuous circulation of water from the drum to the water tubes and water tubes to the drum is thus
maintained. The circulation of water is maintained by convective currents and is known as “natural
circulation”.
The boiler is fitted with necessary mountings. Pressure gauge and water level indicator are mounted on the
boiler at its left end. Steam safety valve and stop valve are mounted on the top of the drum. Blow-off cock is
provided for the periodical removed of mud and sediments collected in the mud box.

LANCASHIRE BOILER

Steam Stop Valve
• The steam stop valve is located
on the highest part of the steam
space.
• It regulates the steam supply to
use.
• The steam stop valve can be
operated manually or
automatically.

Air Pre-heater
 The function of an air pre-heater is
similar to that of an economizer. It
recovers some portion of the waste
heat of hot flue gases going to
chimney, and transfers same to the
fresh air before it enters the
combustion chamber.
 Due to preheating of air, the furnace

temperature increases. It results in
rapid combustion of fuel with less
soot, smoke and ash. The high
furnace temperature can permit
burn low grade fuel with less
atmospheric pollution.
 The air pre-heater is placed

between economizer and chimney.
Super heater
 It is a heat exchanger in which
heat of combustion products
is used to dry the wet steam,
pressure remains constant,
its volume and temperature
increase.
 Basically, a super heater

consists of a set of small
diameter U tubes in which
steam flows and takes up the
heat from hot flue gases.

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering

MODULE : 1 - ENERGY RESOURCES

According to the law of conservation of energy, any form of energy can be

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 Freely available in nature and eco-

 They are continuously restored by

 Eg: Solar, Wind, Bio-mass, tidal,

• Fuel is a combustible substance which on burning in air or oxygen liberates large

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 Moisture if present, considerably reduces the calorific value of a fuel.

Figure : Perfect, good and incomplete combustion

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Figure : Flat-plate collector.

PRINCIPLE: The purpose of a solar thermal

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The Transparent Cover:

The Heat Transfer Medium:

The Casing of the Collector:

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PRINCIPLE: Solar cells convert light

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NOTE: Wind Turbine’s working principle

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 Steam is the gaseous phase of water.

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Figure 2.1 : Shows the various

Figure 2.2 :The graphical representation

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Flow of flue gases:

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 Due to preheating of air, the furnace

 The air pre-heater is placed

 Basically, a super heater

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